Content deleted Content added
Tag: Undo |
Ebinimiansa (talk | contribs) m I successfully inserted a wiki link for 'skin' under the subhead 'Organs' Tag: Visual edit |
||
(31 intermediate revisions by 13 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
⚫ | |||
{{Redirect|Anatomy of the human body|the textbook|Gray's Anatomy}} |
{{Redirect|Anatomy of the human body|the textbook|Gray's Anatomy}} |
||
{{ |
{{Pp-move-indef|small=yes}} |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
{{TAFI}} |
|||
⚫ | |||
[[File:Human Body 02.png|thumb|Female and male adult human bodies |
[[File:Human Body 02.png|thumb|Female (left) and male (right) adult human bodies photographed in ventral (above) and dorsal (below) perspectives. Naturally-occurring [[pubic hair|pubic]], [[body hair|body]], and [[facial hair]] has been [[Hair removal|deliberately removed]] to show anatomy. Note that human hair and [[human skin color|skin color]] varies widely.]] |
||
The '''human body''' is the structure of a [[Human|human being]]. It is composed of many different types of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] that together create [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] and subsequently [[organ systems]]. They ensure [[homeostasis]] and the [[life|viability]] of the human body. |
The '''human body''' is the structure of a [[Human|human being]]. It is composed of many different types of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] that together create [[Tissue (biology)|tissues]] and subsequently [[organ systems]]. They ensure [[homeostasis]] and the [[life|viability]] of the human body. |
||
Line 17: | Line 19: | ||
==Composition== |
==Composition== |
||
[[File: 201 Elements of the Human Body-01.jpg|thumb|upright=2.25|Elements of the human body by mass. [[Trace elements]] are less than 1% combined (and each less than 0.1%).]] |
[[File: 201 Elements of the Human Body-01.jpg|thumb|upright=2.25|Elements of the human body by mass. [[Trace elements]] are less than 1% combined (and each less than 0.1%).]] |
||
The [[composition of the human body|human body is composed of]] [[chemical element|elements]] including [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[carbon]], [[calcium]] and [[phosphorus]].<ref name=AboutChemical>{{ |
The [[composition of the human body|human body is composed of]] [[chemical element|elements]] including [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[carbon]], [[calcium]] and [[phosphorus]].<ref name="AboutChemical">{{Cite web |url=http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemicalcomposition/a/Chemical-Composition-Of-The-Human-Body.htm |title=Chemical Composition of the Human Body |publisher=[[About education]] |access-date=2 September 2016}}</ref> These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body. |
||
The adult male body is about 60% [[body water|water]] for a total water content of some 42 |
The adult male body is about 60% [[body water|water]] for a total water content of some {{convert|42|litre}}. This is made up of about {{convert|19|litres}} of extracellular fluid including about {{convert|3.2|litre}} of blood plasma and about {{convert|8.4|litre}} of [[interstitial fluid]], and about {{convert|23|litre}} of fluid inside cells.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/fl2_1.php |title=Fluid Physiology |website=Anaesthesiamcq |access-date=2 September 2016}}</ref> The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are [[sodium]] and [[chloride]], whereas within cells it is [[potassium]] and other [[phosphate]]s.{{sfn|Ganong's|2016|p=5}} |
||
===Cells=== |
===Cells=== |
||
The body contains trillions of [[Cell (biology)|cells]], the fundamental unit of life.<ref>{{ |
The body contains trillions of [[Cell (biology)|cells]], the fundamental unit of life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sciencenetlinks.com/student-teacher-sheets/cells-your-body/ |title=The Cells in Your Body |publisher=Science Netlinks |access-date=2 September 2016}}</ref> At maturity, there are roughly 30<ref name="sender-et-al">{{Cite journal |last=Sender |first=Ron |last2=Fuchs |first2=Shai |last3=Milo |first3=Ron |year=2016 |title=Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=e1002533 |biorxiv=10.1101/036103 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533 |pmc=4991899 |pmid=27541692}}</ref>{{ndash}}37<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bianconi |first=E |last2=Piovesan |first2=A |last3=Facchin |first3=F |last4=Beraudi |first4=A |last5=Casadei |first5=R |last6=Frabetti |first6=F |last7=Vitale |first7=L |last8=Pelleri |first8=MC |last9=Tassani |first9=S |last10=Piva |first10=F |last11=Perez-Amodio |first11=S |date=5 July 2013 |title=An estimation of the number of cells in the human body. |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/41c3dfda0d261070d84a2070c8b70b1f86cab52d |journal=[[Annals of Human Biology]] |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=463–471 |doi=10.3109/03014460.2013.807878 |pmid=23829164 |last12=Strippoli |first12=P |last13=Canaider |first13=S}}</ref>{{nbsp}}trillion cells in the body, an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers of all the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] of the body and [[List of distinct cell types in the adult human body|cell types]]. The body is also host to about the same number of non-human cells<ref name="sender-et-al" /> as well as [[Multicellular|multicellular organisms]] which reside in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] and on the skin.<ref name="Fredericks">{{Cite journal |first=David N. |last=Fredricks |year=2001 |title=Microbial Ecology of Human Skin in Health and Disease |journal=Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=167–169 |doi=10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.00039.x |pmid=11924822}}</ref> Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an [[extracellular matrix]] that consists of proteins such as [[collagen]], surrounded by extracellular fluids. Of the {{cvt|70|kg|lb}} weight of an average human body, nearly {{cvt|25|kg|lb}} is non-human cells or non-cellular material such as bone and connective tissue. |
||
====Genome==== |
====Genome==== |
||
{{Main|Genome}}{{See also|Genetics}} |
{{Main|Genome}} |
||
{{See also|Genetics}} |
|||
Cells in the body function because of [[DNA]]. DNA sits within the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are [[transcription (genetics)|copied]] and sent to the body of the cell via [[RNA]].{{sfn|Ganong's|2016|p=16}} The RNA is then used to [[translation (biology)|create]] [[protein]]s which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gene-expression-14121669|title=Gene Expression {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|language=en|access-date= |
Cells in the body function because of [[DNA]]. DNA sits within the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are [[transcription (genetics)|copied]] and sent to the body of the cell via [[RNA]].{{sfn|Ganong's|2016|p=16}} The RNA is then used to [[translation (biology)|create]] [[protein]]s which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gene-expression-14121669 |title=Gene Expression {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |website=www.nature.com |language=en |access-date=29 July 2017}}</ref> However, not all cells have DNA; some cells such as mature [[red blood cells]] lose their nucleus as they mature. |
||
===Tissues=== |
===Tissues=== |
||
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage=[[File:2120 Major Systemic Artery.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ae4MadKPJC0 Human Body 101], [[National Geographic]], 5:10 | accessdate =December |
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage=[[File:2120 Major Systemic Artery.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ae4MadKPJC0 Human Body 101], ''[[National Geographic]]'', 5:10 | accessdate =3 December 2017 }} |
||
The body consists of many different types of [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]], defined as cells that act with a specialised function.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/tissue|title=tissue – definition of tissue in English| |
The body consists of many different types of [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]], defined as cells that act with a specialised function.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/tissue |title=tissue – definition of tissue in English |work=[[Oxford Dictionary|Oxford Dictionaries]]{{!}} English |access-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> The study of tissues is called [[histology]] and often occurs with a [[microscope]]. The body consists of four main types of tissues – lining cells ([[epithelia]]), [[connective tissue]], [[nerve tissue]] and [[muscle tissue]].{{sfn|Gray's Anatomy|2008|p=27}} |
||
Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract ([[epithelia]]) or internal cavities ([[endothelium]]) come in numerous shapes and forms – from [[squamous epithelium|single layers of flat cells]], to cells with small beating hair-like [[cilia]] in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the [[stomach]]. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.{{sfn|Gray's Anatomy|2008|p=27}} |
Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract ([[epithelia]]) or internal cavities ([[endothelium]]) come in numerous shapes and forms – from [[squamous epithelium|single layers of flat cells]], to cells with small beating hair-like [[cilia]] in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the [[stomach]]. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.{{sfn|Gray's Anatomy|2008|p=27}} |
||
Line 36: | Line 42: | ||
===Organs=== |
===Organs=== |
||
{{See also|List of organs of the human body}} |
{{See also|List of organs of the human body}} |
||
[[organ (anatomy)|Organs]], structured collections of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] with a specific function,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/organ|title=organ {{!}} Definition, meaning & more |
[[organ (anatomy)|Organs]], structured collections of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] with a specific function,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/organ |title=organ {{!}} Definition, meaning & more |publisher=[[Collins Dictionary]] |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |access-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> mostly sit within the body, with the exception of [[Human_skin|skin]]. Examples include the [[heart]], [[lung]]s and [[liver]]. Many organs reside within [[human body cavities|cavities]] within the body. These cavities include the [[abdominopelvic cavity|abdomen]] (which contains the stomach, for example) and [[pleural cavity|pleura]], which contains the lungs. |
||
===Systems=== |
===Systems=== |
||
Line 51: | Line 57: | ||
{{Main|Circulatory system}} |
{{Main|Circulatory system}} |
||
The [[circulatory system]] consists of the [[heart]] and [[blood vessel]]s ([[artery|arteries]], [[vein]]s and [[capillary|capillaries]]). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer [[oxygen]], fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signalling molecules (i.e. [[hormones]]) from one part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the [[Pulmonary circulation|pulmonary circuit]], which pumps blood to the lungs to receive [[oxygen]] and leave [[carbon dioxide]], and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries [[Cell (biology)|cells]] in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the [[spleen]] and [[bone marrow]].<ref>{{ |
The [[circulatory system]] consists of the [[heart]] and [[blood vessel]]s ([[artery|arteries]], [[vein]]s and [[capillary|capillaries]]). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer [[oxygen]], fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signalling molecules (i.e. [[hormones]]) from one part of the body to another. Paths of blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the [[Pulmonary circulation|pulmonary circuit]], which pumps blood to the lungs to receive [[oxygen]] and leave [[carbon dioxide]], and the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The blood consists of fluid that carries [[Cell (biology)|cells]] in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the [[spleen]] and [[bone marrow]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit7_1_cardvasc_intro.html |title=Cardiovascular System |access-date=16 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202040248/http://www.training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit7_1_cardvasc_intro.html |archive-date=2 February 2007 |publisher=[[U.S. National Cancer Institute]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=[[Pearson Prentice Hall]] |year=1993 |isbn=0-13-981176-1 |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ect.downstate.edu/courseware/histomanual/cardiovascular.html |title=The Cardiovascular System |date=8 March 2008 |publisher=[[State University of New York]] Downstate Medical Center}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-human-body-systems/hs-the-circulatory-and-respiratory-systems/a/hs-the-circulatory-system-review |title=The Circulatory and Respiratory Systems |work=[[The Circulatory System Review"]] |publisher=Khan Academy |accessdate=29 June 2019}}</ref> |
||
[[File:Stomach colon rectum diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
[[File:Stomach colon rectum diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
||
Line 58: | Line 64: | ||
{{Main|Digestive system}} |
{{Main|Digestive system}} |
||
The [[digestive system]] consists of the mouth including the [[tongue]] and [[teeth (human)|teeth]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], ([[human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract]], [[small intestine|small]] and [[large intestine]]s, and [[rectum]]), as well as the [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[gallbladder]], and [[salivary gland]]s. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic [[molecule]]s for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take the form of [[protein]]s (which are broken down into [[amino acid]]s), [[fat]]s, [[vitamin]]s and [[mineral]]s (the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being [[Swallowing|swallowed]], food moves through the [[gastrointestinal tract]] by means of [[peristalsis]]: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.<ref>{{ |
The [[digestive system]] consists of the mouth including the [[tongue]] and [[teeth (human)|teeth]], [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], ([[human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract]], [[small intestine|small]] and [[large intestine]]s, and [[rectum]]), as well as the [[liver]], [[pancreas]], [[gallbladder]], and [[salivary gland]]s. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic [[molecule]]s for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take the form of [[protein]]s (which are broken down into [[amino acid]]s), [[fat]]s, [[vitamin]]s and [[mineral]]s (the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being [[Swallowing|swallowed]], food moves through the [[gastrointestinal tract]] by means of [[peristalsis]]: the systematic expansion and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/Anatomy/your-digestive-system/Pages/anatomy.aspx |title=Your Digestive System and How It Works |publisher=[[National Institute of Health]] |access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="niddk.nih.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-how-it-works |title=Your Digestive System & How it Works |publisher=[[National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases]] |accessdate=29 June 2019}}</ref> |
||
Digestion begins in the [[mouth]], which [[Chewing|chews]] food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is [[Swallowing|swallowed]], and moves through the [[esophagus]] to the [[stomach]]. In the stomach, food is mixed with [[gastric acid]]s to allow the extraction of [[nutrient]]s. What is left is called [[chyme]]; this then moves into the [[small intestine]], which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the [[large intestine]], where it is dried to form [[feces]]; these are then stored in the [[rectum]] until they are expelled through the [[anus]].<ref name="niddk.nih.gov"/> |
Digestion begins in the [[mouth]], which [[Chewing|chews]] food into smaller pieces for easier digestion. Then it is [[Swallowing|swallowed]], and moves through the [[esophagus]] to the [[stomach]]. In the stomach, food is mixed with [[gastric acid]]s to allow the extraction of [[nutrient]]s. What is left is called [[chyme]]; this then moves into the [[small intestine]], which absorbs the nutrients and water from the chyme. What remains passes on to the [[large intestine]], where it is dried to form [[feces]]; these are then stored in the [[rectum]] until they are expelled through the [[anus]].<ref name="niddk.nih.gov" /> |
||
[[File:Illu endocrine system.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
[[File:Illu endocrine system.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
||
Line 67: | Line 73: | ||
{{Main|Endocrine system}} |
{{Main|Endocrine system}} |
||
The [[endocrine system]] consists of the principal [[endocrine gland]]s: the [[pituitary]], [[thyroid]], [[adrenal]]s, [[pancreas]], [[parathyroid]]s, and [[gonad]]s, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine [[hormone]]s as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hormonal (endocrine) system|url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/hormonal-endocrine-system|publisher=Victoria State Government|accessdate=4 September 2016}}</ref> |
The [[endocrine system]] consists of the principal [[endocrine gland]]s: the [[pituitary]], [[thyroid]], [[adrenal]]s, [[pancreas]], [[parathyroid]]s, and [[gonad]]s, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine [[hormone]]s as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hormonal (endocrine) system|url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/hormonal-endocrine-system |publisher=[[Victoria State Government]]|accessdate=4 September 2016}}</ref> |
||
[[File:PBNeutrophil.jpg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
[[File:PBNeutrophil.jpg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
||
Line 74: | Line 80: | ||
{{Main|Immune system}} |
{{Main|Immune system}} |
||
The [[immune system]] consists of the [[white blood cell]]s, the [[thymus]], [[lymph node]]s and [[lymph]] channels, which are also part of the [[lymphatic system]]. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as [[antibodies]], [[cytokines]], and [[toll-like receptors]], among many others.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Kim Ann|title=Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function|url=http://www.livescience.com/26579-immune-system.html|publisher=LiveScience|accessdate=4 September 2016}}</ref> |
The [[immune system]] consists of the [[white blood cell]]s, the [[thymus]], [[lymph node]]s and [[lymph]] channels, which are also part of the [[lymphatic system]]. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as [[antibodies]], [[cytokines]], and [[toll-like receptors]], among many others.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Kim Ann|title=Immune System: Diseases, Disorders & Function|url=http://www.livescience.com/26579-immune-system.html|publisher=[[LiveScience]]|accessdate=4 September 2016}}</ref> |
||
[[File:Skin-no language.PNG|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
[[File:Skin-no language.PNG|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
||
Line 81: | Line 87: | ||
{{Main|Integumentary system}} |
{{Main|Integumentary system}} |
||
The [[integumentary system]] consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and [[nail (anatomy)|nails]] as well as other functionally important structures such as the [[sweat gland]]s and [[sebaceous gland]]s. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.<ref>{{MeSH name|Integumentary+System}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Marieb | first=Elaine |author2=Hoehn, Katja | title=Human Anatomy & Physiology | url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys00mari_4 | url-access=registration | publisher=Pearson Benjamin Cummings | year=2007 | edition=7th | page=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys00mari_4/page/142 142]}}</ref> |
The [[integumentary system]] consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and [[nail (anatomy)|nails]] as well as other functionally important structures such as the [[sweat gland]]s and [[sebaceous gland]]s. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.<ref>{{MeSH name|Integumentary+System}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Marieb | first=Elaine |author2=Hoehn, Katja | title=Human Anatomy & Physiology | url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys00mari_4 | url-access=registration | publisher=[[Pearson Benjamin Cummings]] | year=2007 | edition=7th | page=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys00mari_4/page/142 142]}}</ref> |
||
[[File:Sobo 1909 605.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
[[File:Sobo 1909 605.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
||
Line 95: | Line 101: | ||
{{Main|Musculoskeletal system}} |
{{Main|Musculoskeletal system}} |
||
The [[musculoskeletal system]] consists of the [[human skeleton]] (which includes [[bone]]s, [[ligament]]s, [[tendon]]s, and [[cartilage]]) and attached [[muscle]]s. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain [[bone marrow]], the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for [[Calcium in biology|calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. This system can be split up into the [[muscular system]] and the [[skeletal system]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Moore's Clinically Oriented Anatomy | publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | author1=Moore, Keith L.|author2=Dalley, Arthur F.|author3=Agur Anne M.R. | year=2010 | location=Phildadelphia | pages=2–3 | isbn=978-1-60547-652-0}}</ref> |
The [[musculoskeletal system]] consists of the [[human skeleton]] (which includes [[bone]]s, [[ligament]]s, [[tendon]]s, and [[cartilage]]) and attached [[muscle]]s. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain [[bone marrow]], the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for [[Calcium in biology|calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. This system can be split up into the [[muscular system]] and the [[skeletal system]].<ref>{{cite book | title=Moore's Clinically Oriented Anatomy | publisher=[[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]] | author1=Moore, Keith L.|author2=Dalley, Arthur F.|author3=Agur Anne M.R. | year=2010 | location=Phildadelphia, Pennsylvania | pages=2–3 | isbn=978-1-60547-652-0}}</ref> |
||
[[File:Human brain NIH.jpg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
[[File:Human brain NIH.jpg|thumb|upright=0.35]] |
||
Line 102: | Line 108: | ||
{{Main|Nervous system}} |
{{Main|Nervous system}} |
||
The [[nervous system]] consists of the body's [[neuron]]s, which together form the [[nerves]] and [[ganglia]] which in turn form the [[brain]] and related structures. The brain is the organ of [[thought]], emotion, [[memory]], and [[sensory processing]]; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The [[special senses]] consist of [[Visual perception|vision]], [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[taste]], and [[olfaction|smell]]. The [[human eye|eyes]], [[ear]]s, [[tongue]], and nose gather information about the body's environment.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Nervous System | encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Columbia University Press | edition=6th | date=2001 | isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga }}</ref> |
The [[nervous system]] consists of the body's [[neuron]]s, which together form the [[nerves]] and [[ganglia]] which in turn form the [[brain]] and related structures. The brain is the organ of [[thought]], emotion, [[memory]], and [[sensory processing]]; it serves many aspects of communication and controls various systems and functions. The [[special senses]] consist of [[Visual perception|vision]], [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[taste]], and [[olfaction|smell]]. The [[human eye|eyes]], [[ear]]s, [[tongue]], and nose gather information about the body's environment.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lagassé |first1=Paul |location=New York Detroit | title=Nervous System | encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] Sold and distributed by [[Gale Group]] | edition=6th | date=2001 | isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga }}</ref> |
||
From a structural perspective, the [[nervous system]] is typically subdivided into two component parts: the [[central nervous system]] (CNS), composed of the brain and the [[spinal cord]]; and the [[peripheral nervous system]] (PNS), composed of the nerves and [[ganglion|ganglia]] outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing [[motion]], processing [[Sense|sensory information]], thought, memory, [[cognition]] and other such functions.<ref name="livescience.com">Kim Ann Zimmermann, [https://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html "Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases"], ''Live Science'', Accessed July |
From a structural perspective, the [[nervous system]] is typically subdivided into two component parts: the [[central nervous system]] (CNS), composed of the brain and the [[spinal cord]]; and the [[peripheral nervous system]] (PNS), composed of the nerves and [[ganglion|ganglia]] outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing [[motion]], processing [[Sense|sensory information]], thought, memory, [[cognition]] and other such functions.<ref name="livescience.com">Kim Ann Zimmermann, [https://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html "Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases"], ''Live Science'', Accessed 1 July 2019.</ref> It remains a matter of some debate whether the [[central nervous system|CNS]] directly gives rise to [[consciousness]].<ref>Yohan John, [https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2016/04/19/how-does-the-human-brain-create-consciousness/#21b8413e661a "How Does the Human Brain Create Consciousness"], ''[[Forbes Magazine]]'', Accessed 1 July 2019</ref> The [[peripheral nervous system]] (PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering information with [[sensory neuron]]s and directing body movements with [[motor neuron]]s.<ref name="livescience.com"/> |
||
From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two component parts: the [[somatic nervous system]] (SNS) and the [[autonomic nervous system]] (ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like [[speech|speaking]] and [[sense|sensory processes]]. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as [[digestion]] and regulating [[blood pressure]].<ref>[https://www.webmd.com/brain/ss/slideshow-nervous-system-overview "Visual Guide to Your Nervous System"], ''Web MD'', Accessed |
From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two component parts: the [[somatic nervous system]] (SNS) and the [[autonomic nervous system]] (ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like [[speech|speaking]] and [[sense|sensory processes]]. The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as [[digestion]] and regulating [[blood pressure]].<ref>[https://www.webmd.com/brain/ss/slideshow-nervous-system-overview "Visual Guide to Your Nervous System"], ''Web MD'', Accessed 1 July 2019.</ref> |
||
The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In [[epilepsy]], abnormal electrical activity in the brain can cause [[epileptic seizure|seizures]]. In [[multiple sclerosis]], the [[immune system]] attacks the [[myelin|nerve linings]], damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals. [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), also known as [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease, is a [[motor neuron]] disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous system.<ref name="livescience.com"/> |
The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In [[epilepsy]], abnormal electrical activity in the brain can cause [[epileptic seizure|seizures]]. In [[multiple sclerosis]], the [[immune system]] attacks the [[myelin|nerve linings]], damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals. [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), also known as [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease, is a [[motor neuron]] disease which gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the nervous system.<ref name="livescience.com"/> |
||
Line 122: | Line 128: | ||
{{Main|Respiratory system}} |
{{Main|Respiratory system}} |
||
The [[respiratory system]] consists of the nose, [[nasopharynx]], [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]], and [[lungs]]. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes [[carbon dioxide]] and water back into the air. First, [[Atmosphere of Earth|air]] is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the [[thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] pushing down, which creates a [[vacuum]]. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]] (sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by [[Capillary|capillaries]] carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the [[bloodstream]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthe|first2=Jean Susan |last2= Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=Johnson|first4=Maryanna Quon |last4= McLaughlin |first5=David |last5=Warner |first6=Jill |last6= LaHart Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2010 |pages=108–118 |isbn=978-0-13-423435-9}}</ref><ref name="webmd.com">[https://www.webmd.com/lung/how-we-breathe "How the Lungs and Respiratory System Work"], ''Web MD'', Accessed |
The [[respiratory system]] consists of the nose, [[nasopharynx]], [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]], and [[lungs]]. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes [[carbon dioxide]] and water back into the air. First, [[Atmosphere of Earth|air]] is pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the [[thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]] pushing down, which creates a [[vacuum]]. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as [[Pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]] (sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus is surrounded by [[Capillary|capillaries]] carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the [[bloodstream]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maton |first1=Anthe|first2=Jean Susan |last2= Hopkins |first3=Charles William |last3=Johnson|first4=Maryanna Quon |last4= McLaughlin |first5=David |last5=Warner |first6=Jill |last6= LaHart Wright |title=Human Biology and Health |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=2010 |pages=108–118 |isbn=978-0-13-423435-9}}</ref><ref name="webmd.com">[https://www.webmd.com/lung/how-we-breathe "How the Lungs and Respiratory System Work"], ''[[Web MD]]'', Accessed 30 June 2019.</ref> |
||
For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs. [[Inflammation]] of the lungs and excess [[mucus]] are common sources of breathing difficulties.<ref name="webmd.com"/> In [[asthma]], the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing [[Wheeze|wheezing]] and/or [[shortness of breath]]. [[Pneumonia]] occurs through [[infection]] of the alveoli, and may be caused by [[tuberculosis]]. [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|Emphysema]], commonly a result of [[smoking]], is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.<ref>[https://www.webmd.com/lung/lung-diseases-overview#1 "Lung Diseases Overview"], ''Web MD'', Accessed |
For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs. [[Inflammation]] of the lungs and excess [[mucus]] are common sources of breathing difficulties.<ref name="webmd.com"/> In [[asthma]], the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing [[Wheeze|wheezing]] and/or [[shortness of breath]]. [[Pneumonia]] occurs through [[infection]] of the alveoli, and may be caused by [[tuberculosis]]. [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|Emphysema]], commonly a result of [[smoking]], is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.<ref>[https://www.webmd.com/lung/lung-diseases-overview#1 "Lung Diseases Overview"], ''Web MD'', Accessed 30 June 2019.</ref> |
||
[[File:Gray1120.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
[[File:Gray1120.png|thumb|upright=0.25]] |
||
Line 136: | Line 142: | ||
[[File:Body cavities.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|[[Body cavity|Cavities]] of human body]] |
[[File:Body cavities.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|[[Body cavity|Cavities]] of human body]] |
||
{{Main|Outline of human anatomy|Anatomy}} |
{{Main|Outline of human anatomy|Anatomy}} |
||
Human [[anatomy]] is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four [[limb (anatomy)|limbs]] (two arms and two legs), a head and a [[neck]] which connect to the [[torso]]. The body's shape is determined by a strong [[human skeleton|skeleton]] made of [[bone]] and [[cartilage]], surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The [[Vertebral column|spine]] at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible [[vertebral column]] which surrounds the [[spinal cord]], which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. [[Nerve]]s connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of [[anatomical variation]]s such as [[sesamoid bone]]s and [[accessory muscle]]s. |
Human [[anatomy]] is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body has four [[limb (anatomy)|limbs]] (two arms and two legs), a head and a [[neck]] which connect to the [[torso]]. The body's shape is determined by a strong [[human skeleton|skeleton]] made of [[bone]] and [[cartilage]], surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The [[Vertebral column|spine]] at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible [[vertebral column]] which surrounds the [[spinal cord]], which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body. [[Nerve]]s connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of [[anatomical variation]]s such as [[sesamoid bone]]s and [[accessory muscle]]s. |
||
Line 154: | Line 161: | ||
[[File:Little baby from Puno.jpg|thumb|Baby being carried]] |
[[File:Little baby from Puno.jpg|thumb|Baby being carried]] |
||
{{Main|Development of the human body}} |
{{Main|Development of the human body}} |
||
Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the [[ovary]] of a female is penetrated by [[sperm]]. The egg then lodges in the [[uterus]], where an [[embryo]] and later [[fetus]] develop until [[childbirth|birth]]. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], and through [[adulthood]] to [[senility]], and are referred to as the process of [[ageing]]. |
Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins with fertilisation, where an egg released from the [[ovary]] of a female is penetrated by [[sperm]]. The egg then lodges in the [[uterus]], where an [[embryo]] and later [[fetus]] develop until [[childbirth|birth]]. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], and through [[adulthood]] to [[senility]], and are referred to as the process of [[ageing]]. |
||
Line 161: | Line 169: | ||
{{Further|History of anatomy|History of medicine|History of physiology}} |
{{Further|History of anatomy|History of medicine|History of physiology}} |
||
[[Health professional]]s learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for example by [[dissection]] of cadavers. Human anatomy, [[physiology]], and [[biochemistry]] are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.<ref name=introHGray>{{cite web | url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| title= Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918| accessdate =27 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse |title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK) |date=2004 |isbn=0-443-07168-3 |accessdate=27 March 2007 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 | title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy |
[[Health professional]]s learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for example by [[dissection]] of cadavers. Human anatomy, [[physiology]], and [[biochemistry]] are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school.<ref name=introHGray>{{cite web | url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/1.html| title= Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918| accessdate =27 March 2007}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse |title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK) |date=2004 |isbn=0-443-07168-3 |accessdate=27 March 2007 |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 | title=Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy |edition=39th (US) |year=2004 |isbn=0-443-07168-3| accessdate=27 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209134753/http://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/product.jsp?isbn=0443071683 |archivedate=9 February 2007}}</ref> |
||
===Depiction=== |
===Depiction=== |
||
Line 167: | Line 175: | ||
{{Main|Human figure (aesthetics)|Figure drawing}} |
{{Main|Human figure (aesthetics)|Figure drawing}} |
||
Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the 5th century BC sculptor [[Polykleitos]] wrote his ''Canon'' on the [[Mathematics and art#Polykleitos|ideal proportions of the male nude]].<ref name=Stewart>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Andrew |title=Polykleitos of Argos," One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works |journal=[[Journal of Hellenic Studies]] |date=November 1978 |volume=98 |pages=122–131 |doi=10.2307/630196|jstor=630196 }}</ref> In the [[Italian Renaissance]], artists from [[Piero della Francesca]] (c. 1415–1492) onwards, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) and his collaborator [[Luca Pacioli]] (c. 1447–1517), learnt and wrote about the rules of art, including [[visual perspective]] and the proportions of the human body.<ref>{{cite web |title=Leonardo |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/math5.geometry/unit14/unit14.html |publisher=Dartmouth College |accessdate=2 September 2016}}</ref> |
Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the 5th century BC sculptor [[Polykleitos]] wrote his ''Canon'' on the [[Mathematics and art#Polykleitos|ideal proportions of the male nude]].<ref name=Stewart>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Andrew |title=Polykleitos of Argos," One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works |journal=[[Journal of Hellenic Studies]] |date=November 1978 |volume=98 |pages=122–131 |doi=10.2307/630196|jstor=630196 }}</ref> In the [[Italian Renaissance]], artists from [[Piero della Francesca]] (c. 1415–1492) onwards, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) and his collaborator [[Luca Pacioli]] (c. 1447–1517), learnt and wrote about the rules of art, including [[visual perspective]] and the proportions of the human body.<ref>{{cite web |title=Leonardo |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/math5.geometry/unit14/unit14.html |publisher=[[Dartmouth College]] |accessdate=2 September 2016}}</ref> |
||
===History of anatomy=== |
===History of anatomy=== |
||
Line 173: | Line 181: | ||
{{Main|History of anatomy}} |
{{Main|History of anatomy}} |
||
In [[Ancient Greece]], the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'' described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston | authorlink=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=VI | pages=419–427 |year=1972 | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | location=New York}}</ref> The 2nd century physician [[Galen of Pergamum]] compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.<ref name=BritBrit-Galen>{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD |chapter=Galen of Pergamum |first=Vivien | last=Hutton}}</ref> |
In [[Ancient Greece]], the ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'' described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=Charles Coulston | authorlink=Charles Coulston Gillispie |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=VI | pages=419–427 |year=1972 | publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] | location=New York}}</ref> The 2nd century physician [[Galen of Pergamum]] compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages.<ref name=BritBrit-Galen>{{cite encyclopedia |chapterurl=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum |title=Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD |chapter=Galen of Pergamum |first=Vivien | last=Hutton}}</ref> |
||
In the [[Renaissance]], [[Andreas Vesalius]] (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm |title=Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica'' |publisher=Archive.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=29 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/apl/uivs/1999/00000012/00000003/art00002?crawler=true |title=Andreas Vesalius (1514–1567) |publisher=Ingentaconnect |date=1 May 1999 |accessdate=29 August 2010}}</ref> Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the [[microscope]] and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs.<ref name=BritMicro>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy |title=Microscopic anatomy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> Modern anatomy uses techniques such as [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[X-ray computed tomography|computed tomography]], [[fluoroscopy]] and [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound imaging]] to study the body in unprecedented detail.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | title=Anatomical Imaging | publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education | year=1998 | accessdate=25 June 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232044/http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | archive-date=3 March 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> |
In the [[Renaissance]], [[Andreas Vesalius]] (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ceb.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/books.htm |title=Vesalius's ''De Humanis Corporis Fabrica'' |publisher=Archive.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=29 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/apl/uivs/1999/00000012/00000003/art00002?crawler=true |title=Andreas Vesalius (1514–1567) |publisher=Ingentaconnect |date=1 May 1999 |accessdate=29 August 2010}}</ref> Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the [[microscope]] and the study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs.<ref name=BritMicro>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22980/anatomy/283/Microscopic-anatomy |title=Microscopic anatomy |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |accessdate=14 October 2013}}</ref> Modern anatomy uses techniques such as [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[X-ray computed tomography|computed tomography]], [[fluoroscopy]] and [[Medical ultrasonography|ultrasound imaging]] to study the body in unprecedented detail.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | title=Anatomical Imaging | publisher=[[McGraw Hill Higher Education]] | year=1998 | accessdate=25 June 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232044/http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/foxhumphys/student/olc/h-reading1.html | archive-date=3 March 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> |
||
===History of physiology=== |
===History of physiology=== |
||
{{Main|History of physiology}} |
{{Main|History of physiology}} |
||
The study of human physiology began with [[Hippocrates]] in Ancient Greece, around 420 |
The study of human physiology began with [[Hippocrates]] in Ancient Greece, around 420 BCE, and with [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structure and function. [[Galen]] (ca. 126–199) was the first to use experiments to probe the body's functions.<ref>{{cite journal | first1=C. | last1=Fell | first2=F. | last2=Griffith Pearson| title=Thoracic Surgery Clinics: Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy | journal=Thorac Surg Clin |date=November 2007 | volume=17 | issue=4 | pages=443–448, v | doi=10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001| pmid=18271159 }}</ref> The term physiology was introduced by the French physician [[Jean Fernel]] (1497–1558).<ref name=NMT/> In the 17th century, [[William Harvey]] (1578–1657) described the [[circulatory system]], pioneering the combination of close observation with careful experiment.<ref>{{Cite journal | first=Carl | last=Zimmer | authorlink=Carl Zimmer| title=Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery of the Brain – and How It Changed the World | journal=J Clin Invest | year=2004 | volume=114 | issue=5 | pages=604 | doi=10.1172/JCI22882| pmc=514597 }}</ref> In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the [[cell theory]] of [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Matthias Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann]] in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells.<ref name=NMT>{{cite web |last1=Newman |first1=Tim |title=Introduction to Physiology: History And Scope |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248791.php |work=[[Medicine News Today]] |accessdate=2 September 2016}}</ref> [[Claude Bernard]] (1813–1878) created the concept of the ''[[milieu interieur]]'' (internal environment), which [[Walter Cannon]] (1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in [[homeostasis]]. In the 20th century, the physiologists [[Knut Schmidt-Nielsen]] and [[George Bartholomew (biologist)|George Bartholomew]] extended their studies to [[comparative physiology]] and [[ecophysiology]].<ref>{{Cite book| last=Feder | first=Martin E. | title=New directions in ecological physiology | year=1987 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | location=New York | isbn=978-0-521-34938-3 }}</ref> Most recently, [[evolutionary physiology]] has become a distinct subdiscipline.<ref>{{Cite journal | first1=Theodore | last1=Garland, Jr | author1-link=Theodore Garland, Jr. | last2=Carter | first2=P. A. | title=Evolutionary physiology | journal=[[Annual Review of Physiology]] | year=1994 | issue=1 | pages=579–621 | url=http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf | doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051 | volume=56 | pmid=8010752}}</ref> |
||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
⚫ | |||
* {{annotated link|Medicine}} |
* {{annotated link|Medicine}} |
||
* {{annotated link|Glossary of medicine}} |
* {{annotated link|Glossary of medicine}} |
||
Line 194: | Line 204: | ||
==References== |
==References== |
||
{{ |
{{Reflist}} |
||
⚫ | |||
===Books=== |
===Books=== |
||
Line 204: | Line 212: | ||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
{{Wikisource portal|Human Anatomy}} |
{{Wikisource portal|Human Anatomy}} |
||
{{ |
{{Commons category}} |
||
{{ |
{{Wiktionary|body}} |
||
{{ |
{{Wikibooks|Human Physiology}} |
||
* ''[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4299/ The Book of Humans]'' (from the late 18th and early 19th centuries) |
* ''[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4299/ The Book of Humans]'' (from the late 18th and early 19th centuries) |
||
* [http://www.innerbody.com Inner Body] |
* [http://www.innerbody.com Inner Body] |
||
Line 214: | Line 223: | ||
{{Physiology types}} |
{{Physiology types}} |
||
{{Medicine}} |
{{Medicine}} |
||
{{Authority control}} |
{{Authority control}} |
||