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The history of terrorism is a history of alleged terrorist individuals, groups, and incidents, and of various types of terrorism.
Definition
- For more details and the etymology of the word, see "Definition of terrorism"
Pre-nineteenth century roots of terrorism
Scholars dispute whether the roots of terrorism date back to the Sicarii Zealots in the first century, the Al-Hashshashin in the eleventh century, the Narodnaya Volya in 1878, or somewhere in between.[1][2] The first-century Zealots used "propaganda of the deed" by publicly murdering Jews who collaborated with Roman rule.[3][4][5] The Al-Hashshashin focused more on the assassination of prominent political leaders, which is different from "propaganda of the deed" because by killing a political leader one is primarily enacting change directly (by eliminating the person whose policies one disagrees with) rather than enacting change indirectly (by committing some act to intimidate the enemy or make others rally against the enemy).[6][7] [8] And while the term “terrorism” was popularized by Edmund Burke’s use of the term in describing the 1793 Reign of Terror in France, some scholars do not consider the Reign of Terror itself terrorism because it was carried out by the state.[9][10]
Sicarii Zealots (1st Century CE)
The Jewish Zealots were a primarily political group which rebelled against Roman rule in the Iudaea Province. According to the contemporary historian Josephus, in 6 C.E. Judas of Galilee led a small, more extreme group of Zealots to found an offshoot which would later be known as the Sicarii, meaning "dagger men."[11] Like the Zealots, the Sicarii believed that paying tribute to Rome was a violation of Jewish religious law.[12] The Sicarii saw the Jewish high priests of the day as collaborators with the Romans, and therefore thought it permissible to use violence to remove them.[13] Led by Judas' grandson Menahem ben Jair, the Sicarii began agitation in the late 50s, becoming prominent only in the 60s, when they began to murder and kidnap to support their cause.[14] Their efforts were mainly directed not against the Romans, but against Jewish “collaborators” such as priests of the temple, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites who had profited from working with the Romans.[15] According to Josephus, the Sicarii would hide short daggers under their cloaks, mingle with crowds at the great festivals, murder their victims, and then disappear into the crowd during the ensuing panic. Their most successful assassination was that of the high priest Jonathan.[16]
Al-Hashshashin (11th Century CE)
The Hashshashin (a.k.a. the Assassins) were an offshoot of the Ismā'īlī sect of Shia Muslims.[17] Led by Hassan-i Sabbah and opposed to Fatimid rule, the Hashshashin militia seized Alamut and other fortress strongholds across Persia in the late eleventh century.[18] The Hashshashin did not have a large enough army to challenge their enemies directly, so they assassinated city governors and military commanders to curry favor among more militarily powerful neighbors: they murdered Janah al-Dawla, ruler of Homs, to please Ridwan of Aleppo; they killed Mawdud, Seljuk emir of Mosul, as a favor for the regent of Damascus; they attacked Crusader troops in 1126 as a means of cooperating with Tughtigen of Damascus; and they assassinated Marquis Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem, allegedly on orders from the King of England.[19] The Hashshashin also carried out assassinations as retribution: Ibn Badi, military commander in Aleppo, had executed Hashshashin leader Abu Tahrir and refused to provide the group with a castle; Buri, ruler of Damascus, had incited the mob killing of thousands of Hashshashin; Dahhak, chief of Wadi al-Tayun, had attacked and defeated the Hashshashin at Hasbayya in 1128.[20] Sometimes the Hashshashin murdered to seize a town (Khalaf of Afamiya, 1106) or to weaken the leadership of their Fatamid enemies (Army commander Al-Afdal, 1121; Fatimid Caliph Al-Amir, 1130), but never as a means to indirectly bring about political change by changing public opinion towards their cause or striking fear into the populace.[21]
Gunpowder Plot (1605)
In the November 5 1605 Gunpowder Plot, a group of conspirators led by Guy Fawkes attempted to destroy the English Parliament on the State Opening, by detonating a large quantity of gunpowder secretly placed beneath the building. The design was to kill King James I and the members of both houses of Parliament. In the resulting anarchy, the conspirators planned to implement a coup and restore the Catholic faith to England. However the plan was betrayed and then thwarted. The event is still annually celebrated in Britain with fireworks displays and large bonfires on 5 November each year[22]. The aims of the conspirators are frequently compared to modern terrorists;[23] [24] however, this is disputed[citation needed]. The plotter's aims were nothing short of a total revolution in the government of England, which would have killed the King along with leading noblemen and led to the installation of a Catholic monarch.
Sons of Liberty
The Sons of Liberty were an underground group opposed to British Rule in the colonies, who committed several attacks, most famous among these was the Boston Tea Party[25].
The Terror (1793-1794)
The Reign of Terror (September 5 1793 – July 28 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) is where the word terrorist originated, At the time it was used by the revolutionaries in control during the reign of terror[26]. It was a period of about eleven months during the French Revolution when struggles between rival factions led to mutual radicalization which took on a violent character with mass executions by guillotine[27].
The victims of the Reign of Terror totaled approximately 40,000. Among people who were condemned by the revolutionary tribunals, about 8 percent were aristocrats, 6 percent clergy, 14 percent middle class, and 70 percent were workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, and other purported crimes.[28]
The nineteenth century
In mid-19th century Russia, the intelligentsia grew impatient with the slow pace of Tsarist reforms and anarchists like Mikhail Bakunin maintained that progress was impossible without destruction.[29] With the development of sufficiently powerful, stable, and affordable explosives, the gap closed between the firepower of the state and the means available to dissidents.[30][31] Inspired by Bakunin and others, Vera Zasulich founded Narodnaya Volya in 1878, which used bombs to kill state officials in an effort to incite state retribution and mobilize the populace against the government.[32] Inspired by Narodnaya Volya, several nationalist groups in the ailing Ottoman Empire began using propaganda of the deed and terrorism in the 1890s, including the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, and the IMRO.[33] In the 1910s, Irish nationalists formed the IRA, hijacking buildings, assassinating police, and bombing police stations to polarize the Irish and rally the majority against English rule.[34]
Anarchism
Anarchists were the most prolific terrorists of the 19th century, with the terroristic tendencies of both nationalism and political movements of communism or fascism still in their infancy. The disjointed attacks of various anarchist groups lead to the assassination of Russian Tsars and US Presidents but had little real political impact.[35]
Narodnaya Volya (1878-1883)
Narodnaya Volya (Народная Воля in Russian, known as People’s Will in English) was founded by Vera Zasulich in Russia in 1878.[36] Zasulich was inspired by Sergei Nechayev and by Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacane (author of the “propaganda of the deed” theory). The group assassinated prominent political figures with shootings and bombings in an effort to spark a revolutionary overthrow of Russia’s Tsarist regime.[37] On March 13, 1881, the group assassinated Russia’s Tsar Alexander II. The assassination of the Tsar failed to spark the expected revolution and the ensuing crackdown by Russian authorities brought the group to an end.[38] Narodnaya Volya developed certain ideas that were to become the hallmark of subsequent terrorism in many countries: they believed in the targeted killing of the 'leaders of oppression' and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age - symbolized by bombs and bullets - enabled them to strike directly and discriminately.[39]
Hunchakian Revolutionary Party (1887-1896)
The Hunchakian Revolutionary Party was an Armenian nationalist revolutionary movement founded in Geneva in 1887. It was founded by Avetis Nazarbekian, editor of the Hunchak newsletter, who was inspired by Narodnaya Volya. The group was largely made up of Armenian students who were educated in Russia. The group published newsletters, held demonstrations, and tried to provoke rebellions against Ottoman power in an effort to bring about the European intervention that could force the Ottoman Empire to surrender control of the Armenian territories.[40] On July 15, 1890, the Hunchaks smashed a Turkish coat of arms that was hanging over an Armenian Church in Constantinople. Agitations such as the smashing of the coat of arms grabbed the attention of the Western Powers, who pressured Sultan Abdel Hamid II, to sign the Armenian Reform Program Agreement in 1895. But Abdel Hamid ignored the agreement and turned a blind eye to the continuing persecution of Armenians. The Hunchaks disbanded in 1896 after dividing into an anti-Nazarbekian faction that wanted to abandon socialist doctrine and a pro-Nazarbekian faction that wanted to retain it.[41]
Armenian Revolutionary Federation (1890-1897)
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (in Armenian Dashnaktsuthium, or “The Federation”) was a nationalist revolutionary movement founded in Tiflis (Russian Transcaucasia) in 1890. It was founded by Christopher Mikaelian, and many of its members had been part of Narodnaya Volya or the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party.[42] The group published newsletters, smuggled arms, and hijacked buildings because they sought—like the Hunchacks—to bring about the European intervention that could force the Ottoman Empire to surrender control of the Armenian territories.[43] On August 24, 1896, 17-year old group member Babken Suni led twenty-six Dashnaks in capturing the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Constantinople. They demanded an Armenian state be created and threatened to blow the bank up. The Russian crackdown that followed destroyed the group.[44]
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (1893-1903)
The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was a nationalist revolutionary movement founded in the Ottoman-controlled Macedonia territories in 1893.[45] It was founded by Hristo Tatarchev, who was inspired by Narodnaya Volya.[46] The group sought to coerce the Ottoman government into creating a Macedonian nation. To do this, the IMRO assassinated prominent political figures (as Narodnaya Volya had) and tried to provoke uprisings (just like the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party).[47] On July 20, 1903, the group incited the Ilinden uprising in the Ottoman villayet of Monastir. As part of the uprising, the IMRO declared the town’s independence and sent demands to the European Powers that Macedonia be freed.[48] The demands were ignored and the 27,000 rebels in the town were crushed by Turkish troops two months later. The group then split into two factions: one in favor of uniting the future nation of Macedonia to Bulgaria and one against such a plan. The pro-Bulgaria faction had effectively turned into a tool of the Bulgarian government by 1912.[49]
John Brown
John Brown was an abolitionist who advocated armed opposition to slavery. He committed several terrorist attacks and was also involved in the illegal smuggling of slaves. His most famous attack was upon the armory at Harpers Ferry, though the local forces would soon recapture the fort and Brown, trying and executing him for treason. His death would make him a martyr to the abolitionist cause, one of the origins of the American Civil War, and a hero to the Union forces that fought in it.
Ku Klux Klan (1865)
The original Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was created after the end of the American Civil War on December 24 1865, by six educated, middle-class Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee.[50] It soon spread into nearly every southern state of the United States. The Klan has advocated what is generally perceived as white supremacy, antisemitism, racism, anti-Catholicism, homophobia, and nativism. They have often used terrorism, violence and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress African Americans and other groups. From its creation to the present day, the number of members and influence has varied greatly. However, there is little doubt that, especially in the southern United States, it has at times wielded much political influence and generated great fear among African Americans and their supporters. At one time the KKK controlled the governments of Tennessee, Indiana, Oklahoma, and Oregon, in addition to some of the Southern U.S. legislatures.
The early twentieth century
Following the IRA's campaign against the British in the 1910s, the 1930s saw the Zionist groups Irgun and Lehi bombing civilian areas in the hopes of creating an Israeli state.[51][52] Like the IRA and the Zionist terrorist groups, Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood used bombings and assassinations in an attempt to free its country from British control.[53]
Suffragettes
In their quest for equal voting rights for women, some suffragettes grew disillusioned with the apparent failure of political protest and civil disobedience. Some turned to violence, and began attacking government officials who opposed suffrage and in one incident a member of the UK Parliament's home was burnt to the ground.[54] [55]
Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand (1914)
On June 28 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were shot to death in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, by Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins. The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife produced widespread shock across Europe. The Austro-Hungarian Empire produced a list of demands, which became known as the July Ultimatum and presented it to Serbia. This ultimatum contained specific demands aimed at destroying the funding and operation of terrorist organizations which arguably had led to the assassination. In addition, it contained demands that Serbia suppress any "propaganda" against Austria-Hungary in Serbia, even by private persons. Some have claimed that the ultimatum was designed to create a casus belli to enable Austria-Hungary to invade and punish Serbia.[56] After receiving a telegram of support from Russia, Serbia mobilized its army and replied that it would agree to some of the demands, partially accept some, and politely rejected the rest. Austria-Hungary rejected Serbia's conditional acceptance of part of the ultimatum and broke off diplomatic relations. After a minor incident, Austria-Hungary declared war, and this set into motion a series of events which led to World War I.
Irish Republican Army (1916-1923)
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) was a nationalist group founded in 1916. Its leaders were inspired by a string of Irish uprisings that had preceded them, and by the Carbonari takeover of a town in Italy forty years earlier.[57][failed verification][58][failed verification] Led by Michael Collins, the group hijacked buildings,[59][60] assassinated police, and bombed police stations[61][failed verification] in an effort to force England to concede an independent Irish nation. The group drew inspiration from the Irish Republican Brotherhood, which was founded in 1858[62] as a revolutionary nationalist group. The IRB, with support from Irish-Americans, carried out attacks in England in the name of Irish nationalism.[63] On April 24, 1916, the IRA took over the Dublin Post Office and several other buildings in the Easter Rising.[64] The uprising was a horrible failure militarily, and only turned into a success after the British government turned the IRA leaders into celebrated Irish heroes by having them executed by firing squad.[65] In 1919, the Dail parliament established by Irish rebels recognized the IRA as its legitimate army. [66][failed verification] After two years of street fighting between the rebels’ shadow police forces and militia and the British Auxiliaries, London agreed to a 1921 Anglo-Irish treaty that gave Dublin authority over an independent Irish nation which encompassed 26 of the island's 32 counties.[67]
Irgun (1931-1948)
Irgun was a clandestine militant Zionist group that splintered off of Hagannah in 1931 and operated in Palestine until 1948.[68] The group was founded by Avraham Tehomi (Irgun leader from 1931 to 1937), who was inspired by Ze'ev Jabotinsky and his theory that only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state.[69] The group was a non-socialist, more aggressive alternative to Hagannah.[70] It sought to reduce the threat of Arab attacks on Jewish settlements by launching retaliatory attacks. These retaliatory tactics, such as bombing a crowded Arab market, were some of the first examples of terrorism against civilians.[71] The Irgun also sought to bring to an end the British mandatory rule by assassinating police and capturing British government buildings and arms. Like the Hagannah, the Irgun also sabotaged British railways in Palestine, in addition to smuggling Jews into Palestine.
In addition to the terrorist acts against Arabs, the Irgun also was involved in fighting against the British who ruled the area under the Palestine Mandate.[72] This occurred mainly between 1945 and 1947. Their goal was to force the British to relax policies restricting Jewish immigration and, ultimately, to force them to withdraw, creating the opportunity to create a Jewish state in Palestine as quickly as possible.[73] Their most famous attack was the 1946 bombing of the King David Hotel, the British Military headquarters in Jerusalem. Ninety-one people, both soldiers and civilians, were killed.[74] After the creation of Israel two years later, Menachem Begin (Irgun leader from 1943 to 1948) transformed the group into the political party Herut, which would later fold into Likud.[75]
Lehi (1940-1948)
Lehi (Lohameni Herut Yisrael, a.k.a. “Freedom Fighters for Israel,” a.k.a. Stern Gang) was a revisionist Zionist group that splintered off of the Irgun in 1940.[76] When the Irgun made a truce with the British in 1940, Abraham Stern led disaffected Irgun members to break off and form Lehi.[77] Like People’s Will, Lehi used the tactics of assassinating prominent politicians. On November 6, 1944, Lehi assassinated Lord Moyne, the British Minister of State for the Middle East.[78] The assassination caused a massive stir among the Hagannah, Irgun, and Lehi, with Hagannah sympathizing with the British and launching a massive man-hunt against the other two splinter groups. After the founding of the Israeli state in 1948, Lehi was formally dissolved and its members were integrated into the newly formed Israeli Defense Forces.[79]
Muslim Brotherhood (1928-present)
The Muslim Brotherhood was a nationalist group founded in British-controlled Egypt in 1928. Its leader, Hassan al-Banna, founded the Muslim Brotherhood as a social-welfare and political-activism movement.[80] Although Hassan al-Banna was a groundbreaking theorist on the idea of individual jihad and the glorification of death for one’s cause, it is unclear how large a role he played in organizing the group’s assassinations. With or without Banna’s blessing, the Muslim Brotherhood began carrying out attacks on British soldiers and British police stations in the late 1940s. These attacks were mostly assassinations of prominent politicians, in the People’s Will or Lehi style.[81] In 1948, the Muslim Brotherhood assassinated Egyptian Prime Minister Nuqrashi.[82] Egypt’s British-friendly government was overthrown in the military coup of 1952, but shortly thereafter the Muslim Brotherhood had to go underground in the face of a massive crackdown.[83]
World War II and associated armed conflicts
Guernica
The bombing of Guernica (April 26, 1937) was an aerial attack on the Basque town of Guernica, causing widespread destruction and civilian deaths during the Spanish Civil War. After the raid by planes of the German Luftwaffe "Condor Legion" and the Italian Fascist Aviazione Legionaria, more than 1,000 people were reported killed, but modern research suggests 200 to 300 civilians died.[84][85] According to the BBC, the goal of General Francisco Franco, commander of the nationalist forces, was "to terrorize the people in the Basque region, an area of strong resistance to his nationalist forces in the Civil War." Many viewed Guernica as an example of terror bombing,[86][87] and the incident was the subject of a famous anti-war painting by Pablo Picasso.
World War II strategic and terror bombing
The indiscriminate aerial bombardment of civilians began in World War I.[88] However, the military conflicts leading up to World War II and that war itself were when "terror bombing of the civilian population of an enemy in order to break its morale," a central tenet of air power strategy, was put into action.[89][90]
Beginning in 1932, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service frequently used incendiary bombs aimed at non-military targets. The bombings were mostly done against Chinese cities such as Shanghai, Wuhan and Chonging, with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943. [91][92]
The bombing of Nanjing and Canton, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs, expressed his indignation in his own declaration. "Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians..." [93]
As World War II began in 1939, the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a request to the major belligerents to confine their air raids to military targets.[94] The French and the British agreed to abide by the request, which included the provision that "upon the understanding that these same rules of warfare will be scrupulously observed by all of their opponents".[95]
At the start of the war, the United Kingdom had a policy of using aerial bombing only against military targets and against infrastructure such as ports and railways which were of direct military importance. Whilst it was acknowledged that the aerial bombing of Germany would cause civilian casualties, the British government renounced the deliberate bombing of civilian property, outside of combat zones, as a military tactic.[96]
On 14 May 1940, Luftwaffe bombers were ordered to bomb Rotterdam by its chief, Hermann Göring, in an effort to force the capitulation of the city.[97] The bombing targeted the center of the city, which was not on the front line.[98]> As surrender negotiations were in progress, an unsuccessful attempt was made to call off the assault. Nevertheless, 57 He-111's did drop 97 tons of bombs, devastating 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2) of the city center, including 21 churches and 4 hospitals, and killing between 800-1000 civilians, wounding over 1,000, and making 78,000 homeless. The Germans threatened to bomb Utrecht in the same fashion, and the threat of a second terror bombing was sufficient to force the surrender of the Netherlands to Nazi Germany.[99] [100] [101]
The day after the Rotterdam Blitz, the RAF was given permission to attack targets in the Ruhr, including oil plants and other civilian industrial targets which aided the German war effort, such as blast furnaces (which at night were self-illuminating). The first RAF raid on the interior of Germany took place on the night of 15 May - 16 May.[102]
The Luftwaffe carried out intensive bombing of cities in the United Kingdom, including London and war industry centers such as Coventry, in a bombing campaign known in Britain as "the Blitz," from September, 1940 through May, 1941. The goal of this campaign was, after the invasion plan was dropped, to force Great Britain to sue for peace by lowering the morale of the British population through intensive bombing, the very definition of terror bombing. Germany continued to bomb the UK throughout the war, long after any possible effect could be achieved, culminating in the so-called 'vengeance' attacks by V-1 flying bombs and V-2 missiles.
Indicating the intent of British area bombardment of German cities, Mr. Justice Singleton, a High Court Judge, in a 20 May 1942 report to the British wartime cabinet, concluded that:
If Russia can hold Germany on land I doubt whether Germany will stand 12 or 18 months’ continuous, intensified and increased bombing, affecting, as it must, her war production, her power of resistance, her industries and her will to resist (by which I mean morale).[103][104][105]
Until the last month of the war in Europe the British did not abandon the policy of area bombardment. The most effective way to 'dehouse' the German population was fire-bombing of city centres which inevitably caused many deaths to civilians. This was a deliberate attack on the morale of the enemy, as it was believed by the British that "[i]nvestigation seems to show that having one's home demolished is most damaging to morale. People seem to mind it more than having their friends or even relatives killed."[106]
One of the most devastating raids of the European theatre was the Dresden bombing of February 13-15, 1945, which started a firestorm and left the city in ruins and claimed between 25,000 and 40,000 lives.[107] It is estimated that raids of Allied air forces on the Third Reich killed between 305,000 and 600,000 civilians of which about 80,000 were children [7]. The primary objective of these attacks was to damage economic infrastructure to seriously weaken the enemy's ability to fight the war, in line with the doctrines of Total war. Senior Allied commanders like Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris and politicians also hoped, in the early years of the war, that the morale of the Axis populations and governments could be so undermined by these tactics that they would sue for peace.[citation needed]
In its attacks on Japan the USAAF abandoned its policy of precision bombing and used a mix of incendiaries and high explosives to burn Japanese cities to the ground. These tactics were used to devastating effect with many burnt out.[108] The fire-bombing of Tokyo, Kobe, and other targets in Japan is a case in which contradictory conclusions have been made. American airmen such as General Curtis LeMay felt that changing from a relatively ineffective campaign of precision bombing carried out against industry to a much more successful firebombing campaign carried out against the general population was a reasonable way to interrupt Japanese industry. Such attacks damaged homes and light industry, leaving large numbers of workers homeless and jobless, reducing war output by half in Tokyo. On the other hand, many observers felt that the firebombing of civilians in densely-packed cities was inhumane. A military aide to General Douglas MacArthur called the incendiary attacks "one of the most ruthless and barbaric killings of non-combatants in all history."[109]
World War II resistance groups and terrorism
The vast array of guerilla, partisan, and resistance movements that were organised and supplied by the Allies during World War II at times used terrorist tactics. The British Special Operations Executive (SOE) successfully conducted operations in every theatre of the war and, according to a television program broadcast on Great Britain's Channel 4, effectively invented modern terrorism, pioneering most of the tactics, techniques and technologies that are the mainstays of terrorism we know today.[110]
The 1950s
After WWII, anti-colonial, nationalist terrorism expanded rapidly, and the 1950s saw the formation of the FLN in French-controlled Algeria, the EOKA in British-controlled Cyprus, and the ETA in Spain.[111] Many of the resistance groups of World War II would go to become nationalist terrorist groups. The Việt Minh that had fought the Japanese would fight the returning French (and later the Americans), and elements of the Malayan resistance would turn on their former British allies and fight them during the Malayan Emergency. As the old European empire's dissolved many nationalist groups fought campaigns against colonial powers, the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya being a notable example.[56]
Nationalism and the End of Empire
Many of the resistance groups of World War II would go to become nationalist terrorist groups. The Việt Minh that had fought the Japanese would fight the returning French (and later the Americans), and elements of the Malayan resistance would turn on their former British allies and fight them during the Malayan Emergency. As the old European empire's dissolved many nationalist groups fought campaigns against colonial powers, the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya being a notable example.[56]
Cold War proxies
Throughout the Cold War both sides made extensive use of terrorist organizations to carry on a war by proxy. For example many of the Islamic terrorists of today were trained by the US and UK to fight the USSR in Afghanistan.[112],[113] Similar groups such as the Viet Cong received training from Soviet and Chinese military "advisers".[114] NATO ran a Europe wide network called Operation Gladio which committed both false flag terrorism and would have committed insurgent attacks in the event of a soviet invasion.
Front de Liberation National (1954-1962)
The Front de Liberation National (FLN) was a nationalist group founded in French-controlled Algeria in 1954.[115] The group was a large scale resistance against French occupation, and terrorism was only one facet of its operations. The FLN leaders, inspired by the Indochina rebels who had made French troops withdraw from their country, started out with support from Egypt’s President Nasser.[116] The FLN was one of the first ideological groups to use compliance terror on a grand scale. The FLN would establish control over a rural Algerian village and coerce the peasants of that village to execute the loyalists among them.[117] On the night of October 31, 1954 the FLN attacked French military installations and the homes of Algerian loyalists when it set off a coordinated wave of seventy bombings and shootings that is now known as the Toussaint attacks.[118] Through the tactics of coercion terrorism, the FLN gained significant support for a 1955 uprising against loyalists in Philipville. This uprising—and the heavy-handed response of the French government—convinced many Algerians to support the FLN and the independence movement. The FLN eventually secured Algerian independence from France in 1962, and transformed itself into Algeria’s ruling party.[119]
Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (1955-1959)
The Greek National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston, or EOKA) was a nationalist group founded in British-controlled Cyprus in 1955.[120] Its founder, George Grivas, was covertly supported by the Greek government.[121] The group sought the expulsion of British troops from the island, self-determination, and union with Greece.[122] To achieve these means, EOKA carried out a four year spree of IRA style shootings of British soldiers and police.[123] EOKA also organized Hagannah style attacks on civilians.[124] In December 1958 a cease-fire was declared and in 1960 Cyprus achieved independence from the United Kingdom; however, the settlement explicitly denied the possibility of a union between Cyprus and Greece.[125]
The 1960s
Inspired by Mao’s Chinese revolution of 1949 and Castro’s Cuban revolution of 1959, national independence movements in formerly colonized countries often fused nationalist and socialist impulses in the 1960s. This was the case with Spain's ETA, Quebec’s FLQ, and Palestine’s PLO. [126]
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (1959-present)
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna or ETA (Basque for "Basque Homeland and Freedom"; IPA: [ˈɛːta]), is an armed Basque nationalist separatist organization.[127] Founded in 1959 in response to General Francisco Franco's suppression of the Basque language and culture, ETA evolved from an advocate for traditional cultural ways to an armed revolutionary Marxist group demanding Basque independence.[128] Many of ETA's victims are government officials. The group's first known victim was a police chief who was killed in 1968. In 1973, ETA operatives killed Franco’s apparent successor, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, by planting an underground bomb below his habitual parking spot outside a Madrid church.[129] In 1995, an ETA car bomb almost killed Jose Maria Aznar, then the leader of the conservative Popular Party, who later served as Spain’s prime minister. The same year, investigators disrupted a plot to assassinate King Juan Carlos.[130] More recently, in March 2008, ETA killed a former city councilman in northern Spain two days before an election. In 2003, the Spanish Supreme Court banned the Batasuna political party, which was considered the political arm of ETA, and successive efforts by Spanish governments to negotiate with ETA have failed.[131]
Palestine Liberation Organization (1959-present)
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is an umbrella organization of secular nationalist groups that was formalized by the Arab League in 1964.[132] Since October 1974, the Arab League has regarded it as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people."[133] It aims to reverse the 1948 Palestinian exodus, and establish a Palestinian state. The PLO’s terrorist wing was always part of a larger pseudo-state apparatus that had a militia and shadow government.[134] The PLO's membership is made up by separate paramilitary and political factions, the largest of which are Fatah, PFLP, and DFLP.[135] The PLO was initially controlled by the Egyptian government, but when Egypt lost its prestige in the 1967 Six Day War, Yasser Arafat seized control of the PLO, which he retained until his death in 2004.[136]
Fatah (1959-present)
On October 10, 1959, twenty Palestinians met in Kuwait and secretly formed Fatah (or al-Fatah, which is an acronym standing for Harakat Al-Tahrir Al-Watani Al-Filastini - the Movement for the National Liberation of Palestine), an organization that became the principle component of the Palestine Liberation Organization under the leadership of Yasser Arafat.[137] Backed by Syria, Fatah began carrying out raids against Israeli targets in 1965, launched from Jordan, Lebanon and Gaza.[138] Under Yasser Arafat's 1969 to 2004 leadership, Fatah developed into the largest Palestinian political faction and, after recognizing Israel's right to exist, led efforts towards a two-state solution with Israel under the 1990s Oslo peace accords.[139]
After the Jordanian army expelled the PLO from the West Bank in September 1970, Abu Iyad organized the Fatah splinter group Black September, which carried out a number of People’s Will style assassinations of prominent Jordanian politicians.[140] Black September is most well known for its assassination of Jordan’s Prime Minister Wasfi al-Tal in 1971 and for seizing eleven Israeli athletes as hostages at the September 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. All the athletes and five Black September operatives later died during a gun battle with the West German police, in what was later known as the Munich massacre.[141][142][143]
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (1967-present)
The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) is a pan-Arab, Marxist faction in the PLO.[144] It was founded in 1967 by George Habash, who was inspired by Che Guevara and the Cuban plane hijackings.[145] Using plane hijackings, the PFLP intiated a new tactic in the realm of terrorism: targeting international civilians. On September 6, 1970, the PFLP (including Leila Khaled) simultaneously hijacked a TWA, a Pan American, and a Swissair passenger plane, landing two of them at an old airfield in Jordan and blowing up the third at a Cairo airport.[146] They held the passengers hostage to demand the release of Palestinian terrorists imprisoned in Europe.[147] On September 15, Jordan’s army attacked the Palestinian forces, which surrendered on September 27. By July 1971 PLO forces and offices had been completely expelled from Jordan. Most PFLP activities ceased after 1975. With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989—paired with the rise of Islamism in the Middle East—PFLP became marginalized as Islamist groups like Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad gained followers.[148]
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (1968-present)
Originally founded by Ahmed Jibril in 1968, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLP-GC) is a pro-Syrian faction in the PLO and is presently led by Abu Nidal al-Ashqar.[149] On October 7 1985, four men representing the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) took control of the Achille Lauro, a passenger ship off Egypt while she was sailing from Alexandria to Port Said within Egypt.[150] After being granted safe conduct by Egypt in exchange for the rest of the hostages, the hijackers boarded a chartered EgyptAir 737 to Tunisia. The plane was intercepted in mid-air by U.S. Navy fighter planes and forced to land in Italy, where they were arrested.[151] This signaled a U.S. determination to apprehend persons killing Americans despite some political complications. The Achille Lauro hijacking brought heavy criticism upon the Palestine Liberation Front and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) due to the murder of Leon Klinghoffer, a 69 year old man in a wheelchair.[152]
Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (1969-present)
The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) is a heavily Marxist faction in the PLO. In 1969, Christian Arab Naif Hawatmah broke away from the PFLP and founded the DFLP in order to create a more Marxist group. Hawatmah sought to create a people’s democratic Palestine where both Arabs and Jews could live in a state without classes. The DFLP, like the PFLP, targeted Israeli and international civilians. On May 8, 1970, the DFLP hijacked a school bus in Avivim, Israel. The attack resulted in the death of nine children and three adults, and the crippling of nineteen. In the 1980s, the DFLP was heavily financed by the USSR and China; however, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the growing Islamist trend in Palestinian society during the 1990s sapped the party of much of its popularity and resources.[153]
Front de Liberation du Quebec (1963-1971)
The Front de Liberation du Quebec (FLQ) was a Marxist nationalist group that sought to create an independent, socialist Québec.[154] Georges Schoeters, who founded the group in 1963, had been inspired by Che Guevara and the FLN.[155] The group sought the overthrow of the Quebec government, the independence of Quebec from Canada, and the establishment of a French-Canadian workers society. It organized bombings, kidnappings, and assassinations against politicians, soldiers, and civilians.[156] On October 5, 1970, the FLQ kidnapped James Richard Cross, the British Trade Commissioner. Shortly afterwards, on October 10, group members kidnapped the Minister of Labor and Vice-Premier of Québec, Pierre Laporte, and killed him a week later. The events of October 1970 contributed to the loss of support for violent means to attain Québec independence, and increased support for the political party, the Parti Québécois, which took power in 1976.[157]
The 1970s
Leftist groups on the rise in the 1970s included Ireland’s Provisional IRA, Turkey’s PKK, and Armenian’s ASALA.[158] In Japan, Europe, and the U.S., leftist student groups such as the Japanese Red Army, the German Red Army Faction, the Italian Red Brigade, and the American Weather Underground sympathized with the Third World and sought to spark anti-capitalist revolutions with bombings and assassinations.[159]
Provisional IRA (1969-2005)
The Provisional Irish Republican Army is a nationalist and new-leftist movement founded in December 1969 when Seán Mac Stíofáin broke off from the IRA and formed a new organization.[160] Led by Mac Stíofáin in the 1970s and Gerry Adams in the 1980s, the Provisional IRA sought to create an all-island Irish state. Between 1969 and 1997, during a period known as the Troubles, the group conducted bombings, assassinations and even mortar attacks on 10 Downing Street.[161] On July 21, 1972, in an attack later known as Bloody Friday, the group set off twenty-two bombs, killing nine and injuring 130. On July 28, 2005, the Provisional IRA Army Council announced an end to its armed campaign.[162][163] The IRA is believed to have been a major exporting or terrorism selling arms and providing training to other groups such as the FARC in Columbia[164] and the PLO [165]. In the case of the latter there has been a long held solidarty movement, which is shown by the many murals around Belfast.[166]
FALN (1974-present)
The Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (FALN, “Armed Forces of National Liberation”) was a nationalist group founded in Puerto Rico in 1974. For the next decade, the group used bombings and targeted killings of civilians and police to try to create an independent Puerto Rico. On April 3, 1975, FALN took responsibility for four nearly simultaneous bombings in New York City, by leaving their Communique No. 4 for the Associated Press at a phone booth.[167] The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) classifies the FALN as a terrorist organization.[168]
ASALA (1975-1986)
The Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) was founded in 1975 in Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War by Hagop Tarakchian and Hagop Hagopian with the help of sympathetic Palestinians. At the time, Turkey was in political turmoil, and Hagopian believed that the time was right to avenge the deaths of the Armenians who died during the Armenian Genocide and to force the Turkish government to a cede to them the territory of Wilsonian Armenia for the purpose of unification with the existing Armenian SSR. In the most famous attack, on 7 August 1982, two ASALA rebels opened fire on civilians in a waiting room at the Esenboga International Airport in Ankara. Altogether, nine people died and 82 were injured. By 1986, the ASALA had virtually ceased all attacks.[169]
PKK (1978-present)
The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers Party) was a nationalist movement founded in Turkey by Abdullah Ocalan in 1978. Ocalan was inspired by the Maoist theory of people's war--like Mao, Ocalan had a little book outlining his views—and by FLN use of compliance terror. The group seeks to create an independent Kurdish state that consists of parts of south-eastern Turkey, north-eastern Iraq, north-eastern Syria and north-western Iran. Starting in 1984, the PKK transformed itself into a paramilitary organisation and launched conventional attacks as well as bombings against Turkish governmental installations. In 1999, Turkish authorities captured Öcalan. He was tried in Turkey and sentenced to life imprisonment. The PKK has since gone through a series of name changes.[170]
Red Army Faction (1968-1998)
The Red Army Faction was a New Leftists group founded by Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof in West Germany in 1968. Inspired by Che Guevara, Maoist socialism, and the Vietcong, the group sought to raise awareness of the Vietnamese and Palestinian independence movements through kidnappings, taking embassies hostage, bank robberies, assassinations, bombings, and attacks on US air bases. The group is best known for the “German Autumn” wave of terror in fall of 1977: on April 7, the RAF shot Federal Prosecutor Siegfried Buback; on July 30, they shot Jurgen Ponto, then head of the Dresdner Bank in a failed kidnapping attempt; and on September 5, they kidnapped Hanns Martin Schleyer (former SS and one of the most powerful industrialists in West Germany) and executed him four weeks later, on October 19.[171]
Weathermen (1969-1977)
The American Weather Underground (a.k.a. the Weathermen) was an extremist faction of the leftist Students for a Democratic Society organization. In 1969, the Students for a Democratic Society organization collapsed and was taken over by the Weathermen group. The Weathermen leaders, inspired by the Maoist revolution, the Black Panthers, and the 1968 student revolts in France, sought to raise awareness of its revolutionary anti-capitalist and anti-Vietnam War platform. It did this by destroying symbols of government power in Hunchakian style. On October 7, 1969, the group held an anti-war demonstration in downtown Chicago and blew up a statue dedicated to the police who died in the 1886 Haymarket Riot. For the next five years, the Weathermen bombed corporate offices, police stations, and DC government sites such as the Pentagon. But after the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, most of the group disbanded.[172]
Italian Red Brigade (1970-1989)
The Italian Red Brigade was a New Leftist group founded by Renato Curcio in 1970. With PLO support, the group sought to create a revolutionary state and to separate Italy from the Western Alliance. On 16 March 1978, the Brigade kidnapped former Prime Minister Aldo Moro and murdered him 56 days later. The murder of Moro began an all-out assault against the Brigade by the Italian law enforcement and security forces. The murder of a popular political figure also drew condemnation from the Italian left-wing radicals and even the imprisoned ex-leaders of the Brigade. The Brigade lost most of their social support and the public opinion turned strongly against them. In 1984, the ailing Brigade split into two factions: the majority faction of the Communist Combatant Party (Red Brigades-PCC) and the minority of the Union of Combatant Communists (Red Brigades-UCC). The members of these groups carried out a handful of assassinations before almost all of them were arrested in 1989.[173]
Japanese Red Army (1971-2001)
The Japanese Red Army was a New Leftist group founded by Fusako Shigenobu in Japan in 1971. With support from the PFLP, the group murdered, hijacked a commercial Japanese aircraft, and sabotaged a Shell oil refinery in Singapore in an attempt to overthrow the Japanese government and start a world revolution. On 30 May 1972, the group launched a machine gun and grenade attack on Israel's Lod Airport in Tel Aviv, killing 26 people and injuring 80 others. Two of the three attackers then killed themselves with grenades.[174]
Tamil Tigers (1976-present)
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, (also called "LTTE" or Tamil Tigers) is a militant Tamil nationalist political and paramilitary organization based in northern Sri Lanka.[175] Since it was founded in 1976, it has actively waged a secessionist resistance campaign that seeks to create an independent Tamil state in the north and east regions of Sri Lanka. This campaign has evolved into the Sri Lankan Civil War, one of longest-running armed conflicts in Asia.[176] Since its formation, the LTTE has been headed by its founder, Velupillai Prabhakaran.[177] The group has carried out a number of bombings, including a car bomb attack carried out on April 21, 1987 at a bus terminal in Colombo which killed 110 people.[178]
Umkhonto we Sizwe (South Africa 1961-1990)
Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) was the military wing of the African National Congress, which was opposed to the racist apartheid policies of the South African government. MK launched its first guerrilla attacks against government installations on 16 December 1961. It was subsequently classified as a terrorist organization by the South African government and was banned. It waged a guerrilla campaign and was responsible for many bombings. Its first leader was Nelson Mandela and he was tried and imprisoned for his involvement in such acts. With the end of apartheid in South Africa, the Umkhonto we Sizwe was incorporated into the South African armed forces.
Colombian terrorist groups
Several paramilitary groups formed in Colombia in the 1960s and afterwards, including the Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN), the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), and the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC). Originally created as leftist revolutionary groups (except for the AUC), all have conducted numerous attacks on civilians and civilian infrastructure, and are widely viewed in the West as terrorist organizations. [179] [180]
The 1980s
In the 1980s, religious groups pursuing violent propaganda of the deed were increasing in number.[citation needed] Many of them drew inspiration from Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution, especially Hezbollah.[citation needed] Other well-known Islamic terrorist groups include Hamas, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and Al-Qaeda. [181]
The Contras
The Contras were a counter-revolutionary militia formed in 1979 to oppose Nicaragua's Sandinista government. The Catholic Institute for International Relations summarized contra operating procedures in their 1987 human rights report: "The record of the contras in the field, as opposed to their official professions of democratic faith, is one of consistent and bloody abuse of human rights, of murder, torture, mutilation, rape, arson, destruction and kidnapping."[182] Americas Watch - subsequently folded into Human Rights Watch - stated that "the Contras systematically engage in violent abuses... so prevalent that these may be said to be their principal means of waging war."[183] It accused the Contras of targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination; kidnapping civilians, torturing civilians; executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat; raping women; indiscriminately attacking civilians and civilian houses; seizing civilian property; and burning civilian houses in captured towns.[184] An influential report on alleged Contra atrocities was issued by lawyer Reed Brody shortly before the 1985 U.S. Congressional vote on Contra aid. The report was soon published as a book, Contra Terror in Nicaragua (Brody, 1985). It charged that the Contras attacked purely civilian targets and that their tactics included murder, rape, beatings, kidnapping and disruption of harvests. Several U.S. news media published articles accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The reports alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the Permanent Commission on Human Rights, which blamed the major human rights abuses on the Sandinistas.[185]
Hezbollah (1982-present)
Hezbollah (“Party of God”) is an Islamist revolutionary movement founded in Lebanon shortly after that country’s 1982 civil war. Inspired by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and the Iranian revolution, the group has sought an Islamic revolution in Lebanon and the destruction of the State of Israel and Israeli forces in Lebanon. Led by Sheikh Sayyed Hassan Nasrallah since 1992, the group has carried out kidnappings and suicide bombings against the Israeli military.[186]
Egyptian Islamic Jihad (1980-present)
Egyptian Islamic Jihad (a.k.a. Al-Gamaa Al-Islamiyya) is a militant Egyptian Islamist movement dedicated to the overthrow of the Egyptian government and replacing it with an Islamic state. It is led by Omar Abdel-Rahman, who is accused of participating in the World Trade Center 1993 bombings. The group began as an umbrella organization for militant student groups and was formed after the leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood renounced violence in the 1970s. In 1981, the group assassinated Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. On, November 17, 1997, the group carried out an attack on tourists at the Temple of Hatshepsut (Deir el-Bahri) in Luxor, in which a band of six men dressed in police uniforms machine-gunned 58 Japanese and European vacationers and four Egyptians, in what became known as the Luxor massacre.[187]
Hamas (1987-present)
Hamas (حماس Ḥamās, an acronym of حركة المقاومة الاسلامية Ḥarakat al-Muqāwamat al-Islāmiyyah, meaning "Islamic Resistance Movement") is an Islamic Palestinian group. Hamas was created in 1987 by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin, Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi and Mohammad Taha of the Palestinian wing of Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood at the beginning of the First Intifada, an uprising against Israeli rule in the Palestinian Territories.[188] Between February and April 1988, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin raised several millions dollars from the Gulf states, which had withdrawn their funding from Fatah following its official support of Saddam Hussein during the first Gulf War. Beginning in 1993, Hamas launched numerous suicide bombings against Israel and, on March 27, 2002, bombed the Netanya hotel, killing 30 and wounding 140.[189] Hamas ceased the suicide attacks in 2005 and renounced them in April, 2006.[190] Hamas has also been responsible for Israel-targeted rocket attacks, IED attacks, and shootings, but reduced most of those operations in 2005 and 2006.[191] Since June 2007, Hamas has governed the Gaza portion of the Palestinian Territories.[192]
Al-Qaeda (1988-present)
Al-Qaeda (Arabic: القاعدة, meaning "The Base") is an international Sunni Islamist extremist movement founded by Osama bin Laden in 1988 to end foreign influence in Muslim countries and create a new Islamic caliphate. On October 12, 2000, Al-Qaeda carried out the USS Cole bombing, suicide bombing the U.S. Navy destroyer USS Cole while it was harbored in the Yemeni port of Aden and killing seventeen U.S. sailors.[193]
On September 11. 2001, nineteen terrorists[194] affiliated with al-Qaeda[195] hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners and crashed two of them into the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. As a result of the attacks, both of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers completely collapsed. Not including the hijackers, nearly 3,000 people died during the attacks.
Lockerbie bombing (1988)
Pan Am Flight 103 was the Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) third daily scheduled transatlantic flight from London's Heathrow International Airport to New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport. On December 21 1988 it was destroyed by Libyan terrorist mid flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie. The bombing was widely regarded as an assault on a symbol of the United States, and with 189 of the victims being Americans, it stood as the deadliest attack against the United States until the September 11, 2001 attacks. Pan Am entered bankruptcy partly as a result of the attack. On January 31, 2001, Libyan Abdel Basset Ali al-Megrahi was convicted by a panel of three Scottish judges of bombing the flight. He was sentenced to 27 years imprisonment for the attack. In 2002 Libya offered financial compensation to the families in exchange for lifting of UN and U.S. sanctions.
The 1990s
By no stretch of the imagination did Islam have a monopoly on religious terrorism, as evidenced by Aum Shinrikyo and the bombing of Oklahoma City’s Murrah Federal Building by Christian extremists. Secular nationalist groups continued form and carry out attacks, most famously the Chechyan separatists and the Tamil Tigers.[196]
Aum Shinrikyo (1990-1995)
Aum Shinrikyo, now known as Aleph, is a Japanese religious group founded by Shoko Asahara. Aum Shinrikyo started in 1984 as a yogic meditation group, but later transformed into a very different organization. Seeking to "demonstrate charisma" to attract a larger audience and make the group more influential politically, Asahara began issuing bold and controversial statements. In 1990, Asahara and 24 other members stood for the General Elections for the House of Representatives under the banner of Shinri-tō (Supreme Truth Party). After none of them were voted in, the group began to militarize. Between between 1990 and 1995, the group attempted several apparently unsuccessful acts of biological terrorism using botulin toxin and anthrax spores.[197]
On June 28, 1994, Aum Shinrikyo members released sarin gas from several sites in the Kaichi Heights neighborhood of Matsumoto, Japan, killing eight and injuring 200 in what became known as the Matsumoto incident.[197] in the Kaichi Heights neighborhood.
Seven months later, on March 20, 1995, Aum Shinrikyo members released sarin gas in a co-ordinated attack on five trains in the Tokyo subway system, killing 12 commuters and injuring 54 in what became known as the subway sarin incident (地下鉄サリン事件, chikatetsu sarin jiken). In May 1995, Ashara and other senior leaders were arrested and the group's membership rapidly decreased.
Lashkar-e-Taiba (1991-present)
Lashkar-e-Taiba (Urdu: لشکرطیبہ laškar-ĕ ṯayyiba; translated as Army of the Righteous) is a militant organization currently based near Lahore, Pakistan. Lashkar-e-Taiba members have carried out major attacks against India and its objective is to introduce an Islamic state in South Asia and to "liberate" Muslims residing in Indian administered Kashmir.[198]
Baruch Goldstein and the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre (1994)
Baruch Goldstein (December 9, 1956 – February 25, 1994), an American-born Israeli physician, perpetrated the 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre in the city of Hebron, in which he shot and killed between 30 and 54 Muslim worshippers inside the Ibrahimi Mosque (within the Cave of the Patriarchs), and wounded another 125 to 150 victims.[199] Goldstein was lynched and killed in the mosque.[200] Goldstein was a supporter of Kach, an Israeli political party founded by Rabbi Meir Kahane that advocated the expulsion of Arabs from Israel and the Palestinian Territories.[201] In the aftermath of the Goldstein attack and Kach statements praising it, Kach was outlawed in Israel.[202] Today, Kach and a breakaway group, Kahane Chai, are considered terrorist organisations by Israel, Canada, the European Union and the United States.[203][204][205]
Chechyan Separatists (1994-present)
Led by Shamil Basayev, Chechyan separatists carried out several terrorist attacks from the 1994 until 2006.[206] In the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, Basayev-led separatists took over 1,000 civilians hostage in a hospital in the southern Russian city of Budyonnovsk. When Russian special forces attempted to free the hostages, 105 civilians and 25 Russian troops were killed.[207] In the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis, 50 Chechyan separatists took 850 hostages in a Moscow theater, demanding the withdrawal of Russian forces from Chechnya and an end to the Second Chechen War.[208] On September 1, 2004, in what became known as the Beslan school hostage crisis, 32 Chechyan separatists took 1,300 children and adults hostage at Beslan’s School Number One. When Russian authorities did not comply with the rebels’ demands that Russian forces withdraw from Chechnya, 20 of the adult male hostages were shot. After two days of stalled negotiations, Russian special forces stormed the building. In the ensuing melee, approximately 300 hostages were killed, along with 19 Russian servicemen and all but one of the rebels. Shamil Basayev is believed to have participated in organizing the attack. Like Basayev’s hospital and theater hijackings, the attack at the Beslan school was propaganda of the deed.[209]
Oklahoma City bombing (1995)
The Oklahoma City bombing was considered a terrorist act against the U.S. Government.[210] The attack on April 19 1995 was aimed at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, a U.S. government office complex in downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The attack claimed 168 lives and left over 800 injured.[211]
It may be questioned whether the bombing was a terrorist act or not since the target was a government installation. But perhaps the it strongest argument against calling it a terrorist act is that the actions of Timothy McVeigh, who was convicted and executed for his role in the bombing, seem to have been more to get revenge on the government rather than have any real political goal. He stated, "What the U.S. government did at Waco and Ruby Ridge was dirty. And I gave dirty back to them at Oklahoma City,"[212]
Twenty-first century
9/11 (2001)
In the September 11, 2001 attacks, nineteen terrorists[213] affiliated with al-Qaeda[214] hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners and crashed two of them into the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. As a result of the attacks, both of the World Trade Center's Twin Towers completely collapsed. Not including the hijackers, nearly 3,000 people died during the attacks, and the attacks prompted drastic changes in United States foreign and domestic policy and security protocol, and placed national security at the forefront of American political dialogue. The War on Terrorism is the ongoing US military response to the attack, which is now the focus of American security and foreign policy.
Table of Influential Groups Accused of Terrorism
References
- ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 17
- ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 83
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.56
- ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 84
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
- ^ Hoffman, p.1
- ^ Chialand, p.6
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
- ^ Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: Ecoo, 2003. p.xxi.
- ^ Rapoport, David. “Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions.” American Political Science Review, 1984. p.658
- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001. p.24
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 167
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.68
- ^ Rapoport, David. “Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions.” American Political Science Review, 1984. p.658
- ^ Willey, Peter. The Castles of the Assassins. New York: Linden Press, 2001. p.19
- ^ Daftary, Farhad. The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma'ilis. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. p.42
- ^ Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Secret Order of Assassins: The Struggle of the Early Nizari Ismai'lis Against the Islamic World. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005. p.83
- ^ Waterson, James. The Ismaili Assassins. London: Frontline, 2008.
- ^ http://www.berr.gov.uk/fireworks/download/FW1434_Keystage2_07.pdf
- ^ V for Vendetta
- ^ http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/clips/2005/12/06/ReadingCHRONICLE.pdf
- ^ http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/fall96/sons.html
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/28/opinion/28furstenberg.html?em&ex=1193803200&en=62eaa390a911d2d4&ei=5087%0A
- ^ BBC - History - The Changing Faces of Terrorism
- ^ Harvey, Donald Joseph FRENCH REVOLUTION, History.com 2006 (Accessed April 27 2007)
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.116
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.124
- ^ Adam Roberts on new weapon technologies available to anarchists
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 5
- ^ Ross, Jeffrey Ian. Political Terrorism: An Interdisciplinary Approach. New York: Peter Lang Press, 2006. p.34
- ^ Coogan, Tim Pat. Michael Collins: The Man Who Made Ireland. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. p.16
- ^ Early History of Terrorism
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 5
- ^ History of Terrorism article by Mark Burgess
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.133
- ^ Adam Roberts on new weapon technologies available to anarchists
- ^ Turabian, Hagop. "The Armenian Social Democratic Hentchakist Party," Ararat, Ill (July 1915‑June 1916), 451, 456.
- ^ Nalbandian, Louise. The Armenian Revolutionary Movement - The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley, 1963. p.14
- ^ Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: Harper Perennial, 2004. p.104
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.193
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. Page 51.
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 11
- ^ Kaplan, Robert. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. New York: Picador, 2005. p.56
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.189
- ^ Danforth, Loring. The Macedonian Conflict. Princeton University Press, 1997. p.87
- ^ Kaplan, Robert. Balkan Ghosts: A Journey Through History. New York: Picador, 2005. p.57
- ^ Horn, 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones
- ^ Bell, J. Bowyer. Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949. Avon, 1985. p.14
- ^ [1]
- ^ Lia, Brynjar. The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise Of an Islamic Mass Movement 1928-1942. Ithica Press, 2006. p.53
- ^ Suffragettes
- ^ Special Collections resources for Women's Suffrage
- ^ a b c BBC - History - The Changing Faces of Terrorism
- ^ Ranelagh, John. A Short History of Ireland. p.120
- ^ Billington, James H. Fire in the Minds of Men. p.182
- ^ Coogan, Tim. Michael Collins: The Man Who Made Ireland. p.33
- ^ Chaliand, p.185
- ^ Chaliand, p.186
- ^ O'Leary, John. Recollections of Fenians and Fenianism. London: Downey, 1896. p.82
- ^ Irish Freedom, by Richard English, Publisher: Pan Books (2 Nov 2007), ISBN 0330427598
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.185
- ^ BBC retrospective on the Easter Rising
- ^ O'Connor, Ulick. Michael Collins and the Troubles: The Struggle for Irish Freedom 1912-1922. New York: Norton, 1996. p.156: transcript from the Dail's inaugural meeting on January 21, 1919, which reads "And whereas the Irish Republic was proclaimed in Dublin on Easter Monday, 1916, by the Irish Republican Army, acting on behalf of the Irish people..."
- ^ Coogan, Tim. Michael Collins: The Man Who Made Ireland. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. p.92
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.212
- ^ Zadka, Saul. Blood in Zion: How the Jewish Guerrillas Drove the British Out of Palestine. London: Brassey Press, 2003. p.42
- ^ Bell, J. Bowyer. Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949. Avon, 1985. p.25
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 26
- ^ Sachar, Howard. A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. New York: Knopf, 2007. p.247
- ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001. p.64
- ^ Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. New York, Vintage, 2001. p.179
- ^ Howard Sachar: ''A History of the State of Israel, pps 265-266
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 26
- ^ Sachar, Howard. A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. New York: Knopf, 2007. p.247
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.213
- ^ Pedahzur, Ami The Israeli Response to Jewish terrorism and violence. Defending Democracy. New York: Manchester University Press, 2002 p.77
- ^ Lia, Brynjar. The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise Of an Islamic Mass Movement 1928-1942. Ithica Press, 2006. p.35
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.274
- ^ Mitchell, Richard. The Society of the Muslim Brothers. Oxford, 1993. p.74
- ^ "The Moderate Muslim Brotherhood." Robert S. Leiken & Steven Brooke, Foreign Affairs Magazine.
- ^ bombing of Guernica answers.com]
- ^ The legacy of Guernica BBC April 26, 2007
- ^ bombing of Guernica answers.com]
- ^ The legacy of Guernica BBC April 26, 2007
- ^ Firebombing and Atom Bombing: An Historical Perspective on Indiscriminate Bombing Yuki Tanaka, Foreign Policy in Focus May, 2005
- ^ Strategic Bombing Jack Calhoun (from Target Japan: The Decision to Bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki) July 1985
- ^ Firebombing and Atom Bombing: An Historical Perspective on Indiscriminate Bombing Yuki Tanaka, Foreign Policy in Focus May, 2005
- ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001
- ^ Firebombing and Atom Bombing: An Historical Perspective on Indiscriminate Bombing Yuki Tanaka, Foreign Policy in Focus May, 2005
- ^ The Illustrated London News, Marching to War 1933-1939, Doubleday, 1989, p.135
- ^ President Franklin D. Roosevelt Appeal against aerial bombardment of civilian populations, 1 September, 1939
- ^ Taylor References Chapter "Call Me Meier", Page 105
- ^ A.C. Grayling, Among the Dead Cities (Bloomsbury 2006), Page 24.
- ^ Rutherford, Ward, Blitzkrieg 1940, G.P.Putnam's Sons, NY, 1980, p.52.
- ^ Piekalkiewicz, Janusz, The Air War, 1939-1945, Blandford Press, Poole, Dorset, UK, 1985, p.74.<
- ^ Maass, Walter B., The Netherlands at War: 1940-1945, Abelard-Schuman, NY, 1970, pp. 38-40.
- ^ Kennett, Lee, A History of Strategic Bombing, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY, 1982, p.112.
- ^ Boyne, Walter J., Clash of Wings: World War II in the Air, Simon & Schuster, NY, 1994, p.61.
- ^ Taylor References Chapter "Call Me Meier", Page 111
- ^ Longmate, Norman; The Bombers: The RAF offensive against Germany 1939-1945, Pub. Hutchinson; 1983; ISBN 0091515807 p. 133
- ^ Copp, Terry; The Bomber Command Offensive , originally published in the Legion Magazine September/October 1996
- ^ Issues : Singleton - World War Two
- ^ Longmate, Norman; The Bombers: The RAF offensive against Germany 1939-1945, Pub. Hutchinson; 1983; ISBN 0091515807 p. 131
- ^ The consensus among historians is that the number killed was between slightly under 25,000 to a few thousand over 35,0000. See
- Evans, Richard J. David Irving, Hitler and Holocaust Denial: Electronic Edition, [(i) Introduction.
- Addison, Paul. Firestorm: The bombing of Dresden, p. 75.
- Taylor, Frederick. Dresden: Tuesday, February 13, 1945, p. 580.
- All three historians, Addison, Evans and Taylor, refer to:
- Bergander, Götz. Dresden im Luftkrieg: Vorgeschichte-Zerstörung-Folgen. Munich: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, 1977, who estimated a few thousand over 35,000.
- Reichert, Friedrich. "Verbrannt bis zur Unkenntlichkeit," in Dresden City Museum (ed.). Verbrannt bis zur Unkenntlichkeit. Die Zerstörung Dresdens 1945. Altenburg, 1994, pp. 40-62, p. 58. — Richard Evans regards Reichert's figures as definitive.
- ^ Freeman Dyson. Part I: A Failure of Intelligence. Technology Review, November 1 2006, MIT
- ^ Jonathan Rauch. Firebombs Over Tokyo The Atlantic, July/August, 2002
- ^ Churchill's Secret Army, Channel 4 television UK
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 33
- ^ The Power of Nightmares, BBC, 2004
- ^ Crile, George (2004). Charlie Wilson's War. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 111–112. ISBN 0802141242.
- ^ Vietnam: A History, Stanley Karnow,1983
- ^ Stora, Benjamin. Algeria, 1830-2000: A Short History. Cornell Univeristy Press, 2004. p.36
- ^ Galula, David. Pacification in Algeria, 1956-1958. RAND Corporation Press, 2006. p.14
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 33
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.216
- ^ S. N. Millar, 'Arab Victory: Lessons from the Algerian War (1954-62),' British Army Review No 145 Autumn 2008, p.49
- ^ Mallinson, William. Cyprus: A Modern History. I. B. Tauris, 2008. p.27
- ^ Papadakis, Yiannis, ed. Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History, And an Island in Conflict. Indiana University Press, 2006. p.38
- ^ Weinberg, Leonard. Global Terrorism: A Beginner's Guide. New York: Oneworld, 2008. p.32
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 33
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.214
- ^ Byford-Jones, W. Grivas and the story of EOKA. New York, 1959.
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.227
- ^ Kurlansky, Mark. The Basque History of the World: The Story of a Nation. New York: Penguin, 2001. p.224
- ^ http://www.goizargi.com/2003/queeselmlnv3.htm "What is the MNLV (3)"
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 191
- ^ Weinberg, Leonard. Global Terrorism: A Beginner's Guide. New York: Oneworld, 2008. p.43
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.251
- ^ Rubin, Barry. Revolution Until Victory?: The Politics and History of the PLO. Harvard University Press, 1996. p.7
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.42
- ^ Weinberg, Leonard. Global Terrorism: A Beginner's Guide. New York: Oneworld, 2008. p.41
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 47
- ^ Madiha Rashid al Madfai, Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974-1991, Cambridge Middle East Library, Cambridge University Press (1993). ISBN 0521415233. p.21
- ^ Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. p. 49
- ^ Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. New York: Ecoo, 2003. p.45
- ^ Rubin, Barry. Revolution Until Victory?: The Politics and History of the PLO. Harvard University Press, 1996. p.7
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.48
- ^ Reeve, Simon. One Day in September: The Full Story of the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and the Israeli Revenge Operation. Arcade, 2006. p.32
- ^ Klein, Aaron. Striking Back: The 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and Israel's Deadly Response. Random House, 2007. p.64
- ^ Cooley, John K. Green March, Black September: The Story of thePalestinian Arabs. London: Frank Cass, 1973.
- ^ Rubin, p.24
- ^ Hoffman, p.46
- ^ Cobban, Helena.The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: People, Power and Politics. Cambridge, 1985. p.147
- ^ Hoffman, p.193
- ^ Kazziha, Walid, Revolutionary Transformation in the Arab World: Habash and his Comrades from Nationalism to Marxism. p. 17-18
- ^ Die linke Opposition in der PLO und in den besetzten Gebiete
- ^ Achille Lauro Hijacking, Special Operations.Com
- ^ 1985: Gunmen hijack Italian cruise liner, BBC news
- ^ Bohn, Michael. The Achille Lauro Hijacking: Lessons in the Politics and Prejudice of Terrorism. Potomac Books, 2005.
- ^ [2]
- ^ Hoffman, p.16
- ^ Chaliand, p.227
- ^ See Canadian Soldier
- ^ FLQ entry in the Canadian Encyclopedia
- ^ Chaliand, Gerard. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. p.227
- ^ [3]
- ^ Chaliand, p.250
- ^ [4]
- ^ Chaliand, p.251
- ^ Coogan, p.356
- ^ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/suspected-ira-men-arrested-in-colombia-751521.html
- ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1387326/IRA-link-to-PLO-examined-in-hunt-for-deadly-sniper.html
- ^ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/as-three-men-go-before-a-colombian-judge-today-will-their-fate-seal-the-course-of-peace-in-ireland-607796.html
- ^ Gina M. Pérez. Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (FALN). Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved on 2007-09-05
- ^ "Congressional testimony of Louis J. Freeh". Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2001-05-10. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
- ^ Roy, Olivier. Turkey Today: A European Nation? p. 170.
- ^ "Turkish Kurds: some back the state". Christian Science Monitor. 2007-07-06.
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7745705.stm
- ^ The Weather Underground, produced by Carrie Lozano, directed by Bill Siegel and Sam Green, New Video Group, 2003, DVD.
- ^ Ed Vulliamy, Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political 'destabilisation', The Guardian, December 5, 1990
- ^ Japanese Red Army (JRA) Profile The National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism Terrorism Knowledge Base (online)
- ^ Richardson, John. Paradise Poisoned: Learning About Conflict, Terrorism and Development from Sri Lanka's Civil Wars. International Center for Ethnic Studies, 2005. p.29
- ^ Chaliand, p.353
- ^ Hoffman, p.139
- ^ "Sri Lanka - Living With Terror". Frontline. PBS. May 2002. Retrieved 2009-02-09.
- ^ http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_340/l_34020051223en00640066.pdf
- ^ Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs)
- ^ [5]
- ^ The Catholic Institute for International Relations (1987). "Right to Survive: Human Rights in Nicaragua". The Catholic Institute for International Relations.
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(help) - ^ Nicaragua
- ^ Nicaragua
- ^ The New Republic, January 20, 1986; The New Republic, August 22, 1988; The National Interest, Spring 1990.
- ^ Jamail, Dahr (2006-07-20). "Hezbollah's transformation". Asia Times. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Wright, Lawrence, Looming Tower, Knopf, 2006, p.123
- ^ Chaliand, p.356
- ^ Levitt, Matthew Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad. Yale University Press, 2007.
- ^ "Hamas in call to end suicide bombings" The Observer. April 9, 2006
- ^ HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement)
- ^ Hider, James (2007-10-12). "Islamist leader hints at Hamas pull-out from Gaza". The Times Online. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
- ^ United States District Court, Southern District of New York (February 6, 2001). "Testimony of Jamal Ahmad Al-Fadl". United States v. Usama bin Laden et al., defendants. James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
- ^ Terrorists Hijack 4 Airliners, Destroy World Trade Center, Hit Pentagon; Hundreds Dead
- ^ Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11
- ^ [6]
- ^ a b CDC website, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Aum Shinrikyo: Once and Future Threat?, Kyle B. Olson, Research Planning, Inc., Arlington, Virginia
- ^ The evolution of Islamic Terrorism by John Moore, PBS
- ^ 1994: Jewish settler kills 30 at holy site BBC On This Day
- ^ 1994: Jewish settler kills 30 at holy site BBC On This Day
- ^ In the Spotlight: Kach and Kahane Chai Center for Defense Information October 1, 2002
- ^ In the Spotlight: Kach and Kahane Chai Center for Defense Information October 1, 2002
- ^ Kahane Chai (KACH) Public Safety Canada
- ^ Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs) U.S. Department of State, 11 October 2005
- ^ Council Decision of 21 December 2005 implementing Article 2(3) of Regulation (EC) No 2580/2001 on specific restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism and repealing Decision 2005/848/EC Official Journal of the European Union, 23 December 2005
- ^ Hoffman, p.154
- ^ Smith, Sebastian. Allah's Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya. Tauris, 2005. p.200
- ^ Hughes, James. Chechnya: From Nationalism to Jihad. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. p.150
- ^ Jonathan Steele (July 11, 2006). "Shamil Basayev -Chechen politician seeking independence through terrorism". Obituary. Guardian Unlimited.
one-time guerrilla commander who turned into a mastermind of spectacular and brutal terrorist actions ... served for several months as prime minister
- ^ Opening statement of prosecutor Joseph Hartzler in the Timothy McVeigh trial
- ^ The Oklahoma City Bombing, 2004-8-9
- ^ McVeigh Remorseless About Bombing
- ^ Terrorists Hijack 4 Airliners, Destroy World Trade Center, Hit Pentagon; Hundreds Dead
- ^ Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11