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In the early 19th century, the [[British and Foreign School Society]] (which was Nonconformist) and the [[National Society for Promoting Religious Education]] (which was [[Anglicanism|Anglican]]) were founded. These organisations began to establish "voluntary schools".<ref name=":14" /> In practice, a large majority of voluntary schools belonged to the latter group which had various practical advantages. In Wales, the Anglican schools were reported to be poorly attended as Nonconformists,<ref name=":14" /> who formed a clear majority of the Welsh population,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Sally |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |pages=546-547 |chapter=Nonconformity}}</ref> preferred private schools. Though the proportion of [[day school]]{{NoteTag|In this context, day school refers to schools operating during the working week as opposed to Sunday school.}} pupils at private schools fell in Wales from 58% in 1833 to 26% in 1851. While school participation rates in the early-to-mid 19th century are somewhat hard to assess, a lower proportion of the population were enrolled in day schools in Wales than in England or Scotland.<ref name=":14" /> One estimate is that 85% of children in Wales between five and fifteen-years old were not in day school in 1821.<ref name=":0" /> Sunday schools were often used as a substitute for fulltime schooling. In 1844, 56% of grooms and 35% of brides were able to sign the marriage register in South Wales counties, this was lower than any individual Scottish or English county. That year, 58% of grooms and 39% of brides in [[North Wales]] counties were able to do so, this was lower than any Scottish or English county other than [[Monmouthshire]] (then part of England) and [[Staffordshire]]. The number of people who were able to write was lower than those who could read during this period because reading was seen as a more basic skill which was taught first and tended to be more practically useful for most people. According to historian T.B Stephens:<ref name=":14" /><blockquote>... in Wales and Monmouthshire educational progress suffered from the difficulties Welsh speakers experienced in schools using English as the [[medium of instruction]], from the absence of resident [[gentry]], the weakness of the [[Church of England]] and the opposition of dissenters to its influence. This was compounded by widespread poverty and the expansion of [[Coal industry in Wales|coal mining]]. </blockquote> |
In the early 19th century, the [[British and Foreign School Society]] (which was Nonconformist) and the [[National Society for Promoting Religious Education]] (which was [[Anglicanism|Anglican]]) were founded. These organisations began to establish "voluntary schools".<ref name=":14" /> In practice, a large majority of voluntary schools belonged to the latter group which had various practical advantages. In Wales, the Anglican schools were reported to be poorly attended as Nonconformists,<ref name=":14" /> who formed a clear majority of the Welsh population,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Sally |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |pages=546-547 |chapter=Nonconformity}}</ref> preferred private schools. Though the proportion of [[day school]]{{NoteTag|In this context, day school refers to schools operating during the working week as opposed to Sunday school.}} pupils at private schools fell in Wales from 58% in 1833 to 26% in 1851. While school participation rates in the early-to-mid 19th century are somewhat hard to assess, a lower proportion of the population were enrolled in day schools in Wales than in England or Scotland.<ref name=":14" /> One estimate is that 85% of children in Wales between five and fifteen-years old were not in day school in 1821.<ref name=":0" /> Sunday schools were often used as a substitute for fulltime schooling. In 1844, 56% of grooms and 35% of brides were able to sign the marriage register in South Wales counties, this was lower than any individual Scottish or English county. That year, 58% of grooms and 39% of brides in [[North Wales]] counties were able to do so, this was lower than any Scottish or English county other than [[Monmouthshire]] (then part of England) and [[Staffordshire]]. The number of people who were able to write was lower than those who could read during this period because reading was seen as a more basic skill which was taught first and tended to be more practically useful for most people. According to historian T.B Stephens:<ref name=":14" /><blockquote>... in Wales and Monmouthshire educational progress suffered from the difficulties Welsh speakers experienced in schools using English as the [[medium of instruction]], from the absence of resident [[gentry]], the weakness of the [[Church of England]] and the opposition of dissenters to its influence. This was compounded by widespread poverty and the expansion of [[Coal industry in Wales|coal mining]]. </blockquote> |
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From 1833, the voluntary schools began to receive government funding.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Lloyd |first=Amy |title=Education, Literacy and the Reading Public |url=https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105182507/https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2020 |website=Gale Primary Sources |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref> In 1839, the Committee of the Privy Council on Education (CCE) was formed which conducted state inspections of schools receiving grants in England and Wales for the first time. For its first report in 1840, HMI Hugh Seymour Tremenheere visited 35 schools in mining areas of South Wales. He wrote that the schools were "‘for the most part, dirty and close" and one was "so filthy and disgusting that the inquiry had to be conducted from outside". Most of the schools were lacking in books and equipment while teachers maintained discipline using "loud exclamations and threats". Contrastingly, HMI Harry Longueville Jones, was impressed by the quality of teaching he found on his first tour of 190 schools across Wales in 1849. He complimented various teachers as "very able", "studious", "clever", "well informed", "alert" and "well respected". He also noted a few teachers with exceptional abilities such as one working near [[Pwllheli]] who taught Latin to his most able pupils and another in [[Llanidloes]] whose "forte lies in his music".<ref name=":0" /> |
From 1833, the voluntary schools began to receive government funding.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Lloyd |first=Amy |title=Education, Literacy and the Reading Public |url=https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105182507/https://www.gale.com/binaries/content/assets/gale-us-en/primary-sources/intl-gps/intl-gps-essays/full-ghn-contextual-essays/ghn_essay_bln_lloyd3_website.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2020 |website=Gale Primary Sources |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref> In 1839, the Committee of the Privy Council on Education (CCE) was formed which conducted state inspections of schools receiving grants in England and Wales for the first time. For its first report in 1840, HMI Hugh Seymour Tremenheere visited 35 schools in mining areas of South Wales. He wrote that the schools were "‘for the most part, dirty and close" and one was "so filthy and disgusting that the inquiry had to be conducted from outside". Most of the schools were lacking in books and equipment while teachers maintained discipline using "loud exclamations and threats". Contrastingly, HMI Harry Longueville Jones, was impressed by the quality of teaching he found on his first tour of 190 schools across Wales in 1849. He complimented various teachers as "very able", "studious", "clever", "well informed", "alert" and "well respected". He also noted a few teachers with exceptional abilities such as one working near [[Pwllheli]] who taught Latin to his most able pupils and another in [[Llanidloes]] whose "forte lies in his music".<ref name=":0" /> |
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The [[Newcastle Commission]] led to the introduction Revised Code of 1862. The code introduced a system of [[Payment by Results|payment by results]] with grants given based on pupils knowledge of [[The three Rs|the three R's]] and attendance. The code has been praised for its perceived objectivity as well as encouraging teachers to focus on literacy and numeracy.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=May |first=Trevor |title=The Victorian Schoolroom |publisher=Shire Publications |year=1994 |location=Great Britain |pages=26-28 |language=EN}}</ref> At times, this system placed significant power over schools in the hands of individual inspectors in a way that could be quite arbitrary and lead to controversy. For instance, in his autobiography, HMI Sneyd-Kynnersley recalled 7-year-old Angharad who had told him she did not know the answer to a sum but who he decided to pass anyway due to her "frankness, combined with good looks". In a different case, schoolmaster James Kelly left his job at St David’s [[Catholic Church in England and Wales|Roman Catholic]] school in [[Cardiff]] after a poor inspection report in 1863. Unusually, Kelly decided to formally complain to the [[Department for Education#Predecessor bodies|Education Department]] alleging HMI John Reynell Morell spent less than 20 minutes in the school during which the children were quiet before leaving after saying "I will make a report sufficient for the grant". Morell was dismissed (officially for missing appointments) following an investigation during which both men attacked each other's character. Morell privately published his own version of events. Historian Russell Grigg suggests that a possible explanation for his conduct was that he was responsible for inspecting schools across 17 counties in England and Wales. The system also created a temptation for corruption among teachers. For instance, upon a check of [[Birth certificate|birth certificates]], it was found that most of the pupils at [[Llwynypia]] Colliery [[Infant school|Infant School]] were over the age of eight making it ineligible for certain grants for infant schools. The attendance records had also been falsified and the register destroyed in "a very suspicious circumstance". They had two thirds of their grant removed and were given a warning.<ref name=":0" /> |
The [[Newcastle Commission]] led to the introduction Revised Code of 1862. The code introduced a system of [[Payment by Results|payment by results]] with grants given based on pupils knowledge of [[The three Rs|the three R's]] and attendance. The code has been praised for its perceived objectivity as well as for encouraging teachers to focus on literacy and numeracy.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=May |first=Trevor |title=The Victorian Schoolroom |publisher=Shire Publications |year=1994 |location=Great Britain |pages=26-28 |language=EN}}</ref> At times, this system placed significant power over schools in the hands of individual inspectors in a way that could be quite arbitrary and lead to controversy. For instance, in his autobiography, HMI Sneyd-Kynnersley recalled 7-year-old Angharad who had told him she did not know the answer to a sum but who he decided to pass anyway due to her "frankness, combined with good looks". In a different case, schoolmaster James Kelly left his job at St David’s [[Catholic Church in England and Wales|Roman Catholic]] school in [[Cardiff]] after a poor inspection report in 1863. Unusually, Kelly decided to formally complain to the [[Department for Education#Predecessor bodies|Education Department]] alleging HMI John Reynell Morell spent less than 20 minutes in the school during which the children were quiet before leaving after saying "I will make a report sufficient for the grant". Morell was dismissed (officially for missing appointments) following an investigation during which both men attacked each other's character. Morell privately published his own version of events. Historian Russell Grigg suggests that a possible explanation for his conduct was that he was responsible for inspecting schools across 17 counties in England and Wales. The system also created a temptation for corruption among teachers. For instance, upon a check of [[Birth certificate|birth certificates]], it was found that most of the pupils at [[Llwynypia]] Colliery [[Infant school|Infant School]] were over the age of eight making it ineligible for certain grants for infant schools. The attendance records had also been falsified and the register destroyed in "a very suspicious circumstance". They had two thirds of their grant removed and were given a warning.<ref name=":0" /> |
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== Compulsory education == |
== Compulsory education == |
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According to historian T.B Stephens, Elementary Education Act 1870 began the transition to compulsory education and a school system run directly by the state. However, he describes it as a compromise which only started that process. It required [[School boards in England and Wales|school boards]] run by locally elected officials to be established in areas where their was "insufficient places in efficient voluntary schools" to run additional schools. The boards were allowed but not required to make education compulsory. A power that was extended to other districts in 1876.<ref name=":14" /> Compulsory education was introduced for 5- to 10-year-olds across England and Wales by the [[Elementary Education Act 1880]].<ref name=":2" /> |
According to historian T.B Stephens, Elementary Education Act 1870 began the transition to compulsory education and a school system run directly by the state. However, he describes it as a compromise which only started that process. It required [[School boards in England and Wales|school boards]] run by locally elected officials to be established in areas where their was "insufficient places in efficient voluntary schools" to run additional schools. The boards were allowed but not required to make education compulsory. A power that was extended to other districts in 1876.<ref name=":14" /> Compulsory education was introduced for 5- to 10-year-olds across England and Wales by the [[Elementary Education Act 1880]].<ref name=":2" /> |
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Maude Morgan Thomas, a [[Welsh Americans|Welsh immigrant to the United States]], wrote a biography intended for American children about her early years in [[Pontypool]] during the [[Edwardian era|Edwardian period]]. In the chapter on her schooling she describes lessons in art, [[Wales in the Middle Ages|Welsh mediaeval history]], needlework (for girls), [[domestic science]] (for older girls), optional [[piano]] lessons and frequent [[School corporal punishment|corporal punishment]]. She comments on her experience that:<blockquote>School days in Wales were rather more uncomfortable than happy for me. There were always so many [[Caning#In UK schools (in the past)|rattan canes]] lashing about, so much writing and arithmetic. Copy books had to be neatly filled with carefully written words, evenly spaced and shaded properly on each down stroke. One blot or one imperfect letter would bring the rattan cane stinging down on laboring knuckles... As I look back now, kindergarten{{NoteTag|Due to its intended audience the biography frequently uses American terms}} days were very pleasant. Welsh children usually began school at a very early age, many of them as young as three years. So school days were play days for the beginners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan Thomas |first=Maude |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/When_I_was_a_girl_in_Wales_%28IA_wheniwasgirlinwa00thom%29.pdf |title=When I Was A Girl In Wales |publisher=LOTHROP, LEE AND SHEPARD CO |year=1936 |location=New York |chapter=IV. School Days}}</ref></blockquote>{{Reflist|group=note}}<references /> |
Maude Morgan Thomas, a [[Welsh Americans|Welsh immigrant to the United States]], wrote a biography intended for American children about her early years in [[Pontypool]] during the [[Edwardian era|Edwardian period]]. In the chapter on her schooling she describes lessons in art, [[Wales in the Middle Ages|Welsh mediaeval history]], needlework (for girls), [[domestic science]] (for older girls), optional [[piano]] lessons and frequent [[School corporal punishment|corporal punishment]]. She comments on her experience that:<blockquote>School days in Wales were rather more uncomfortable than happy for me. There were always so many [[Caning#In UK schools (in the past)|rattan canes]] lashing about, so much writing and arithmetic. Copy books had to be neatly filled with carefully written words, evenly spaced and shaded properly on each down stroke. One blot or one imperfect letter would bring the rattan cane stinging down on laboring knuckles... As I look back now, kindergarten{{NoteTag|Due to its intended audience the biography frequently uses American terms}} days were very pleasant. Welsh children usually began school at a very early age, many of them as young as three years. So school days were play days for the beginners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan Thomas |first=Maude |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/When_I_was_a_girl_in_Wales_%28IA_wheniwasgirlinwa00thom%29.pdf |title=When I Was A Girl In Wales |publisher=LOTHROP, LEE AND SHEPARD CO |year=1936 |location=New York |chapter=IV. School Days}}</ref></blockquote>{{Reflist|group=note}}<references /> |
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== Possible images == |
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[[File:Abergavenny boys national school (3374847).jpg|thumb|[[Abergavenny]] boys national school (1865)]] |
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[[File:Bleddfa school children July 1911 (3467881291).jpg|thumb|Schoolchildren in [[Bleddfa]]]] |
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[[File:Boys of Newtown Church School after their rummage sale (7202944758).jpg|thumb|Boys of [[Newtown, Powys|Newtown]] Church School after a [[Jumble sale|rummage sale]] (1939)]] |
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[[File:Machynlleth Junior School (5451200158).jpg|thumb|Girls in traditional welsh dress for [[Saint David's Day|St David's day]] at [[Machynlleth]] Junior School ]] |
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[[File:Urdd National Eisteddfod, Aberdare 1961 (4641570813).jpg|thumb|Schoolchildren at the Urdd National Eisteddfod. An event hosted by the [[Urdd Gobaith Cymru|Urdd Godaith Cymru]], a youth organisation intended to promote the Welsh language. ]] |
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[[File:Boys, Tywyn school (1890) NLW3363942.jpg|thumb|Class photo at [[Tywyn]] Boys School (1890)]] |
Revision as of 11:21, 28 August 2023
Growth of non-compulsory education
In the early 1670s, clergyman Thomas Gouge began to preach in Wales, by 1675 he had established 87 schools which were attended by a total of 2225 children.[1] The schools were intended 'to teach the poor Welsh children to read and write English, cast Accompts [numeracy] and repeat the Catechism.' They closed after his death in 1681.[2] The Society for the promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK) was founded in 1699 with similar aims.[3]
In 18th century England and Wales, schools were operated by private business, charity and the church, becoming reasonably common. According to historian W.B Stephens, charity schools in Wales tended to have a particularly heavy emphasis on religion reflecting the preferences of the Welsh peasantry. In the early 18th century, many charity schools were established with the support of the SPCK but later founding's were associated with the "circulating [travelling] school movement" which originated in Wales. The second group catered for both children and adults. By the late 18th century these circulatory schools largely faded away replaced by Sunday Schools. Sunday schools developed from the 1780s onwards. Early Sunday schools tended to admit adults as well as children. In Wales, they were generally Nonconformist and often associated with the Methodist revival. Welsh Sunday Schools tended to focus on bible studies and reading avoiding the wider secular education sometimes taught at Sunday Schools elsewhere.[4]
Early to mid 19th century
In the first half of the 19th century, education began to be seen as something of a civilising mission. A sense of anxiety was developing about the condition of the working classes in Wales, especially in the South Wales Valleys. The industrial revolution had brought significant social upheaval and children in particular were seen as newly vulnerable to immorality. While working-class parents were felt to be more interested in pursuing pleasure for themselves than educating the young. These worries were reinforced by various instances of significant social unrest in relation to movements such as Chartism, Scotch Cattle and the Rebecca Riots. Schooling was believed to be an effective response to these problems. In a 1843 report, HMI[note 1] H.W Belliars described a "band of efficient schoolmasters" as a cheaper alternative to "a body of police or of soldiery" to manage "an ill-educated, undisciplined population, such as exists among the mines of South Wales".[5]
In the early 19th century, the British and Foreign School Society (which was Nonconformist) and the National Society for Promoting Religious Education (which was Anglican) were founded. These organisations began to establish "voluntary schools".[4] In practice, a large majority of voluntary schools belonged to the latter group which had various practical advantages. In Wales, the Anglican schools were reported to be poorly attended as Nonconformists,[4] who formed a clear majority of the Welsh population,[6] preferred private schools. Though the proportion of day school[note 2] pupils at private schools fell in Wales from 58% in 1833 to 26% in 1851. While school participation rates in the early-to-mid 19th century are somewhat hard to assess, a lower proportion of the population were enrolled in day schools in Wales than in England or Scotland.[4] One estimate is that 85% of children in Wales between five and fifteen-years old were not in day school in 1821.[5] Sunday schools were often used as a substitute for fulltime schooling. In 1844, 56% of grooms and 35% of brides were able to sign the marriage register in South Wales counties, this was lower than any individual Scottish or English county. That year, 58% of grooms and 39% of brides in North Wales counties were able to do so, this was lower than any Scottish or English county other than Monmouthshire (then part of England) and Staffordshire. The number of people who were able to write was lower than those who could read during this period because reading was seen as a more basic skill which was taught first and tended to be more practically useful for most people. According to historian T.B Stephens:[4]
... in Wales and Monmouthshire educational progress suffered from the difficulties Welsh speakers experienced in schools using English as the medium of instruction, from the absence of resident gentry, the weakness of the Church of England and the opposition of dissenters to its influence. This was compounded by widespread poverty and the expansion of coal mining.
From 1833, the voluntary schools began to receive government funding.[7] In 1839, the Committee of the Privy Council on Education (CCE) was formed which conducted state inspections of schools receiving grants in England and Wales for the first time. For its first report in 1840, HMI Hugh Seymour Tremenheere visited 35 schools in mining areas of South Wales. He wrote that the schools were "‘for the most part, dirty and close" and one was "so filthy and disgusting that the inquiry had to be conducted from outside". Most of the schools were lacking in books and equipment while teachers maintained discipline using "loud exclamations and threats". Contrastingly, HMI Harry Longueville Jones, was impressed by the quality of teaching he found on his first tour of 190 schools across Wales in 1849. He complimented various teachers as "very able", "studious", "clever", "well informed", "alert" and "well respected". He also noted a few teachers with exceptional abilities such as one working near Pwllheli who taught Latin to his most able pupils and another in Llanidloes whose "forte lies in his music".[5]
The Newcastle Commission led to the introduction Revised Code of 1862. The code introduced a system of payment by results with grants given based on pupils knowledge of the three R's and attendance. The code has been praised for its perceived objectivity as well as for encouraging teachers to focus on literacy and numeracy.[5][8] At times, this system placed significant power over schools in the hands of individual inspectors in a way that could be quite arbitrary and lead to controversy. For instance, in his autobiography, HMI Sneyd-Kynnersley recalled 7-year-old Angharad who had told him she did not know the answer to a sum but who he decided to pass anyway due to her "frankness, combined with good looks". In a different case, schoolmaster James Kelly left his job at St David’s Roman Catholic school in Cardiff after a poor inspection report in 1863. Unusually, Kelly decided to formally complain to the Education Department alleging HMI John Reynell Morell spent less than 20 minutes in the school during which the children were quiet before leaving after saying "I will make a report sufficient for the grant". Morell was dismissed (officially for missing appointments) following an investigation during which both men attacked each other's character. Morell privately published his own version of events. Historian Russell Grigg suggests that a possible explanation for his conduct was that he was responsible for inspecting schools across 17 counties in England and Wales. The system also created a temptation for corruption among teachers. For instance, upon a check of birth certificates, it was found that most of the pupils at Llwynypia Colliery Infant School were over the age of eight making it ineligible for certain grants for infant schools. The attendance records had also been falsified and the register destroyed in "a very suspicious circumstance". They had two thirds of their grant removed and were given a warning.[5]
Compulsory education
According to historian T.B Stephens, Elementary Education Act 1870 began the transition to compulsory education and a school system run directly by the state. However, he describes it as a compromise which only started that process. It required school boards run by locally elected officials to be established in areas where their was "insufficient places in efficient voluntary schools" to run additional schools. The boards were allowed but not required to make education compulsory. A power that was extended to other districts in 1876.[4] Compulsory education was introduced for 5- to 10-year-olds across England and Wales by the Elementary Education Act 1880.[7]
Maude Morgan Thomas, a Welsh immigrant to the United States, wrote a biography intended for American children about her early years in Pontypool during the Edwardian period. In the chapter on her schooling she describes lessons in art, Welsh mediaeval history, needlework (for girls), domestic science (for older girls), optional piano lessons and frequent corporal punishment. She comments on her experience that:
School days in Wales were rather more uncomfortable than happy for me. There were always so many rattan canes lashing about, so much writing and arithmetic. Copy books had to be neatly filled with carefully written words, evenly spaced and shaded properly on each down stroke. One blot or one imperfect letter would bring the rattan cane stinging down on laboring knuckles... As I look back now, kindergarten[note 3] days were very pleasant. Welsh children usually began school at a very early age, many of them as young as three years. So school days were play days for the beginners.[9]
- ^ L. Greaves, Richard (3 January 2008). "Gouge, Thomas (1605–1681)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-1003012;jsessionid=9d93c50db434282482df39ae721ec5bd. Retrieved 2023-07-22.
Gouge began evangelizing work in Wales in 1672... By 1675, 2225 children were learning to read, write, and cast accounts in eighty-seven new charity schools in Wales, with all of the counties represented except Merioneth. He visited the schools once or twice a year, assisting them with monetary contributions.
- ^ Clement, Mary. "GOUGE, THOMAS (1605? - 1681), Nonconformist divine and philanthropist". Dictionary of Welsh biography. Retrieved 2023-07-22.
- ^ Collins, Sian (16 March 2017). "Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK)". Cambridge University Library. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f Stephens, T.B (1998). Education in Britain, 1750-1914. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–12, 21–35, 77, 79, 83. ISBN 978-0-333-60512-7.
- ^ a b c d e Grigg, Russell (2022). "Origins and development of the inspectorate in Wales, 1839–1907". In Keane, Ann (ed.). Watchdogs or Visionaries?: Perspectives on the History of the Education Inspectorate in Wales. University of Wales Press. ASIN B0BLCS7YDK.
- ^ Mitchell, Sally (2011). "Nonconformity". Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 546–547. ISBN 9780415669726.
- ^ a b Lloyd, Amy. "Education, Literacy and the Reading Public" (PDF). Gale Primary Sources. University of Cambridge. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2020.
- ^ May, Trevor (1994). The Victorian Schoolroom. Great Britain: Shire Publications. pp. 26–28.
- ^ Morgan Thomas, Maude (1936). "IV. School Days". When I Was A Girl In Wales (PDF). New York: LOTHROP, LEE AND SHEPARD CO.