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[[File:Homework - vector maths.jpg|thumb|300px|Homework may include [[mathematical exercise]]s]] |
[[File:Homework - vector maths.jpg|thumb|300px|Homework may include [[mathematical exercise]]s]] |
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'''Homework''', or a '''homework assignment''', is a set of tasks assigned to [[student]]s by their [[teacher]]s to be completed outside the [[Class (education)|class]]. Common homework assignments may include a quantity or period of [[Reading (activity)|reading]] to be performed, [[writing]] or [[typing]] to be completed, problems to be solved, a school project to be built (such as a [[diorama]] or display), or other skills to be practiced. |
'''Homework''', or a '''homework assignment''', is a set of tasks assigned to [[student]]s by their [[teacher]]s to be completed outside the [[Class (education)|class]]. Common homework assignments may include a quantity or period of [[Reading (activity)|reading]] to be performed, [[writing]] or [[typing]] to be completed, math problems to be solved, a school project to be built (such as a [[diorama]] or display), or other skills to be practiced. |
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== Main objectives and reasons == |
== Main objectives and reasons == |
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The basic objectives of assigning homework to students are the same as schooling in general: to increase the knowledge and improve the abilities and skills of the students |
The basic objectives of assigning homework to students are the same as schooling in general: to increase the knowledge and improve the abilities and skills of the students,<ref>Synthesis of research on homework. H Cooper - ''Educational leadership'', 1989 - addison.pausd.org</ref> to prepare them for upcoming (or complex or difficult) lessons, to extend what they know by having them apply it to new situations, or to integrate their abilities by applying different skills to a single task. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to participate in their children's education. Homework also may be designed to reinforce what students have already learned.<ref>{{cite web |
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}}</ref> Opponents of homework cite the practice as [[Rote learning|rote]], or grind work, designed to take up children's time, without offering tangible benefit.<ref>{{cite news |
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| url = http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/08/ING0FLHNM21.DTL |
| url = http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/08/ING0FLHNM21.DTL |
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| title = After years of teachers piling it on, there's a new movement to ... Abolish homework |
| title = After years of teachers piling it on, there's a new movement to ... Abolish homework |
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| last=Haddock |
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| date=2006-10-09 |
| date=2006-10-09 |
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| work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> |
| work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> |
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}}</ref> prepare them for upcoming (or complex or difficult) lessons, extend what they know by having them apply it to new situations, or to integrate their abilities by applying many different skills to a single task. Homework also provides an opportunity for parents to participate in their children's education. |
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== Effect == |
== Effect == |
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Methods to assess the correlation between homework and academic performance vary.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=1}} Homework research dates back to the early-1900s. However, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework.{{Sfnp|Trautwein|Köller|2003}} Results of homework studies varied based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied and the measure of academic performance.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=1}} |
Methods to assess the correlation between homework and academic performance vary.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=1}} Homework research dates back to the early-1900s. However, no consensus exists on the general effectiveness on homework.{{Sfnp|Trautwein|Köller|2003}} Results of homework studies varied based on multiple factors, such as the age group of those studied and the measure of academic performance.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=1}} |
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{{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} studied the literature on homework from 1987 to 2003, yielding varied results from different studies. The studies compared the time spent on homework with [[Grade (education)|grades]] and test scores as measures of academic achievement. Studies involving older students reported a positive and significant correlation, but studies involving younger students reported a slightly negative correlation when both parent and student reports of the time spent on homework were included, but the correlation slightly increased when only student reports were included.{{Efn|The analysis differentiated between "fixed" and "random" error assumptions. Fixed error assumptions state that [[sampling error]] occurs only because of differences between participants in the study, but random error assumptions state that sampling error is due to other influences. The analysis found, under fixed error assumptions, that the correlation between time spent on homework for kindergarten to grade 6 students was {{math|[[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''r'']] {{=}} −.04}} (CI: {{math|−.06  |
{{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} studied the literature on homework from 1987 to 2003, yielding varied results from different studies. The studies compared the time spent on homework with [[Grade (education)|grades]] and test scores as measures of academic achievement. Studies involving older students reported a positive and significant correlation, but studies involving younger students reported a slightly negative correlation when both parent and student reports of the time spent on homework were included, but the correlation slightly increased when only student reports were included.{{Efn|The analysis differentiated between "fixed" and "random" error assumptions. Fixed error assumptions state that [[sampling error]] occurs only because of differences between participants in the study, but random error assumptions state that sampling error is due to other influences. The analysis found, under fixed error assumptions, that the correlation between time spent on homework for kindergarten to grade 6 students was {{math|[[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''r'']] {{=}} −.04}} (CI: {{math|−.06 – −.02}}), where CI is the 95% [[confidence interval]]. When the scope of studies was only limited to student reports, the correlation for the same group increased to {{math|''r'' {{=}} .06}} (CI: {{math|.00 – .11}}). For students in grade 7 to grade 12, which only included student reports the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .25}} (CI: {{math|.25 – .25}}).{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=42}} For student reports under random error assumptions, the correlations for student reports only became, for kindergarten to grade 6 and grade 7 to grade 12 respectively, {{math|''r'' {{=}} .22}} (CI: {{math|.00 – .42}}) and {{math|''r'' {{=}} .19}} (CI: {{math|.17 – .22}}){{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=45}}}} The authors recommended that researchers commence further studies using different methodology, warning that the [[correlation does not imply causation|correlation may not be caused]] by age.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|pp=50–51}} For older students, very high amounts of homework caused students' academic performance to worsen. |
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To measure the time spent on homework, the studies analyzed in {{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} used the reports of either the students or the parents. When students provided the report, the correlation was positive and significant, but when parents provided the report, the correlation became significantly weaker.{{Efn|The analysis found that the correlation between time spent on homework by students' reports were {{math|''r'' {{=}} .25}} (CI: {{math|.25  |
To measure the time spent on homework, the studies analyzed in {{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} used the reports of either the students or the parents. When students provided the report, the correlation was positive and significant, but when parents provided the report, the correlation became significantly weaker.{{Efn|The analysis found that the correlation between time spent on homework by students' reports were {{math|''r'' {{=}} .25}} (CI: {{math|.25 – .25}}) and {{math|''r'' {{=}} .19}} (CI: {{math|.16 – .21}}) by fixed and random error assumptions respectively, where CI is the 95% [[confidence interval]]. When parents reported, the correlations became {{math|[[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''r'']] {{=}} −.03}} (CI: {{math|−.05 – −.01}}) and {{math|''r'' {{=}} −.02}} (CI: {{math|−.10 – .07}}).{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=44}}}} |
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Methodologies used to study the effectiveness of homework have been disputed. To measure student achievement, most studies used either [[Grade (education)|grades]], test scores, or both. {{Harvtxt|Trautwein|Köller|2003}} argued that grades may be an unsound measure of achievement, as ''individual'' grades may depend on the overall performance of the class: a student may receive a higher grade for the same work in one class than another. In {{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}}, the correlation between time spent on homework and measures of academic achievement became slightly weaker using [[standardized test]] scores rather than grades.{{Efn|Specifically, the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .27}} (CI: {{math|.26  |
Methodologies used to study the effectiveness of homework have been disputed. To measure student achievement, most studies used either [[Grade (education)|grades]], test scores, or both. {{Harvtxt|Trautwein|Köller|2003}} argued that grades may be an unsound measure of achievement, as ''individual'' grades may depend on the overall performance of the class: a student may receive a higher grade for the same work in one class than another. In {{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}}, the correlation between time spent on homework and measures of academic achievement became slightly weaker using [[standardized test]] scores rather than grades.{{Efn|Specifically, the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .27}} (CI: {{math|.26 – .27}}) using grades, but {{math|''r'' {{=}} .24}} (CI: {{math|.24 – .25}}), where CI means the 95% confidence interval.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=42}}}} |
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=== Non-academic === |
=== Non-academic === |
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{{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} analyzed five studies on the correlation between time spent on homework and attitudes towards homework and various other aspects of school, and two studies on school conduct. The analysis of attitudes differed between assumptions, and were positive, but ranged from insignificant and significant from a correlation of zero.{{Efn|Specifically, the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .12}} unweighted, but {{math|''r'' {{=}} .13}} (CI: {{math|.11  |
{{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006}} analyzed five studies on the correlation between time spent on homework and attitudes towards homework and various other aspects of school, and two studies on school conduct. The analysis of attitudes differed between assumptions, and were positive, but ranged from insignificant and significant from a correlation of zero.{{Efn|Specifically, the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .12}} unweighted, but {{math|''r'' {{=}} .13}} (CI: {{math|.11 – .14}}) weighted using fixed error assumptions, where CI is the 95% [[confidence interval]]. Using random error assumptions {{math|''r'' {{=}} .13}} (CI: {{math|−.01 – .26}}). The authors noted that the fixed error correlation was significant, but the random error correlation was insignificant.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=47}}}} |
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For conduct, the analysis pointed towards {{Harvtxt|Epstein|1988}} and {{Harvtxt|Vazsonyi|Pickering|2003}}. {{Harvtxt|Epstein|1988}} studied parent reports of the conduct of elementary school students and found a near-zero correlation of {{math|[[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''r'']] {{=}} .01}}. {{Harvtxt|Vazsonyi|Pickering|2003}} studied 809 adolescents in American high schools, and found that, using the Normative Deviance Scale as a model for [[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]], the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .28}} for Caucasian students, and {{math|''r'' {{=}} .24}} for African-American students. For all three of the correlations, higher values represent a higher correlation between time spent on homework and poor conduct.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=47}} |
For conduct, the analysis pointed towards {{Harvtxt|Epstein|1988}} and {{Harvtxt|Vazsonyi|Pickering|2003}}. {{Harvtxt|Epstein|1988}} studied parent reports of the conduct of elementary school students and found a near-zero correlation of {{math|[[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|''r'']] {{=}} .01}}. {{Harvtxt|Vazsonyi|Pickering|2003}} studied 809 adolescents in American high schools, and found that, using the Normative Deviance Scale as a model for [[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]], the correlation was {{math|''r'' {{=}} .28}} for Caucasian students, and {{math|''r'' {{=}} .24}} for African-American students. For all three of the correlations, higher values represent a higher correlation between time spent on homework and poor conduct.{{Sfnp|Cooper|Robinson|Patall|2006|p=47}} |
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Homework has been identified in numerous studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress and anxiety for students.<ref>{{Harvp|Bauwens|Hourcade|1992}}, {{Harvp|Conner|Denise|2009}}, {{Harvp|Hardy|2003}}, {{Harvp|Kouzma|Kennedy|2002}}, {{Harvp|West|Wood|1970}}, {{Harvp|Ystgaard|1997}}.</ref> Studies on the relation between homework and health are few compared to studies on academic performance.{{Sfnp|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992|p=146}}{{Sfnp|Galloway|Conner|2013|p=493}} |
Homework has been identified in numerous studies and articles as a dominant or significant source of stress and anxiety for students.<ref>{{Harvp|Bauwens|Hourcade|1992}}, {{Harvp|Conner|Denise|2009}}, {{Harvp|Hardy|2003}}, {{Harvp|Kouzma|Kennedy|2002}}, {{Harvp|West|Wood|1970}}, {{Harvp|Ystgaard|1997}}.</ref> Studies on the relation between homework and health are few compared to studies on academic performance.{{Sfnp|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992|p=146}}{{Sfnp|Galloway|Conner|2013|p=493}} |
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{{Harvtxt|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992}} surveyed 1,983 students in Hong Kong, and found that homework led not only to added stress and anxiety, but also physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomachaches. Students in the survey who were ridiculed or punished by parents and peers had a higher incidence of [[depression]] symptoms, with 2.2% of students reporting suicidal thoughts, and anxiety was exacerbated by punishments and criticism of students by teachers for both problems with homework as well as forgetting to hand in homework. |
{{Harvtxt|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992}} surveyed 1,983 students in Hong Kong, and found that homework led not only to added stress and anxiety, but also physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomachaches. Students in the survey who were ridiculed or punished by parents and peers had a higher incidence of [[Clinical depression|depression]] symptoms, with 2.2% of students reporting that they "always" had suicidal thoughts, and anxiety was exacerbated by punishments and criticism of students by teachers for both problems with homework as well as forgetting to hand in homework. |
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A 2007 study of American students by [[MetLife]] found that 89% of students felt stressed from homework, with 34% reporting that they "often" or "very often" felt stressed from homework. Stress was especially evident among high school students. Students that reported stress from homework were more likely to be deprived of sleep.{{Sfnp|Markow|Amie|Margot|2007|p=137}} |
A 2007 study of American students by [[MetLife]] found that 89% of students felt stressed from homework, with 34% reporting that they "often" or "very often" felt stressed from homework. Stress was especially evident among high school students. Students that reported stress from homework were more likely to be deprived of sleep.{{Sfnp|Markow|Amie|Margot|2007|p=137}} |
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Homework can cause tension and conflict in the home as well as at school, and can reduce students' family and leisure time. In the {{Harvtxt|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992}} survey, failure to complete homework and low grades where homework was a contributing factor was correlated with greater conflict; some students have reported teachers and parents frequently criticizing their work. In the MetLife study, high school students reported spending more time completing homework than performing home tasks.{{Sfnp|Markow|Amie|Margot|2007}} {{Harvtxt|Kohn|2006}} argued that homework can create family conflict and reduce students' quality of life. The authors of {{Harvtxt|Sallee|Rigler|2008}}, both high school English teachers, reported that their homework disrupted their students' extracurricular activities and responsibilities. However, {{Harvtxt|Kiewra|Kaufman|Hart|Scoular|2009}} found that parents were less likely to report homework as a distraction from their children's activities and responsibilities. {{Harvtxt|Galloway|Conner|Pope|2013}} recommended further empirical study relating to this aspect due to the difference between student and parent observations. |
Homework can cause tension and conflict in the home as well as at school, and can reduce students' family and leisure time. In the {{Harvtxt|Cheung|Leung-Ngai|1992}} survey, failure to complete homework and low grades where homework was a contributing factor was correlated with greater conflict; some students have reported teachers and parents frequently criticizing their work. In the MetLife study, high school students reported spending more time completing homework than performing home tasks.{{Sfnp|Markow|Amie|Margot|2007}} {{Harvtxt|Kohn|2006}} argued that homework can create family conflict and reduce students' quality of life. The authors of {{Harvtxt|Sallee|Rigler|2008}}, both high school English teachers, reported that their homework disrupted their students' extracurricular activities and responsibilities. However, {{Harvtxt|Kiewra|Kaufman|Hart|Scoular|2009}} found that parents were less likely to report homework as a distraction from their children's activities and responsibilities. {{Harvtxt|Galloway|Conner|Pope|2013}} recommended further empirical study relating to this aspect due to the difference between student and parent observations. |
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{{Harvtxt|Galloway|Conner|Pope|2013}} surveyed 4,317 high school students from ten high-performing schools, and found that students reported spending more than |
{{Harvtxt|Galloway|Conner|Pope|2013}} surveyed 4,317 high school students from ten high-performing schools, and found that students reported spending more than 3 hours on homework daily. 72% of the students reported stress from homework, and 82% reported physical symptoms. The students slept an average of 6 hours 48 minutes, lower than the recommendations prescribed by various health agencies. |
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== History == |
== History == |
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{{globalize/US|section|date=February 2016}} |
{{globalize/US|section|date=February 2016}} |
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[[File:Yrjö Ollila - Hearing the Homework.jpg|thumb|[[Hearing the Homework]]; Yrjö Ollila ]] |
[[File:Yrjö Ollila - Hearing the Homework.jpg|thumb|[[Hearing the Homework]]; Yrjö Ollila ]] |
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The earliest known teacher to administer homework was Roberto Nevilis in [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] in 1095, but there might have been instructors that have administered homework before him despite the lack of evidence. |
The earliest known teacher to administer homework was Roberto Nevilis in [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] in 1095, but there might have been instructors that have administered homework before him despite the lack of evidence.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.flokka.com/strange-facts-invented-homework/|title = Strange Facts: Who Invented Homework?|publisher = Flokka}}</ref> |
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=== United States === |
=== United States === |
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Historically, homework was frowned upon in [[Culture of the United States|American culture]]. With few students interested in [[higher education]], and due to the necessity to complete daily chores, homework was discouraged not only by parents, but also by school districts. In 1901, the [[California]] legislature passed an act that effectively abolished homework for those who attended kindergarten |
Historically, homework was frowned upon in [[Culture of the United States|American culture]]. With few students interested in [[higher education]], and due to the necessity to complete daily chores, homework was discouraged not only by parents, but also by school districts. In 1901, the [[California]] legislature passed an act that effectively abolished homework for those who attended kindergarten |
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through the eighth grade. But, in the 1950s, with increasing pressure on the United States to stay ahead in the [[Cold War]], homework made a resurgence, and children were encouraged to keep up with their [[Soviet Union| |
through the eighth grade. But, in the 1950s, with increasing pressure on the United States to stay ahead in the [[Cold War]], homework made a resurgence, and children were encouraged to keep up with their [[Soviet Union|Russian]] counterparts. By the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, the consensus in American education was overwhelmingly in favor of issuing homework to students of all grade levels.<ref>{{cite news |
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| url = http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/HISTORY-OF-HOMEWORK-3053660.php |
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/HISTORY-OF-HOMEWORK-3053660.php |
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| title = History of Homework |
| title = History of Homework |
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| work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> |
| work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> |
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A study done at the [[University of Michigan]] in 2007 concluded that the amount of homework given is increasing. In a sample taken of students between the ages of 6 and 9 years, it was shown that students spend more than 2 hours a week on homework, as opposed to 44 minutes in 1981.<ref>{{cite news |
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| last = Seligman |
| last = Seligman |
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| first = Katherine |
| first = Katherine |
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| accessdate=2013-06-03}} |
| accessdate=2013-06-03}} |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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After a comprehensive review, academics scholar Harris Cooper concluded that homework does not improve academic achievements for grade school students. Cooper analyzed dozens of students and found that those who are assigned homework in middle and high school score "somewhat" better on standardized tests, but that students who have 60 to 90 minutes of homework a day in middle school or more than 2 hours in high school score worse.<ref>{{cite news |
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| last = Wallis |
| last = Wallis |
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| first = Claudia |
| first = Claudia |
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====Effectiveness of homework==== |
====Effectiveness of homework==== |
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{{Refbegin|40em}} |
{{Refbegin|40em}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Harris|last2=Robinson|first2=Jorgianne C.|last3=Patall|first3=Erika A.|title=Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003|journal=Review of Educational Research|date=2006|volume=71|issue=6|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Harris|last2=Robinson|first2=Jorgianne C.|last3=Patall|first3=Erika A.|title=Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003|journal=Review of Educational Research|date=2006|volume=71|issue=6|pages=1–62|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Citation|last1=Epstein|first1=Joyce L.|title=Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students|journal=Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools|date=1988|ref=harv}} |
* {{Citation|last1=Epstein|first1=Joyce L.|title=Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students|journal=Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools|date=1988|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Trautwein|first1=Ulrich|last2=Köller|first2=Olaf|title=The Relationship Between Homework and |
* {{cite journal|last1=Trautwein|first1=Ulrich|last2=Köller|first2=Olaf|title=The Relationship Between Homework and Achievement—Still Much of a Mystery|journal=Educational Psychology Review|date=2003|volume=15|issue=2|pages=115–145|doi=10.1023/A:1023460414243|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Vazsonyi|first1=Alexander T.|last2=Pickering|first2=Lloyd E.|title=The Importance of Family and School Domains in Adolescent Deviance: African American and Caucasian Youth|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=2003|volume=32|issue=2|pages=115–128|doi=10.1023/A:1021857801554|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Vazsonyi|first1=Alexander T.|last2=Pickering|first2=Lloyd E.|title=The Importance of Family and School Domains in Adolescent Deviance: African American and Caucasian Youth|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=2003|volume=32|issue=2|pages=115–128|doi=10.1023/A:1021857801554|ref=harv}} |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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====Homework and non-academic effects==== |
====Homework and non-academic effects==== |
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{{Refbegin|40em}} |
{{Refbegin|40em}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Bauwens|first1=Jeanne|last2=Hourcade|first2=Jack J.|title=School-Based Sources of Stress Among Elementary and Secondary At-Risk Students|journal=The School Counselor|date=1992|volume=40|issue=2|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Bauwens|first1=Jeanne|last2=Hourcade|first2=Jack J.|title=School-Based Sources of Stress Among Elementary and Secondary At-Risk Students|journal=The School Counselor|date=1992|volume=40|issue=2|pages=97–102|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Bempechat|first1=Janine|title=The Motivational Benefits of Homework: A Social-Cognitive Perspective|journal=Theory In Practice|date=2004|volume=43|issue=3|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Bempechat|first1=Janine|title=The Motivational Benefits of Homework: A Social-Cognitive Perspective|journal=Theory In Practice|date=2004|volume=43|issue=3|pages=189–196|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Cheung|first1=S. K.|last2=Leung-Ngai|first2=J. M. Y.|title=Impact of homework stress on children’s physical and psychological well-being|journal=Journal of the Hong Kong Medical Association|date=1992|volume=44|issue=3|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Cheung|first1=S. K.|last2=Leung-Ngai|first2=J. M. Y.|title=Impact of homework stress on children’s physical and psychological well-being|journal=Journal of the Hong Kong Medical Association|date=1992|volume=44|issue=3|pages=146–150|url=http://hkjo.lib.hku.hk/archive/files/34f94e97249049e038e55b7f9e2e97b5.pdf|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Conner|first1=Jerusha|last2=Pope|first2=Denise|last3=Galloway|first3=Mollie|title=Success with Less Stress|journal=Health and Learning|date=2009|volume=67|issue=4|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Conner|first1=Jerusha|last2=Pope|first2=Denise|last3=Galloway|first3=Mollie|title=Success with Less Stress|journal=Health and Learning|date=2009|volume=67|issue=4|pages=54–58|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinsin|Patall|2006|pp= |
* {{Harvtxt|Cooper|Robinsin|Patall|2006|pp=46–48}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Galloway|first1=Mollie|last2=Conner|first2=Jerusha|last3=Pope|first3=Denise|title=Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00220973.2012.745469?needAccess=true|journal=The Journal of Experimental Education|date=2013|volume=81|issue=4|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Galloway|first1=Mollie|last2=Conner|first2=Jerusha|last3=Pope|first3=Denise|title=Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00220973.2012.745469?needAccess=true|journal=The Journal of Experimental Education|date=2013|volume=81|issue=4|pages=490–510|doi=10.1080/00220973.2012.745469|ref=harv|doi-access=free}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Lawrence|title=Overburdened, Overwhelmed|journal=American School Board Journal|date=2003|volume=190|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Lawrence|title=Overburdened, Overwhelmed|journal=American School Board Journal|date=2003|volume=190|pages=18–23|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Kiewra|first1=Kenneth A|last2=Kaufman|first2=Douglas F.|last3=Hart|first3=Katie|last4=Scoular|first4=Jacqui|last5=Brown|first5=Marissa|last6=Keller|first6=Gwendolyn|last7=Tyler|first7=Becci|title=What Parents, Researchers, and the Popular Press Have to Say About Homework|journal=scholarlypartnershipsedu|date=2009|volume=4|issue=1|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Kiewra|first1=Kenneth A|last2=Kaufman|first2=Douglas F.|last3=Hart|first3=Katie|last4=Scoular|first4=Jacqui|last5=Brown|first5=Marissa|last6=Keller|first6=Gwendolyn|last7=Tyler|first7=Becci|title=What Parents, Researchers, and the Popular Press Have to Say About Homework|journal=scholarlypartnershipsedu|date=2009|volume=4|issue=1|pages=93–109|url=http://opus.ipfw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=spe|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Kouzma|first1=Nadya M.|last2=Kennedy|first2=Gerard A.|title=Homework, stress, and mood disturbance in senior high school students|journal=Psychological Reports|date=2002|volume=91|issue=1|pages=193–198|doi=10.2466/pr0.2002.91.1.193|pmid=12353781|url=http://prx.sagepub.com/content/91/1/193.full.pdf|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Kouzma|first1=Nadya M.|last2=Kennedy|first2=Gerard A.|title=Homework, stress, and mood disturbance in senior high school students|journal=Psychological Reports|date=2002|volume=91|issue=1|pages=193–198|doi=10.2466/pr0.2002.91.1.193|pmid=12353781|url=http://prx.sagepub.com/content/91/1/193.full.pdf|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Leone|first1=Carla M.|last2=Richards|first2=H.|title=Classwork and homework in early adolescence: The ecology of achievement|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=1989|volume=18|issue=6|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Leone|first1=Carla M.|last2=Richards|first2=H.|title=Classwork and homework in early adolescence: The ecology of achievement|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=1989|volume=18|issue=6|pages=531–548|doi=10.1007/BF02139072|pmid=24272124|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Citation|last1=Markow|first1=Dana|last2=Kim|first2=Amie|last3=Liebman|first3=Margot|title=The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher: The homework experience|date=2007|publisher=Metropolitan Life Insurance Foundation|ref=harv|url=https://www.metlife.com/assets/cao/contributions/foundation/american-teacher/metlife-survey-american-teacher-2007-homework-experience.pdf}} |
* {{Citation|last1=Markow|first1=Dana|last2=Kim|first2=Amie|last3=Liebman|first3=Margot|title=The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher: The homework experience|date=2007|publisher=Metropolitan Life Insurance Foundation|ref=harv|url=https://www.metlife.com/assets/cao/contributions/foundation/american-teacher/metlife-survey-american-teacher-2007-homework-experience.pdf}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Sallee|first1=Buffy|last2=Rigler|first2=Neil|title=Doing Our Homework on Homework: How Does Homework Help?|journal=The English Journal|date=2008|volume=98|issue=2|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Sallee|first1=Buffy|last2=Rigler|first2=Neil|title=Doing Our Homework on Homework: How Does Homework Help?|journal=The English Journal|date=2008|volume=98|issue=2|pages=46–51|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Charles K.|last2=Wood|first2=Edward S.|title=Academic Pressures on Public School Students|journal=Educational Leadership|date=1970|volume=3|issue=4|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Charles K.|last2=Wood|first2=Edward S.|title=Academic Pressures on Public School Students|journal=Educational Leadership|date=1970|volume=3|issue=4|pages=585–589|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Jianzhong|last2=Yuan|first2=Ruiping|title=Doing homework: Listening to students', parents', and teachers' voices in one urban middle school community|journal=School Community Journal|date=2003|volume=13|issue=2|pages= |
* {{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Jianzhong|last2=Yuan|first2=Ruiping|title=Doing homework: Listening to students', parents', and teachers' voices in one urban middle school community|journal=School Community Journal|date=2003|volume=13|issue=2|pages=25–44|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.471.2773&rep=rep1&type=pdf|ref=harv}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1=Ystgaard|first1=M.|title=Life stress, social support and psychological distress in late adolescence|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|date=1997|volume=32|issue=5|pages=277–283|doi=10.1007/BF00789040|pmid=9257518|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Ystgaard|first1=M.|title=Life stress, social support and psychological distress in late adolescence|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|date=1997|volume=32|issue=5|pages=277–283|doi=10.1007/BF00789040|pmid=9257518|ref=harv}} |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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==== Other ==== |
==== Other ==== |
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{{Refbegin|40em}} |
{{Refbegin|40em}} |
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*{{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=Harris|title=The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents|date=2007|publisher=[[Corwin Press]]|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=9781412937139|edition=3rd|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=Harris|title=The Battle Over Homework: Common Ground for Administrators, Teachers, and Parents|date=2007|publisher=[[Corwin Press]]|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=9781412937139|edition=3rd|ref=harv}} |
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*{{Cite book| last = Kohn| first = Alfie| authorlink = Alfie Kohn| title = The Homework Myth| isbn = 0-7382-1085-4| year = 2006| publisher = [[Da Capo Press]]| location = Cambridge, MA| ref=harv}} [http://www.alfiekohn.org/homework-improve-learning/ Chapter 2] is free to read. |
* {{Cite book| last = Kohn| first = Alfie| authorlink = Alfie Kohn| title = The Homework Myth| isbn = 0-7382-1085-4| year = 2006| publisher = [[Da Capo Press]]| location = Cambridge, MA| ref=harv}} [http://www.alfiekohn.org/homework-improve-learning/ Chapter 2] is free to read. |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
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* ''[https://today.duke.edu//2006/03/homework.html Duke Study]: Homework Helps Students Succeed in School, As Long as There Isn't Too Much'' |
* ''[https://today.duke.edu//2006/03/homework.html Duke Study]: Homework Helps Students Succeed in School, As Long as There Isn't Too Much'' |
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* ''The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It'' by [http://www.stophomework.com Sarah Bennett] & [http://www.nancykalish.com Nancy Kalish] (2006) Discusses in detail assessments of studies on homework and the authors' own research and assessment of the homework situation in the United States. Has specific recommendations and sample letters to be used in negotiating a reduced homework load for your child. |
* ''The Case Against Homework: How Homework Is Hurting Our Children and What We Can Do About It'' by [http://www.stophomework.com Sarah Bennett] & [http://www.nancykalish.com Nancy Kalish] (2006) Discusses in detail assessments of studies on homework and the authors' own research and assessment of the homework situation in the United States. Has specific recommendations and sample letters to be used in negotiating a reduced homework load for your child. |
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* ''The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing'' by [[Alfie Kohn]] (2006) |
* ''The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing'' by [[Alfie Kohn]] (2006) |
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* ''The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning'' by Etta Kralovec and [http://www.bangordailynews.com/editorialnews/viewpoints/johnbuell.aspx John Buell] (2000) |
* ''The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning'' by Etta Kralovec and [http://www.bangordailynews.com/editorialnews/viewpoints/johnbuell.aspx John Buell] (2000) |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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* [http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/involve/homework/homeworktips.pdf Homework tips for parents] - U.S. Department of Education. |
* [http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/involve/homework/homeworktips.pdf Homework tips for parents] - U.S. Department of Education. |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/parents/ BBC's (U.K.) parents' school guide] |
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/parents/ BBC's (U.K.) parents' school guide] |
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* [http://www.ed.gov/pubs/HelpingStudents/index.html Helping Your Students With Homework: A Guide For Teachers] - U.S. Department of Education. |
* [http://www.ed.gov/pubs/HelpingStudents/index.html Helping Your Students With Homework: A Guide For Teachers] - U.S. Department of Education. |
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* [http://www.peakparent.org/pdf/fact_sheets/homework.pdf Homework Practices that Support Students with Disabilities] |
* [http://www.peakparent.org/pdf/fact_sheets/homework.pdf Homework Practices that Support Students with Disabilities] |