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{{Dome architecture}} |
{{Dome architecture}} |
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Pre-Islamic domes in the [[Indian subcontinent]] can be traced as early as first centuries CE when domes appeared in predominantly South Asian temple architecture and palaces.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62|last=Gosh|first=A.|publisher=Archaeological survey of India|year=1964|isbn=|location=New Dehli|pages=50-52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1269867|title=Ancient Buddhist monastery in Barikot attracting crowds|last=Khaliq|first=Fazal|date=2016-07-10|website=DAWN.COM|language=en|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.my/books?id=9yWNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127&dq=barikot+dome&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiDyemQ3uThAhVKv48KHdqfA-wQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=barikot%20dome&f=false|title=The Geography of Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the Second International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 22nd-23rd March, 2018|last=Rienjang|first=Wannaporn|last2=Stewart|first2=Peter|date=2019-03-15|publisher=Archaeopress|isbn=9781789691870|language=en}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Islamic rule |
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⚫ | Islamic rule introduced domes with iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to the [[Hindu temple architecture|Hindu tradition]] of [[Post and lintel|trabeate]] construction created a distinctive architecture.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1941, 1943-1944}} |
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⚫ | Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived from Hindu architecture. |
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== Early history == |
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⚫ | The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late 13th century [[tomb of Balban]] and the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which |
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== History == |
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⚫ | Domes from the late 14th |
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=== Ancient and Early Medieval domes === |
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| image1 = Andhra pradesh, santuario a più piani, da ghantasala, 90-110 ca..JPG |
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| caption1 = Multi-tiered temple depicted on [[Ghantasala, Krishna district|Ghantasala]] stupa with characteristic umbrella shaped dome. |
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| image2 = A Vihara of Buddhism in Swat KPK Pakistan.jpg |
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| caption2 = Gumbatona vihara dome. |
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[[Shunga Empire|Shunga period reliefs]] show domical structures, but it is unclear whether they were made of wood or materials such as stones and bricks. True domes from the ancient period of the Indian subcontinent survive mostly in Northwest region of the Indian subcontinent. The domes constructed in [[ancient Indian subcontinent]] utilized a different method of building squinch compared to the west. The dome at [[Buddhism in Pakistan|Gumbatona vihara]], [[Takht-i-Bahi|Takht e bahi]] are the earliest surviving examples of the domical structures from the Indian subcontinent both which are dated to 1st-2nd century CE, Gumbatona vihara dome also contains the earliest architectural feature of a double dome which became prominent during Islamic periods.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com.my/books?id=cIRYb1QdI4kC&q=Gumbatona+swat+dome&dq=Gumbatona+swat+dome&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj0rIbeo5jhAhWJ7XMBHR7JBgIQ6AEIKjAA|title=On Alexander's Track to the Indus: Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of India Carried Out Under the Orders of H. M. Indian Government|last=Stein|first=Sir Aurel|date=1974|publisher=Ares Publishers|isbn=9780890050361|language=en}}</ref> |
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Domes from [[Hindu Shahi]] period appear in [[Kafir Kot|Kafirkot temples]] as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meister|first=Michael W.|title=Temples along the Indus|url=https://www.academia.edu/783955/Temples_along_the_Indus|journal=EXPEDITION-PHILADELPHIA-|language=en}}</ref> An Amaravati stupa relief also shows a temple with a dome ceiling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/207_Amaravati.pdf|title=Amaravati: The art of an early Buddhist monument in context|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> Domes have also been depicted on Buddhist tablets in [[Sannati]]. Corbel domical ceiling was also known to be utilized frequently in [[Jain temple|Jain architecture]] and [[Dravidian architecture|south Indian architecture]] from the ancient and medieval periods. Archaeological excavation conducted by [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI) at [[Kosambi|Kausambi]] revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BC until 2nd century AD and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st - 2nd century AD featured an extensive structure with features such as four centered pointed, segmental arch for wider areas and vaulted roofs. The superstructure of central and eastern block was examined to have formed part of a dome that adorned the building. The entire galleries and superstructure were found collapsed under 5 cm thick layer of ash which indicates destruction of the palace through conflagration.<ref name=":0" /> |
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=== Late Medieval domes === |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late 13th century [[tomb of Balban]] and the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which was made of roughly cut material and would have needed covering surface finishes. The Alai Dawarza, a gate in the [[Qutb complex]] built in 1311, has the first dome in India made of finely dressed stone cut into voussoir blocks. Arches transition a square chamber to an octagon, which transitions to a sixteen-sided polygon through the use of corbelled brackets. The cut stone dome over the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) uses alternating rings of shallow and deep stones to produce a better bond with the core material. The use of finely cut stone voussoirs for these domes suggest the migration of masons from the former [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk Empire]].{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1944, 1946-1947}} |
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⚫ | Domes from the late 14th-century use roughly shaped stones covered in render, due to the dispersal of skilled masons following the movement of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back again. Examples include the [[Khirki Masjid]] (c. 1375) and the tomb of [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firoz Shah]] (d. 1388). The domed tomb of [[Malik Maqbul|Khan-i-Jahan Tilangani]] (1368) is generally referred to as "the first octagonal tomb in Delhi with the domed central chamber surrounded by an ambulatory verandah with three arched openings on each facet", although it is predated by the tomb of [[Zafar Khan (general)|Zafar Khan]].{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1947}} |
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==Lodhi dynasty== |
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Under the [[Lodi dynasty]] there was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period. There are multiple candidates. The [[Lodi Gardens|tomb]] of [[Sikandar Lodi|Sikander Lodi]] was built from 1517 to 1518 and is cited, but is predated by the brick tomb of [[Zain-ul-Abidin]]'s mother, built around 1465 in Zaina Kadal, [[Srinagar]]. The Sabz Burj in Delhi may be earlier still, but is dated to 1530-40 by written sources.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1948}} Although the tomb of Sikander Loki clearly has a double dome, with a distinct space between inner and outer shells, the earlier tomb of Shihab-ud-din Taj Khan (1501) has "an attempt in this direction". Although double domes had long been used in Persia, Iraq, and western Asia, Indian domes prior to this time domes had a single shell of stonework. Afterward, most of the large domes were built with two shells in order to preserve good proportions in both the interior and exterior.{{sfn|Brown|2013}} |
Under the [[Lodi dynasty]] there was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period. There are multiple candidates. The [[Lodi Gardens|tomb]] of [[Sikandar Lodi|Sikander Lodi]] was built from 1517 to 1518 and is cited, but is predated by the brick tomb of [[Zain-ul-Abidin]]'s mother, built around 1465 in Zaina Kadal, [[Srinagar]]. The Sabz Burj in Delhi may be earlier still, but is dated to 1530-40 by written sources.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1948}} Although the tomb of Sikander Loki clearly has a double dome, with a distinct space between inner and outer shells, the earlier tomb of Shihab-ud-din Taj Khan (1501) has "an attempt in this direction". Although double domes had long been used in Persia, Iraq, and western Asia, Indian domes prior to this time domes had a single shell of stonework. Afterward, most of the large domes were built with two shells in order to preserve good proportions in both the interior and exterior.{{sfn|Brown|2013}} |
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== |
=== Early Modern domes === |
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The first major [[Mughal architecture|Mughal building]] is the domed [[Humayun's Tomb|tomb of Humayun]], built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central dome likely has a core of brick, as can be seen in the later stripped tomb of [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana|Khan-i-Khanan]]. The central dome is faced with marble blocks in attached to the core by alternating wide and narrow layers and there is evidence of the use of iron cramps to secure them. Iron cramps may also help form a tension ring at the base of the dome. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed [[Chhatri|chattri]] made of brick and faced with stone. Smaller domes were widely made with rectangular bricks beginning in the 16th century, the necessary curvature being created by tapering the mortar joints.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1944, 1948-1949}} [[Chhatri|Chatri]]s, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use as [[cenotaph]]s.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=200}} |
The first major [[Mughal architecture|Mughal building]] is the domed [[Humayun's Tomb|tomb of Humayun]], built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central dome likely has a core of brick, as can be seen in the later stripped tomb of [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana|Khan-i-Khanan]]. The central dome is faced with marble blocks in attached to the core by alternating wide and narrow layers and there is evidence of the use of iron cramps to secure them. Iron cramps may also help form a tension ring at the base of the dome. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed [[Chhatri|chattri]] made of brick and faced with stone. Smaller domes were widely made with rectangular bricks beginning in the 16th century, the necessary curvature being created by tapering the mortar joints.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1944, 1948-1949}} [[Chhatri|Chatri]]s, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use as [[cenotaph]]s.{{sfn|Peterson|1996|p=200}} |
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The last major Islamic tomb built in India was the [[Tomb of Safdarjung|tomb of Safdar Jang]] (1753–54). It is a brick structure clad in sandstone and marble stripped from the earlier tomb of [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana|Khan-i-Khanan]] (d. 1627). Shallow brick domes cover the perimeter chambers of the building, and the central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1950-1951}} |
The last major Islamic tomb built in India was the [[Tomb of Safdarjung|tomb of Safdar Jang]] (1753–54). It is a brick structure clad in sandstone and marble stripped from the earlier tomb of [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana|Khan-i-Khanan]] (d. 1627). Shallow brick domes cover the perimeter chambers of the building, and the central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.{{sfn|Tappin|2003|p=1950-1951}} |
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===Pakistan=== |
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[[File:Data Durbar as more then one decade before by Usman Ghani.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Data durbar]] in [[Lahore]], Pakistan, is the largest [[Sufi]] complex in South Asia.<ref name="DandekarTschacher2016">{{citation|last1=Dandekar|first1=Deepra|last2=Tschacher|first2=Torsten|title=Islam, Sufism and Everyday Politics of Belonging in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQNADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA232|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-43596-9|pages=232–}}</ref>]] |
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According to Anna Suvorova, author of ''Muslim Saints in South Asia: The Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries'':<ref name="Suvorova2004">{{citation|last=Suvorova|first=Anna|title=Muslim Saints of South Asia: The Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK0aLjQtX2cC&pg=PA57|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-37006-1|pages=57–}}</ref> <blockquote> The domed cupola design of [[Data Durbar]] is typical of the pre-Mughal Muslim architecture of South Asia: while erecting the cupolas topping a square building, an intermediate form of squinches or arched transitional supports was used. These squinches are the arches built diagonally across the corners of a square to create this transition from the square to the spherical base of the dome. However, the technique of erecting domes on squinches did not prove strong enough when the domes were excessively high or had too large a radius: such structures could not withstand natural calamities.</blockquote> |
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[[File:Overview of Makli Hills.jpg|right|thumb|The [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] of Makli Hills in Thatta, Sindh Province, Pakistan.]] |
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The [[Makli Necropolis]], near [[Thatta]], [[Sindh province]] is described in the ''Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial'' as:<ref name="TarlowStutz2013">{{citation|last1=Tarlow|first1=Sarah (editor)|last2=Stutz|first2=Liv Nilsson (editor)|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EoXbmMb6rVYC&pg=PT246|date=6 June 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-165039-0|pages=246–}}</ref> <blockquote>The most common form of Muslim funerary monument is a square cube-like building covered with a dome. The origin of this architectural form is a matter of debate, though it may relate either to pre-Islamic Iranian or to Byzantine forms. There are a vast number of variations on this basic theme, including tall honeycomb-like domes seen in Iraq (e.g. Sitt Zubayda), polygonal tent-shaped domes in Turkey and Iran, and bulbous domes, as seen in India and South Asia. ... One of the largest collections of mausolea is located in the Makli hills near Thatta in And province, Pakistan, in a vast cemetery with a circumference of 8 kilometres. Many of these medieval mausolea are decorated with Islamic and Hindu motifs, whilst the later mausolea resemble the domed constructions of Central Asia.</blockquote> |
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== References == |
== References == |
Revision as of 01:49, 23 April 2019
Part of a series on |
Domes |
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Symbolism |
History of |
Styles |
Elements |
Pre-Islamic domes in the Indian subcontinent can be traced as early as first centuries CE when domes appeared in predominantly South Asian temple architecture and palaces.[1][2][3]
Islamic rule introduced domes with iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to the Hindu tradition of trabeate construction created a distinctive architecture.[4]
Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived from Hindu architecture. In contrast to Persian and Ottoman domes, the domes of Indian tombs tend to be more bulbous.[5]
History
Ancient and Early Medieval domes
Shunga period reliefs show domical structures, but it is unclear whether they were made of wood or materials such as stones and bricks. True domes from the ancient period of the Indian subcontinent survive mostly in Northwest region of the Indian subcontinent. The domes constructed in ancient Indian subcontinent utilized a different method of building squinch compared to the west. The dome at Gumbatona vihara, Takht e bahi are the earliest surviving examples of the domical structures from the Indian subcontinent both which are dated to 1st-2nd century CE, Gumbatona vihara dome also contains the earliest architectural feature of a double dome which became prominent during Islamic periods.[6]
Domes from Hindu Shahi period appear in Kafirkot temples as well.[7] An Amaravati stupa relief also shows a temple with a dome ceiling.[8] Domes have also been depicted on Buddhist tablets in Sannati. Corbel domical ceiling was also known to be utilized frequently in Jain architecture and south Indian architecture from the ancient and medieval periods. Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Kausambi revealed a palace with its foundations going back to 8th century BC until 2nd century AD and built in six phases. The last phase dated to 1st - 2nd century AD featured an extensive structure with features such as four centered pointed, segmental arch for wider areas and vaulted roofs. The superstructure of central and eastern block was examined to have formed part of a dome that adorned the building. The entire galleries and superstructure were found collapsed under 5 cm thick layer of ash which indicates destruction of the palace through conflagration.[1]
Late Medieval domes
The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late 13th century tomb of Balban and the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which was made of roughly cut material and would have needed covering surface finishes. The Alai Dawarza, a gate in the Qutb complex built in 1311, has the first dome in India made of finely dressed stone cut into voussoir blocks. Arches transition a square chamber to an octagon, which transitions to a sixteen-sided polygon through the use of corbelled brackets. The cut stone dome over the tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) uses alternating rings of shallow and deep stones to produce a better bond with the core material. The use of finely cut stone voussoirs for these domes suggest the migration of masons from the former Seljuk Empire.[9]
Domes from the late 14th-century use roughly shaped stones covered in render, due to the dispersal of skilled masons following the movement of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back again. Examples include the Khirki Masjid (c. 1375) and the tomb of Firoz Shah (d. 1388). The domed tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Tilangani (1368) is generally referred to as "the first octagonal tomb in Delhi with the domed central chamber surrounded by an ambulatory verandah with three arched openings on each facet", although it is predated by the tomb of Zafar Khan.[10]
Under the Lodi dynasty there was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period. There are multiple candidates. The tomb of Sikander Lodi was built from 1517 to 1518 and is cited, but is predated by the brick tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin's mother, built around 1465 in Zaina Kadal, Srinagar. The Sabz Burj in Delhi may be earlier still, but is dated to 1530-40 by written sources.[11] Although the tomb of Sikander Loki clearly has a double dome, with a distinct space between inner and outer shells, the earlier tomb of Shihab-ud-din Taj Khan (1501) has "an attempt in this direction". Although double domes had long been used in Persia, Iraq, and western Asia, Indian domes prior to this time domes had a single shell of stonework. Afterward, most of the large domes were built with two shells in order to preserve good proportions in both the interior and exterior.[12]
Early Modern domes
The first major Mughal building is the domed tomb of Humayun, built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central dome likely has a core of brick, as can be seen in the later stripped tomb of Khan-i-Khanan. The central dome is faced with marble blocks in attached to the core by alternating wide and narrow layers and there is evidence of the use of iron cramps to secure them. Iron cramps may also help form a tension ring at the base of the dome. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed chattri made of brick and faced with stone. Smaller domes were widely made with rectangular bricks beginning in the 16th century, the necessary curvature being created by tapering the mortar joints.[13] Chatris, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use as cenotaphs.[14]
The Taj Mahal in Agra, also a brick structure clad primarily in marble, was begun in 1632 and mostly completed in 1636; the rest of the extensive complex would not be finished before 1643. The tomb was built for Mumtaz Mahal, a wife of emperor Shah Jahan, after her death in 1631. The central double dome covers a diameter of 22 meters. The inner dome is three meters thick and over 30 meters below the outer dome. The outer dome rests upon drum walls five metes thick.[15] The fusion of Persian and Indian architecture can be seen in the dome's shape: the bulbous shape derives from Persian Timurid domes, and the finial with lotus leaf base is derived from Hindu temples.[16] The inner dome has a decorative triangulated pattern modeled after plaster mold work, but here carved in marble. The entire complex is highly symmetrical. On the western side of the tomb is a red sandstone mosque with three bulbous domes faced with marble, and on the eastern side is mirror-image assembly hall that likewise has three marble domes.[17] At the center of the tomb hall lies the cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal, with her husband's off-center to the west. The actual sarcophagi lie directly below, in the crypt, but in the same arrangement.[18]
The tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah (d. 1656) in Bijapur is one of the largest masonry domes in the world. Called the Gol Gumbaz, or Round Dome, it has an internal diameter of 41.15 meters and a height of 54.25 meters. The dome was built with layers of brick between thick layers of mortar and rendered on both faces, so that the dome acts as a concrete shell reinforced with bricks. It is 2.6 meters thick at the base.[19] The dome was the most technically advanced to be built in the Deccan, and exemplifies the flowering of art and architecture that occurred during the period of the Adil Shahi Sultanate's greatest extent.[20] Radial cracks were repaired in 1936-7 by the application of reinforcement to the outside of the dome, which was then covered by sprayed concrete.[21] Both the Gol Gumbaz dome and the smaller dome of the Jama Masjid, a 57-foot wide dome also at Bijapur, are above distinctive transition zones consisting of eight intersecting arches that narrow the openings to be covered.[22]
The last major Islamic tomb built in India was the tomb of Safdar Jang (1753–54). It is a brick structure clad in sandstone and marble stripped from the earlier tomb of Khan-i-Khanan (d. 1627). Shallow brick domes cover the perimeter chambers of the building, and the central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.[23]
References
- ^ a b Gosh, A. (1964). Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62. New Dehli: Archaeological survey of India. pp. 50–52.
- ^ Khaliq, Fazal (2016-07-10). "Ancient Buddhist monastery in Barikot attracting crowds". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2019-04-22.
- ^ Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (2019-03-15). The Geography of Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the Second International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 22nd-23rd March, 2018. Archaeopress. ISBN 9781789691870.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1941, 1943-1944.
- ^ Nuttgens 1997, p. 157.
- ^ Stein, Sir Aurel (1974). On Alexander's Track to the Indus: Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of India Carried Out Under the Orders of H. M. Indian Government. Ares Publishers. ISBN 9780890050361.
- ^ Meister, Michael W. "Temples along the Indus". EXPEDITION-PHILADELPHIA-.
- ^ "Amaravati: The art of an early Buddhist monument in context" (PDF).
{{cite web}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|dead-url=
(help) - ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1944, 1946-1947.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1947.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1948.
- ^ Brown 2013.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1944, 1948-1949.
- ^ Peterson 1996, p. 200.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1949.
- ^ Peterson 1996, p. 68.
- ^ Koch 2005, p. 140-143.
- ^ Tillotson 2012, p. 75.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1949-1950.
- ^ Michell & Zebrowski 1987, p. 15.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1951.
- ^ Spiers 1911, p. 961.
- ^ Tappin 2003, p. 1950-1951.
Bibliography
- Brown, Percy (2013). Indian Architecture (The Islamic Period). Read Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-447-49482-9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Koch, Ebba (2005). "The Taj Mahal: Architecture, Symbolism, and Urban Significance" (PDF). Muqarnas. 22: 128–149. doi:10.1163/22118993-90000087.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Michell, George; Zebrowski, Mark (1987). Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56321-5.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Nuttgens, Patrick (1997). The Story of Architecture. Hong Kong: Phaidon Press Limited. ISBN 0-7148-3616-8.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Peterson, Andrew (1996). The Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-20387-9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Tappin, Stuart (2003). "The Structural Development of Masonry Domes in India". In Huerta, S. (ed.). Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003 (PDF). Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera. pp. 1941–1952. ISBN 84-9728-070-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-04.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Tillotson, Giles (2012). Taj Mahal. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06365-5.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Spiers, R. Phené (1911), "Vault", in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, and General Information. Eleventh Edition., vol. 27, Cambridge, England: University Press, pp. 956–961
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)