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{{About|the star grouping}} |
{{About|the star grouping}} |
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A '''constellation''' is formally defined as a region of the [[celestial sphere]], with boundaries laid down by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU). |
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In everyday usage, a '''constellation''' is a traditional or recognizable group of stars in the night sky, or the region of the sky containing them. In technical usage these meanings have been separated, with groupings of stars being called [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]]s, and the word constellation being reserved for a specific area of the [[celestial sphere]] with boundaries laid down by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU). These areas mostly had their origins in Western-traditional asterisms from which the constellations take their names. When astronomers say something is “in” a given constellation they mean it is within those official boundaries. There are [[88 modern constellations|88 officially recognized constellations]], covering the entire sky<ref name=iau-const>{{cite web |title=The Constellations |url=http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/ |publisher=IAU—[[International Astronomical Union]] |accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref> which have grown from the 48 classical Greek constellations laid down by [[Ptolemy]] in the ''[[Almagest]]''. Out of these 88 constellations, 12 compose the zodiac signs. |
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The constellation areas mostly had their origins in Western-traditional patterns of stars from which the constellations take their names. |
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Since 1922, there are [[88 modern constellations]] officially recognised by the International Astronomical Union,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kovacs |editor-first1=George |editor-last2=W. Marschall |editor-first2=C. |date= |title=Son of Classics and Comics |url=https://books.google.co.cr/books?id=1xlpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=50 |isbn=978-0-19-026888-6}}</ref> covering the entire sky which have grown from the 48 classical Greek constellations laid down by [[Ptolemy]] in the ''[[Almagest]]''. Constellations in the far southern sky are 18th- and 19th-century constructions. Out of the 88 constellations, 12 compose the [[zodiac sign]]s. |
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⚫ | The |
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The term constellation can also refer to the stars within the boundaries of that constellation. Notable groupings of stars that do not form a constellation are called [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]]s. When astronomers say something is “in” a given constellation they mean it is within those official boundaries. |
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⚫ | Any given point in a [[celestial coordinate system]] can unambiguously be assigned to a single constellation (but see [[Argo Navis]]). Many [[Stellar designation|astronomical naming systems]] give the constellation in which a given object is found along with a designation in order to convey a rough idea in which part of the sky it is located. For example, the [[Flamsteed designation]] for bright stars consists of a number and the genitive form of the constellation name. |
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⚫ | The word "constellation" seems to come from the [[Late Latin]] term ''cōnstellātiō'', which can be translated as "set of stars", and came into use in [[Middle English|English]] during the 14th century. A more modern astronomical sense of the term is as a recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance is identified with mythological characters or creatures, or associated earthbound animals or objects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/constellation|title= Definition of constellation in English:constellation|accessdate=2 August 2016|publisher= Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref> It also denotes 88 named groups of stars in the shape of stellar-patterns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constellation|title=constellation|accessdate=2 August 2016|publisher= Merriam-webster}}</ref> |
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The Ancient Greek word for constellation was "ἄστρον".<ref name="Autenrieth1897">{{cite book|last=Autenrieth|first=Georg|title=A Homeric Dictionary, for Schools and Colleges: ("ἄστρον")|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EnEZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA51|year=1897|publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|page=51}}</ref> |
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Colloquial usage does not draw a sharp distinction between "constellation" in the sense of an asterism (pattern of stars) and "constellation" in the sense of an area surrounding an asterism.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} The modern system of constellations used in astronomy employs the latter concept. For example, the northern asterism known as the [[Big Dipper]] comprises the seven brightest stars in the IAU constellation (area) [[Ursa Major]] while the southern [[False Cross]] includes portions of the constellations [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] and [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]. |
Colloquial usage does not draw a sharp distinction between "constellation" in the sense of an asterism (pattern of stars) and "constellation" in the sense of an area surrounding an asterism.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} The modern system of constellations used in astronomy employs the latter concept. For example, the northern asterism known as the [[Big Dipper]] comprises the seven brightest stars in the IAU constellation (area) [[Ursa Major]] while the southern [[False Cross]] includes portions of the constellations [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] and [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]. |
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The term [[circumpolar constellation]] is used for any constellation that, from a particular latitude on Earth, never sets below the horizon. From the [[North Pole]] or [[South Pole]], all constellations |
The term [[circumpolar constellation]] is used for any constellation that, from a particular latitude on Earth, never sets below the [[horizon]]. From the [[North Pole]] or [[South Pole]], all constellations south or north of the [[celestial equator]] are circumpolar constellations. In the equatorial or temperate latitudes, the informal term ''equatorial constellation'' has sometimes been used for constellations that lie to the opposite the circumpolar constellations.<ref name=steele1884 /> Depending on the definition,{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} equatorial constellations can include those that lie entirely between declinations 45° north and 45° south,<ref name=harbord_goodwin1897/> or those that pass overhead between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn between declinations of 23½° north and 23½° south.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} They generally include all constellations that intersect the celestial equator or part of the [[zodiac]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} |
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⚫ | Usually the only thing the stars in a constellation have in common is that they appear near each other in the sky when viewed from the Earth. In galactic space, the stars of a constellation usually lie at a variety of distances. Since stars also travel on their own orbits through the [[Milky Way]], the star patterns of the constellations change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, their familiar outlines will become unrecognisable.<ref name="marc">{{cite web|url=http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/review/dr-marc-space/constellations.html|title=Do Constellations Ever Break Apart or Change?|publisher=NASA|accessdate=November 27, 2014}}</ref> |
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===The naming of constellations=== |
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⚫ | Usually the only thing the stars in a constellation have in common is that they appear near each other in the sky when viewed from the Earth |
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The terms chosen for the constellation themselves, together with the appearance of a constellation, may reveal where and when its constellation makers lived. The [[big dipper|Plough]] may illustrate this, as it is a constellation which appears in many cultures under different names, e.g. "Plough" is the name in the [[United Kingdom]], parrot in the [[Maya civilization]], and the Egyptians saw it as part of the thigh and leg of a bull. Professor [[John D. Barrow]] claimed that people who named constellations did not do so because they thought them to be looking like e.g. a plough, but the naming was symbolic instead for something associated with e.g. a plough.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-origin-of-the-constellations| title=The Origin of the Constellations|first=John|last=D. Barrows|website=Gresham College|date=25 January 2007|access-date=1 August 2016|quote=Whether you live in the north or the southern hemisphere makes a big difference. In a typical representation of the northern constellations, you can see some familiar candidates: the Plough in the middle. The Plough is something that appears in many cultures. It is a group of seven stars. We call it the Plough, the Americans call it the Big Dipper, the Ancient Mayans called it a parrot, the Chinese represented it as a chariot, the Egyptians as part of the thigh and leg of a bull, so everybody sees things differently. You should not take very seriously the idea that people who named these star patterns really did believe them to be looking like, say, a hunter or a plough. They were symbolic, almost certainly, for something associated with a hunter or a plough or whatever was being used as the image.}}</ref> |
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== History == |
== History == |
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The earliest direct evidence for the constellations comes from inscribed stones and clay writing tablets dug up in Mesopotamia (within modern Iraq) dating back to 3000 BC.<ref>''Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions'' |
The earliest direct evidence for the constellations comes from inscribed stones and clay writing tablets dug up in Mesopotamia (within modern Iraq) dating back to 3000 BC.<ref name= Rogers>Rogers, J. H. (1998). [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1998JBAA..108....9R ''Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions'']. ''Journal of the British Astronomical Association'', vol.108, no.1, pp. 9-28.</ref> It seems that the bulk of the Mesopotamian constellations were created within a relatively short interval from around 1300 to 1000 BC. These groupings appeared later in many of the classical Greek constellations.<ref name="Greek Constellations 2006">{{cite journal|last1=Schaefer|first1=Bradley E.|authorlink=Bradley E. Schaefer|title=The Origin of the Greek Constellations|date=2006|volume=295|pages=96 - 101|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1106-96}}</ref> |
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=== Ancient near East === |
=== Ancient near East === |
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The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions. The oldest [[Babylonian star catalogues]] of stars and constellations date back to the beginning in the [[Middle Bronze Age]], most notably the ''Three Stars Each'' texts and the ''[[MUL.APIN]]'', an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC. However, the numerous [[Sumerian language|Sumerian names]] in these catalogues suggest that they build on older, but otherwise unattested, [[Sumer]]ian traditions of the [[Early Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.westnet.com.au/Gary-David-Thompson/page11-4.html |title=History of the Constellations and Star Names — D.4: Sumerian constellations and star names? |work=Gary D. Thompson |date=21 April 2015 |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref> |
The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions. The oldest [[Babylonian star catalogues]] of stars and constellations date back to the beginning in the [[Middle Bronze Age]], most notably the ''Three Stars Each'' texts and the ''[[MUL.APIN]]'', an expanded and revised version based on more accurate observation from around 1000 BC. However, the numerous [[Sumerian language|Sumerian names]] in these catalogues suggest that they build on older, but otherwise unattested, [[Sumer]]ian traditions of the [[Early Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.westnet.com.au/Gary-David-Thompson/page11-4.html |title=History of the Constellations and Star Names — D.4: Sumerian constellations and star names? |work=Gary D. Thompson |date=21 April 2015 |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref> |
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The classical |
The classical Zodiac is a product of a revision of the Old Babylonian system in later [[Neo-Babylonian]] astronomy 6th century BC. Knowledge of the Neo-Babylonian zodiac is also reflected in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. [[E. W. Bullinger]] interpreted the creatures appearing in the books of [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (and thence in [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]) as the middle signs of the four quarters of the Zodiac,<ref>E.W. Bullinger, ''The Witness of the Stars''</ref><ref>D. James Kennedy, ''The Real Meaning of the Zodiac''.</ref> with the Lion as [[Leo (astrology)|Leo]], the Bull as [[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]], the Man representing Aquarius and the Eagle standing in for Scorpio.<ref>Richard Hinckley Allen, ''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'', Vol. 1 (New York: Dover Publications, 1899, p. 213-215.) argued for ''Scorpio'' having previously been called ''Eagle''.</ref> The biblical [[Book of Job]] also makes reference to a number of constellations, including {{lang|he|עיש ''‘Ayish''}} "bier", {{lang|he| כסיל ''chesil''}} "fool" and {{lang|he| כימה ''chimah''}} "heap" (Job 9:9, 38:31-32), rendered as "Arcturus, Orion and Pleiades" by the [[KJV]], but ''‘Ayish'' "the bier" actually corresponding to Ursa Major.<ref>[http://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H5906&t=KJV Gesenius, ''Hebrew Lexicon'']</ref> The term ''[[Mazzaroth]]'' {{lang|he|מַזָּרוֹת}}, a ''[[hapax legomenon]]'' in Job 38:32, may be the Hebrew word for the zodiacal constellations. |
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The Greeks adopted the Babylonian system in the 4th century BC. A total of twenty Ptolemaic constellations are directly continued from the Ancient Near East. Another ten have the same stars but different names.<ref name="Greek Constellations 2006"/> |
The Greeks adopted the Babylonian system in the 4th century BC. A total of twenty Ptolemaic constellations are directly continued from the Ancient Near East. Another ten have the same stars but different names.<ref name="Greek Constellations 2006"/> |
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=== Chinese astronomy === |
=== Chinese astronomy === |
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{{further|Chinese astronomy}} |
{{further|Chinese astronomy}} |
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[[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|thumb|[[Chinese star map]] with a cylindrical projection ([[Su Song]])]] |
[[File:Su Song Star Map 1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Chinese star map]] with a cylindrical projection ([[Su Song]])]] |
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In [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]] astronomy has had a long tradition in accurately observing celestial phenomena.<ref>Needham, Volume 3, p.171</ref> Star names later categorized in the [[twenty-eight mansions]] have been found on [[oracle bones]] unearthed at [[Anyang]], dating back to the middle [[Shang Dynasty]]. These [[Chinese constellations]] are one of the most important and also the most ancient structures in the Chinese sky, attested from the 5th century BC. Parallels to the earliest Babylonian (Sumerian) star catalogues suggest that the ancient Chinese system did not arise independently.<ref>Xiaochun Sun, Jacob Kistemaker, ''The Chinese sky during the Han'', vol. 38 of Sinica Leidensia, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3, p. 18, note 9.</ref> |
In [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]] astronomy has had a long tradition in accurately observing celestial phenomena.<ref>Needham, Volume 3, p.171</ref> Star names later categorized in the [[twenty-eight mansions]] have been found on [[oracle bones]] unearthed at [[Anyang]], dating back to the middle [[Shang Dynasty]]. These [[Chinese constellations]] are one of the most important and also the most ancient structures in the Chinese sky, attested from the 5th century BC. Parallels to the earliest Babylonian (Sumerian) star catalogues suggest that the ancient Chinese system did not arise independently.<ref>Xiaochun Sun, Jacob Kistemaker, ''The Chinese sky during the Han'', vol. 38 of Sinica Leidensia, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3, p. 18, note 9.</ref> |
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Classical Chinese astronomy is recorded in the [[Han period]] and appears in the form of three schools, which are attributed to astronomers of the [[Zhanguo period]]. The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by [[Chen Zhuo]], an astronomer of the 3rd century ([[Three Kingdoms period]]). Chen Zhuo's work has been lost, but information on his system of constellations survives in [[Tang period]] records, notably by [[Qutan Xida]]. The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the [[Dunhuang Manuscripts]]. Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the [[Song dynasty]], and during the [[Yuan Dynasty]] became increasingly influenced by [[medieval Islamic astronomy]] (see [[Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era]]).<ref>Xiaochun Sun, Jacob Kistemaker, ''The Chinese sky during the Han'', vol. 38 of Sinica Leidensia, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3, chapter 2, 15-36.</ref> |
Classical Chinese astronomy is recorded in the [[Han period]] and appears in the form of three schools, which are attributed to astronomers of the [[Zhanguo period]]. The constellations of the three schools were conflated into a single system by [[Chen Zhuo]], an astronomer of the 3rd century ([[Three Kingdoms period]]). Chen Zhuo's work has been lost, but information on his system of constellations survives in [[Tang period]] records, notably by [[Qutan Xida]]. The oldest extant Chinese star chart dates to that period and was preserved as part of the [[Dunhuang Manuscripts]]. Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the [[Song dynasty]], and during the [[Yuan Dynasty]] became increasingly influenced by [[medieval Islamic astronomy]] (see [[Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era]]).<ref>Xiaochun Sun, Jacob Kistemaker, ''The Chinese sky during the Han'', vol. 38 of Sinica Leidensia, BRILL, 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3, chapter 2, 15-36.</ref> As maps were prepared during this period on more scientific lines they were considered as more reliable.<ref name="Selin2008">{{cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine Elise|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kt9DIY1g9HYC&pg=PA2022|date=12 March 2008|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2|page=2022}}</ref> |
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A well known map prepared during the Song Period is the [[Chinese star maps|Suzhou Astronomical Chart]] prepared with carvings of most stars on the [[planisphere]] of the Chinese Sky on a stone plate; it is done accurately based on observations and has the suprnova of the year of 1054 in Taurus carved on it.<ref name="Selin2008"/> |
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Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 |
Influenced by European astronomy during the late [[Ming Dynasty]], more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by [[Xu Guangqi]] and [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], the German Jesuit and was recorded in [[Chongzhen calendar|Chongzhen Lishu]] (Calendrical Treatise of [[Chongzhen Emperor|Chongzhen Period]], 1628). Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy.<ref name="Selin2008"/><ref>{{cite book | last=Sun | first =Xiaochun | editor=Helaine Selin | editor-link=Helaine Selin | title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures | date=1997 | pages=910 | publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn=0-7923-4066-3}}</ref> |
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=== Indian astronomy === |
=== Indian astronomy === |
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[[File:Taqi al din.jpg|upright|thumb|Work in the observatorium of [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]].]] |
[[File:Taqi al din.jpg|upright|thumb|Work in the observatorium of [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]].]] |
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Particularly during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (8th–15th centuries) the [[Islamic world]] experienced development in astronomy. These developments were mostly written in Arabic and took place from North Africa to Central Asia, [[Al-Andalus]], and later in the [[Far East]] and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other [[Islamic science]]s in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with [[Islam]]ic characteristics. These included ancient Greek astronomy, [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]], and |
Particularly during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (8th–15th centuries) the [[Islamic world]] experienced development in astronomy. These developments were mostly written in Arabic and took place from North Africa to Central Asia, [[Al-Andalus]], and later in the [[Far East]] and India. It closely parallels the genesis of other [[Islamic science]]s in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science with [[Islam]]ic characteristics. These included ancient Greek astronomy, [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]], and Indian works in particular, which were translated and built upon.<ref name= Gingerich>{{Citation |
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|last=Gingerich |
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|first=Owen |
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|date=April 1986 |
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|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110101211150/http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/PHYS/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic_astronomy.htm |
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|title=Islamic astronomy |
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|journal=[[Scientific American]] |
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|volume=254 |
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|issue=10 |
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|page=74 |
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|accessdate=2016-07-31 |
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|bibcode = 1986SciAm.254...74G |doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0486-74 }}</ref> In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on [[Byzantine science|Byzantine]]<ref name=Leichter>{{Citation|author=Joseph Leichter|title=The Zij as-Sanjari of Gregory Chioniades|publisher=[[Internet Archive]]|date=June 27, 2009|url=https://archive.org/details/TheZijAs-sanjariOfGregoryChioniades|accessdate=2009-10-02|postscript=}}</ref> and [[Science in Medieval Western Europe|European]]<ref name=Saliba>Saliba (1999).</ref> astronomy (see [[Latin translations of the 12th century]]) as well as Chinese astronomy<ref>{{citation|last=van Dalen|first=Benno|contribution=Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for Huihui li|editor-last=Ansari|editor-first=S. M. Razaullah|year=2002|title=History of Oriental Astronomy|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|isbn=1-4020-0657-8|pages=19–32}}</ref> and [[Timbuktu Manuscripts|Malian astronomy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=African Cultural Astronomy|last1=Medupe|first1=Rodney Thebe|last2=Warner|first2=Brian|last3=Jeppie|first3=Shamil|last4=Sanogo|first4=Salikou|last5=Maiga|first5=Mohammed|last6=Maiga|first6=Ahmed|last7=Dembele|first7=Mamadou|last8=Diakite|first8=Drissa|last9=Tembely|first9=Laya|last10=Kanoute|first10=Mamadou|last11=Traore|first11=Sibiri|last12=Sodio|first12=Bernard|last13=Hawkes|first13=Sharron|editor=Holbrook, Jarita; Medupe, Rodney; Urama, Johnson|year=2008|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6639-9_13|chapter=The Timbuktu Astronomy Project|chapterurl=http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6639-9_13#page-1|series=Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings|journal=Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings|publisher=Springer|location=London|pages=179–188|bibcode = 2008ASSP....6..179M|isbn=978-1-4020-6638-2 }}</ref> |
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A significant number of [[star]]s in the [[sky]], such as [[Aldebaran]] and [[Altair]], and astronomical terms such as [[alidade]], [[azimuth]], and [[almucantar]], are still referred to by [[List of Arabic star names|their Arabic names]].<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.icoproject.org/star.html|title=Arabic Star Names|date=2007-05-01|accessdate=2008-01-24|publisher=Islamic Crescents' Observation Project| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080202163504/http://www.icoproject.org/star.html| archivedate= 2 February 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201005/arabic.in.the.sky.htm|title=Arabic in the sky|date=|accessdate=|publisher=www.saudiramcoworld.org| archiveurl= <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.<ref> |
A significant number of [[star]]s in the [[sky]], such as [[Aldebaran]] and [[Altair]], and astronomical terms such as [[alidade]], [[azimuth]], and [[almucantar]], are still referred to by [[List of Arabic star names|their Arabic names]].<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.icoproject.org/star.html|title=Arabic Star Names|date=2007-05-01|accessdate=2008-01-24|publisher=Islamic Crescents' Observation Project| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080202163504/http://www.icoproject.org/star.html| archivedate= 2 February 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201005/arabic.in.the.sky.htm|title=Arabic in the sky|date=|accessdate=|publisher=www.saudiramcoworld.org| archiveurl= <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.<ref name= Ilyas>Ilyas, Mohammad (1996). [http://www.worldcat.org/title/islamic-astronomy-and-science-development-glorious-past-challenging-future/oclc/35042921&referer=brief_results Islamic astronomy and science development : glorious past, challenging future]. Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 9679785491.</ref> |
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=== Early Modern era === |
=== Early Modern era === |
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Some modern proposals for new constellations were not successful; an example is [[Quadrans Muralis|Quadrans]], eponymous of the [[Quadrantid]] meteors, now divided between [[Boötes]] and [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] in the northern sky. The large classical constellation of [[Argo Navis]] was broken up into three separate parts (Carina, Puppis and Vela), for the convenience of stellar cartographers. |
Some modern proposals for new constellations were not successful; an example is [[Quadrans Muralis|Quadrans]], eponymous of the [[Quadrantid]] meteors, now divided between [[Boötes]] and [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] in the northern sky. The large classical constellation of [[Argo Navis]] was broken up into three separate parts (Carina, Puppis and Vela), for the convenience of stellar cartographers. |
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The current list of 88 constellations recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]] since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by |
The current list of 88 constellations recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]] since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' in the 2nd century, with early modern modifications and additions (most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy) by Petrus Plancius (1592, 1597/98 and 1613), [[Johannes Hevelius]] (1690) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763),<ref name=iau-const>{{cite web |title=The Constellations |url=http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/ |publisher=IAU—[[International Astronomical Union]] |accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/constellations1.htm |title=Constellation names, abbreviations and sizes |author=Ian Ridpath |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.htm |title=Star Tales – The Almagest |author=Ian Ridpath |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref> who named fourteen constellations and renamed a fifteenth one.<ref name="Wisconsin-Madison">{{cite web|url=http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/extra/Lacaille.html|title=Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1713-1762)|website=Department of Astronomy. University of Wisconsin-Madison|access-date=1 August 2016}}</ref> De Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1750 until 1754 from [[Cape of Good Hope]], when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a {{convert|0.5|in|mm}} [[refracting telescope]].<ref name="Wisconsin-Madison" /> |
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== IAU constellations == |
== IAU constellations == |
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{{Main|88 modern constellations}} |
{{Main|88 modern constellations}} |
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In 1922, [[Henry Norris Russell]] aided the IAU (International Astronomical Union) in dividing the celestial sphere into 88 official constellations |
In 1922, [[Henry Norris Russell]] aided the IAU (International Astronomical Union) in dividing the celestial sphere into 88 official constellations;<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/iaulist1.htm| title = The original names and abbreviations for constellations from 1922| accessdate = 2010-01-31}}</ref> Prior to this, Ptolemy's list of 48 constellations with many additions made by European astronomers had prevailed. However, these divisions did not have clear border between them. It was only in 1930 that [[Eugène Joseph Delporte|Eugene Delporte]], the [[Belgians|Belgian]] astronomer created an authoritative map demarcating the areas of sky under different constellations.<ref name="Lachièze-ReyLuminet2001">{{cite book|author1=Marc Lachièze-Rey|author2=Jean-Pierre Luminet|author3=Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Paris|title=Celestial Treasury: From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0ZFXiNn62ZEC&pg=PA80|date=16 July 2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-80040-2|page=80}}</ref> Where possible, these modern constellations usually share the names of their Graeco-Roman predecessors, such as [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], [[Leo (constellation)|Leo]] or [[Scorpius]]. The aim of this system is area-mapping, i.e. the division of the celestial sphere into contiguous fields.<ref name=iau-const /> Out of the 88 modern constellations, 36 lie predominantly in the northern sky, and the other 52 predominantly in the southern. |
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In 1930, the boundaries between the 88 constellations were devised by [[Eugène Delporte]] along vertical and horizontal lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/boundaries.htm| title = Constellation boundaries. | accessdate = 2011-05-24}}</ref> However, the data he used originated back to [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[B1875.0]], which was when [[Benjamin A. Gould]] first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere, a suggestion upon which Delporte would base his work. The consequence of this early date is that |
In 1930, the boundaries between the 88 constellations were devised by [[Eugène Delporte]] along vertical and horizontal lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ianridpath.com/boundaries.htm| title = Constellation boundaries. | accessdate = 2011-05-24}}</ref> However, the data he used originated back to [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[B1875.0]], which was when [[Benjamin A. Gould]] first made his proposal to designate boundaries for the celestial sphere, a suggestion upon which Delporte would base his work. The consequence of this early date is that because of the [[precession (astronomy)|precession]] of the [[equinox]]es, the borders on a modern star map, such as epoch [[J2000]], are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal.<ref>A.C. Davenhall & S.K. Leggett, [http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/ftp/cats/VI/49/constell.pdf "A Catalogue of Constellation Boundary Data"], (Centre de Donneés astronomiques de Strasbourg, February 1990).</ref> This effect will increase over the years and centuries to come. |
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== Asterisms == |
== Asterisms == |
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{{main|Asterism (astronomy)}} |
{{main|Asterism (astronomy)}} |
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[[File:Plough big dipper.svg|thumb|The [[Big Dipper]] asterism]] |
[[File:Plough big dipper.svg|thumb|left|The [[Big Dipper]] asterism]] |
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An asterism is a pattern of stars recognized in the Earth's night sky and may be part of an official constellation. It may also be composed of stars from more than one constellation. The stars of the main asterism within a constellation are usually given Greek letters in their order of brightness, the so-called [[Bayer designation]] introduced by [[Johann Bayer]] in 1603. A total of 1,564 stars are so identified, out of approximately 10,000 stars visible to the [[naked eye]].<ref>The [[Bright Star Catalogue]] lists 9,110 objects of the night sky which are visible to the naked eye ([[apparent magnitude]] of 6.5 or brighter). 9,096 of these are stars, all of them well within [[Milky Way|our galaxy]].</ref> |
An asterism is a pattern of stars recognized in the Earth's night sky and may be part of an official constellation. It may also be composed of stars from more than one constellation. The stars of the main asterism within a constellation are usually given Greek letters in their order of brightness, the so-called [[Bayer designation]] introduced by [[Johann Bayer]] in 1603. A total of 1,564 stars are so identified, out of approximately 10,000 stars visible to the [[naked eye]].<ref>The [[Bright Star Catalogue]] lists 9,110 objects of the night sky which are visible to the naked eye ([[apparent magnitude]] of 6.5 or brighter). 9,096 of these are stars, all of them well within [[Milky Way|our galaxy]].</ref> |
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The brightest stars, usually the stars that make up the constellation's eponymous asterism, also retain proper names, often from Arabic. For example, the "Little Dipper" asterism of the constellation [[Ursa Minor]] has ten stars with Bayer designation, [[α UMi]] to [[π UMi]]. Of these ten stars, six have a proper name, viz. [[Polaris]] (α UMi), [[Kochab]] (β UMi), [[Pherkad]] (γ UMi), [[Yildun]] (δ UMi), [[Ahfa al Farkadain]] (ζ UMi) and [[Anwar al Farkadain]] (η UMi). |
The brightest stars, usually the stars that make up the constellation's eponymous asterism, also retain proper names, often from Arabic. For example, the "Little Dipper" asterism of the constellation [[Ursa Minor]] has ten stars with Bayer designation, [[α UMi]] to [[π UMi]]. Of these ten stars, six have a proper name, viz. [[Polaris]] (α UMi), [[Kochab]] (β UMi), [[Pherkad]] (γ UMi), [[Yildun]] (δ UMi), [[Ahfa al Farkadain]] (ζ UMi) and [[Anwar al Farkadain]] (η UMi). |
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The stars within an asterism rarely have any substantial astrophysical relationship to each other, and their apparent proximity when viewed from Earth disguises the fact that they are far apart, some being much farther from Earth than others. However, there are some exceptions: almost all of the stars |
The stars within an asterism rarely have any substantial astrophysical relationship to each other, and their apparent proximity when viewed from Earth disguises the fact that they are far apart, some being much farther from Earth than others. However, there are some exceptions: almost all of the stars in the constellation of Ursa Major (including most of the Big Dipper) are genuinely close to one another, travel through the galaxy with similar [[proper motion|velocities]], and are likely to have formed together as part of a [[star cluster|cluster]] that is slowly dispersing. These stars form the [[Ursa Major moving group]]. |
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== Ecliptic coordinate systems == |
== Ecliptic coordinate systems == |
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{{main|Zodiac|Lunar mansion}} |
{{main|Zodiac|Lunar mansion}} |
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The idea of dividing the celestial sphere into ''constellations'', understood as areas surrounding asterisms, is early modern.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} The currently |
The idea of dividing the celestial sphere into ''constellations'', understood as areas surrounding asterisms, is early modern.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} The currently used boundaries between constellations were defined in 1930. The concept is ultimately derived from the ancient tradition of dividing the ecliptic into twelve equal parts named for nearby asterisms (the Zodiac).{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} This defined an [[ecliptic coordinate system]] which was used throughout the medieval period and into the 18th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} |
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Systems of dividing the ecliptic (as opposed to dividing the celestial sphere into constellations in the modern sense) are also found in Chinese and Hindu astronomy. In classical [[Chinese astronomy]], the northern sky is divided geometrically, into five "enclosures" and |
Systems of dividing the ecliptic (as opposed to dividing the celestial sphere into constellations in the modern sense) are also found in Chinese and Hindu astronomy. In classical [[Chinese astronomy]], the northern sky is divided geometrically, into five "enclosures" and twenty-eight mansions along the ecliptic, grouped into [[Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)|Four Symbols]] of seven asterisms each. Ecliptic longitude is measured using 24 [[Solar term]]s, each of 15° longitude, and are used by [[Chinese calendar|Chinese lunisolar calendars]] to stay synchronized with the seasons, which is crucial for agrarian societies. In [[Hindu astronomy]], the term for "lunar mansion" is [[nakshatra|''{{IAST|nákṣatra}}'']]<ref>In [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the term ''{{IAST|nákṣatra}}'' may refer to any heavenly body, or to "the stars" collectively.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} The classical sense of "lunar mansion" is first found in the [[Atharvaveda]],{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} and becomes the primary meaning of the term in [[Classical Sanskrit]]. The [[Sanskrit verb|verbal root]] ''{{IAST|nákṣ}}'' means "to approach, come near".</ref>In Vedanga Jyotisha, which is derived from the Rik and Yajur Jyotisha treatises, and is dated before 1600 B.C, the zodiac is divided into 27 ''{{IAST|nákṣatra}}s'', each nakshatra covering 13° 20'; however, Abhijit the 28th ''nakshatra'' was excluded from this treatise though its was initially one of the 28 parts of the [[ecliptic]]. Later with the [[Hindu calendar|Siddhanta calendar]] of the zodiac system coming into vogue Vedanga Jyotisha became outdated.<ref name=Miachigan>{{cite book|title=The Astrological Magazine|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s7Z-AAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Raman Publications|page=36}}</ref><ref name=Abbhyankar>{{cite book|last=Abbhyankar||first= Abbhyankar|title=Astrophysics of the Solar System|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vC2ugi74XigC&pg=PA242|year=1999|publisher=Universities Press|isbn=978-81-7371-124-4|page=242}}</ref><ref name=Lal>{{cite book|last= Lal |first=Mohan |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4520|year=1992|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1221-3|page=4520}}</ref> |
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== Dark cloud constellations == |
== Dark cloud constellations == |
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{{further|Great Rift (astronomy)}} |
{{further|Great Rift (astronomy)}} |
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The Great Rift, a series of dark patches in the |
The Great Rift, a series of dark patches in the Milky Way, is more visible and striking in the [[southern hemisphere]] than in the northern. It vividly stands out when conditions are otherwise so dark that the Milky Way's central region casts shadows on the ground.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rao|first1=Joe|title=A Great Week to See the Milky Way|url=http://www.space.com/7270-great-week-milky.html|publisher=Space|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> Some cultures have discerned shapes in these patches and have given names to these "dark cloud constellations". Members of the [[Inca]] civilization identified various dark areas or [[dark nebula]]e in the Milky Way as animals, and associated their appearance with the seasonal rains.<ref>[http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/archeo/andes/inca.nightsky.html The Incan View of the Night Sky]</ref> [[Australian Aboriginal astronomy]] also describes dark cloud constellations, the most famous being the "emu in the sky" whose head is formed by the [[Coalsack]], a dark nebulae instead of the stars.<ref name="Bordeleau2013">{{cite book|last=Bordeleau|first=André G. |title=Flags of the Night Sky: When Astronomy Meets National Pride|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NSu5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|date=22 October 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-0929-8|pages=124–}}</ref> |
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<gallery mode=packed heights= |
<gallery mode=packed heights=130px> |
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File:Emu public.jpg|The ''[[Emu]] in the sky''—a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than by stars. The head of the emu is the |
File:Emu public.jpg|The ''[[Emu]] in the sky''—a constellation defined by dark clouds rather than by stars. The head of the emu is the Coalsack with the [[Crux|Southern Cross]] directly above. Scorpius is to the left. |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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<ref name=harbord_goodwin1897> |
<ref name=harbord_goodwin1897> |
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{{Cite |
{{Cite book |
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| first1=John Bradley |
| first1=John Bradley |
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| last1=Harbord | first2=H. B. | last2=Goodwin |
| last1=Harbord | first2=H. B. | last2=Goodwin |
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| title=Glossary of navigation: a vade mecum for practical navigators |
| title=Glossary of navigation: a vade mecum for practical navigators |
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| url=https://archive.org/ |
| url=https://archive.org/stream/glossarynavigat00goodgoog#page/n176/mode/1up |
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| edition=3rd |
| edition=3rd |
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| publisher=Griffin |
| publisher=Griffin |
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| location=Portsmouth |
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| date=1897 |
| date=1897 |
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| page=142 |
| page=142 |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
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{{Further reading cleanup|date=August 2016}} |
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=== Mythology, lore, history, and archaeoastronomy === |
=== Mythology, lore, history, and archaeoastronomy === |
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* |
*[[Richard Hinckley Allen|Allen, Richard Hinckley]]. (1899) ''Star-Names And Their Meanings'', G. E. Stechert, New York, New York, U.S.A., hardcover; reprint 1963 as ''Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-486-21079-7 softcover. |
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* |
*[[William Tyler Olcott|Olcott, William Tyler]]. (1911); ''Star Lore of All Ages'', [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]], New York, New York, U.S.A., hardcover; reprint 2004 as ''Star Lore: Myths, Legends, and Facts'', Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, U.S.A., ISBN 978-0-486-43581-7 softcover. |
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* |
*Kelley, David H. and Milone, Eugene F. (2004) ''Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy'', Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-95310-6 hardcover. |
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* |
*[[Ian Ridpath|Ridpath, Ian]]. (1989) ''Star Tales'', Lutterworth Press, ISBN 0-7188-2695-7 hardcover. |
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* |
*Staal, Julius D. W. (1988) ''The New Patterns in the Sky: Myths and Legends of the Stars'', McDonald & Woodward Publishing Co., ISBN 0-939923-10-6 hardcover, ISBN 0-939923-04-1 softcover. |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Contellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JBAA..108....9R| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | issue = | pages = 9–28 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R}} |
*{{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Contellations: I. The Mesopotamian Traditions | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JBAA..108....9R| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | issue = | pages = 9–28 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R}} |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Contellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JBAA..108...79R| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | issue = | pages = 79–89 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108...79R}} |
*{{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = John H. | year = 1998 | title = Origins of the Ancient Contellations: II. The Mediterranean Traditions | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JBAA..108...79R| journal = Journal of the British Astronomical Association | volume = 108 | issue = | pages = 79–89 | bibcode=1998JBAA..108...79R}} |
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''General & Nonspecialized – Entire Celestial Heavens'': |
''General & Nonspecialized – Entire Celestial Heavens'': |
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* |
*[[Antonin Becvar|Becvar, Antonin]]. ''Atlas Coeli''. Published as ''Atlas of the Heavens'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; with coordinate grid transparency overlay. |
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* |
*Norton, Arthur Philip. (1910) ''[[Norton's Star Atlas]]'', 20th Edition 2003 as ''Norton's Star Atlas and Reference Handbook'', edited by [[Ian Ridpath|Ridpath, Ian]], Pi Press, ISBN 978-0-13-145164-3, hardcover. |
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* |
*[[National Geographic Society]]. (1957, 1970, 2001, 2007) ''The Heavens'' (1970), Cartographic Division of the National Geographic Society (NGS), Washington, D.C., U.S.A., two sided large map chart depicting the constellations of the heavens; as special supplement to the August 1970 issue of ''[[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]]''. Forerunner map as ''A Map of The Heavens'', as special supplement to the December 1957 issue. Current version 2001 (Tirion), with 2007 reprint. |
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* |
*Sinnott, Roger W. and Perryman, Michael A.C. (1997) ''[[Millennium Star Atlas]]'', Epoch 2000.0, Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., and European Space Agency (ESA), ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands. Subtitle: "An All-Sky Atlas Comprising One Million Stars to Visual Magnitude Eleven from the Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues and Ten Thousand Nonstellar Objects". 3 volumes, hardcover, in hardcover slipcase, set ISBN 0-933346-84-0. Vol. 1, 0–8 Hours (Right Ascension), ISBN 0-933346-81-6 hardcover; Vol. 2, 8–16 Hours, ISBN 0-933346-82-4 hardcover; Vol. 3, 16–24 Hours, ISBN 0-933346-83-2 hardcover. Softcover version available. Supplemental separate purchasable coordinate grid transparent overlays. |
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* |
*[[Wil Tirion|Tirion, Wil]]; et al. (1987) ''Uranometria 2000.0'', Willmann-Bell, Inc., Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A., 3 volumes, hardcover. Vol. 1 (1987): "The Northern Hemisphere to −6°", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and George Lovi, ISBN 0-943396-14-X hardcover, printed boards (blue). Vol. 2 (1988): "The Southern Hemisphere to +6°", by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport and George Lovi, ISBN 0-943396-15-8 hardcover, printed boards (red). Vol. 3 (1993) as a separate added work: ''The Deep Sky Field Guide to Uranometria 2000.0'', by Murray Cragin, James Lucyk, and Barry Rappaport, ISBN 0-943396-38-7 hardcover, printed boards (gray). 2nd Edition 2001 (black or dark background) as collective set of 3 volumes – Vol. 1: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, ISBN 978-0-943396-71-2 hardcover, printed boards (blue edging); Vol. 2: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Atlas'', by Wil Tirion, Barry Rappaport, and Will Remaklus, ISBN 978-0-943396-72-9 hardcover, printed boards (green edging); Vol. 3: ''Uranometria 2000.0 Deep Sky Field Guide'' by Murray Cragin and Emil Bonanno, ISBN 978-0-943396-73-6, hardcover, printed boards (teal green). |
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* |
*[[Wil Tirion|Tirion, Wil]] and Sinnott, Roger W. (1998) ''Sky Atlas 2000.0'', various editions. 2nd Deluxe Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England (UK). |
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''Northern Celestial Hemisphere & North Circumpolar Region'': |
''Northern Celestial Hemisphere & North Circumpolar Region'': |
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* |
*[[Antonin Becvar|Becvar, Antonin]]. (1962) ''Atlas Borealis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition 1972 and 1978 reprint, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., ISBN 0-933346-01-8 oversize folio softcover spiral bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler. |
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''Equatorial, Ecliptic, & Zodiacal Celestial Sky'': |
''Equatorial, Ecliptic, & Zodiacal Celestial Sky'': |
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* |
*[[Antonin Becvar|Becvar, Antonin]]. (1958) ''Atlas Eclipticalis 1950.0'', Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Praha, Czechoslovakia, 1st Edition, elephant folio hardcover, with small transparency overlay coordinate grid square and separate paper magnitude legend ruler. 2nd Edition 1974, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ceskoslovenske Akademie Ved), Prague, Czechoslovakia, and Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., oversize folio softcover spiral bound, with transparency overlay coordinate grid ruler. |
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''Southern Celestial Hemisphere & South Circumpolar Region'': |
''Southern Celestial Hemisphere & South Circumpolar Region'': |
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=== Catalogs === |
=== Catalogs === |
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* |
*Becvar, Antonin. (1959) ''Atlas Coeli II Katalog 1950.0'', Praha, 1960 Prague. Published 1964 as ''Atlas of the Heavens - II Catalogue 1950.0'', Sky Publishing Corporation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. |
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* |
*Hirshfeld, Alan and Sinnott, Roger W. (1982) ''Sky Catalogue 2000.0'', Cambridge University Press and Sky Publishing Corporation, 1st Edition, 2 volumes. LCCN 81017975 both vols., and LCCN 83240310 vol. 1. "Volume 1: Stars to Magnitude 8.0", ISBN 0-521-24710-1 (Cambridge) and 0-933346-35-2 (Sky) hardcover, ISBN 0-933346-34-4 (Sky) softcover. Vol. 2 (1985) - "Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars, and Nonstellar Objects", ISBN 0-521-25818-9 (Cambridge) hardcover, ISBN 0-521-27721-3 (Cambridge) softcover. 2nd Edition (1991) with additional third author Frangois Ochsenbein, 2 volumes, LCCN 91026764. Vol. 1: ISBN 0-521-41743-0 (Cambridge) hardcover (black binding); ISBN 0-521-42736-3 (Cambridge) softcover (red lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto). Vol. 2 (1999): ISBN 0-521-27721-3 (Cambridge) softcover and 0-933346-38-7 (Sky) softcover - reprint of 1985 edition (blue lettering with Hans Vehrenberg astrophoto). |
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* |
*[[Yale University Observatory]]. (1908, et al.) ''[[Bright Star Catalogue|Catalogue of Bright Stars]]'', New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. Referred to commonly as "Bright Star Catalogue". Various editions with various authors historically, the longest term revising author as [[Dorrit Hoffleit|(Ellen) Dorrit Hoffleit]]. 1st Edition 1908. 2nd Edition 1940 by Frank Schlesinger and Louise F. Jenkins. 3rd Edition (1964), 4th Edition, 5th Edition (1991), and 6th Edition (pending posthumous) by Hoffleit. |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{Sister project links |
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* [http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/ IAU: The Constellations], including high quality maps. |
* [http://www.iau.org/public/constellations/ IAU: The Constellations], including high quality maps. |
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* [http://www.atlascoelestis.com Atlascoelestis], di Felice Stoppa. |
* [http://www.atlascoelestis.com Atlascoelestis], di Felice Stoppa. |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Constellations |
[[Category:Constellations]] |
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[[Category:History of astronomy|Constellations]] |
[[Category:History of astronomy|Constellations]] |