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{{short description|History of human creation of works for aesthetic, communicative, or the expressive purposes}} |
{{short description|History of human creation of works for aesthetic, communicative, or the expressive purposes}} |
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{{History of art sidebar}} |
{{History of art sidebar}} |
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The '''history of art''' focuses on objects made by humans |
The '''history of art''' focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even functional and other purposes, but with a primary emphasis on its [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] visual form. [[Visual arts|Visual art]] can be classified in [[art#Forms, genres, media and styles|diverse ways]], such as separating [[fine art]]s from [[applied arts]]; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media such as [[architecture]], [[sculpture]], [[painting]], [[film]], [[photography]], and [[graphic arts]]. In recent years, technological advances have led to [[video]] art, [[Digital art|computer art]], [[performance art]], [[animation]], [[television]], and [[Video game|videogames]]. |
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The history of art is often told as a chronology of [[masterpiece]]s created during each [[civilization]]. It can thus be framed as a story of [[high culture]], epitomized by the [[Wonders of the World]]. On the other hand, [[vernacular]] art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as [[folk arts]] or [[craft]]. The more closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of [[low culture]], the more likely it is that they will identify their work as examining [[visual culture]] or [[material culture]], or as contributing to fields related to art history, such as [[anthropology]] or [[archaeology]]. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to as [[Artifact (archaeology)|archeological artifacts]]. |
The history of art is often told as a chronology of [[masterpiece]]s created during each [[civilization]]. It can thus be framed as a story of [[high culture]], epitomized by the [[Wonders of the World]]. On the other hand, [[vernacular]] art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as [[folk arts]] or [[craft]]. The more closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of [[low culture]], the more likely it is that they will identify their work as examining [[visual culture]] or [[material culture]], or as contributing to fields related to art history, such as [[anthropology]] or [[archaeology]]. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to as [[Artifact (archaeology)|archeological artifacts]]. |
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==Prehistory== |
==Prehistory== |
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{{Main|Prehistoric art}} |
{{Main|Prehistoric art}} |
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[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]] with the earliest known geometric engravings |
[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]] with the earliest known geometric engravings; supposedly made by a ''[[Homo erectus]]''; {{c.}} 500,000 BP; shell; from [[Trinil]] ([[Java]]); [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]] ([[Netherlands]]){{sfn|Joordens|d'Errico|Wesselingh|Munro|2015|pp=228–231}}]] |
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Prehistoric art includes a broad range of art made by illiterate cultures, including some of the earliest human artifacts. The best-known Prehistoric artworks are the large [[Paleolithic]] [[Cave painting|cave paintings]] that depict animals in continental Europe, particularly the ones at [[Lascaux]] in the [[Dordogne]] region of France. Several hundread decorated caves are known, spanning the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period ({{c.}} 38,000-12,000 BC). There are examples in [[Ukraine]], [[Italy]] and [[Great Britain]], but most of them are in France and Spain. Many theories have been suggested about the art's purpose, the most accepted being that it was part of religious rituals, possibly to evoke hunting success. |
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[[File:Stone Age Animal Carving, Hayonim Cave, 28000 BP.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Carving of a horse with traces of [[ocher]] painting; 40,000–18,500 BP; from the [[Hayonim Cave]], [[Levantine Aurignacian]]; [[Israel Museum]] ([[Jerusalem]]).{{sfn|Petrie|Rose|Tisch|Grant|1986|p=29}}<ref>"Horse from Hayonim Cave, Israel, 30,000 years" in {{cite book |title=Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology |date=2002 |publisher=Samuel Bronfman Biblical and Archaeological Museum of the Israel Museum |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7NtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2019-05-05 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801124001/https://books.google.com/books?id=w7NtAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hayonim horse |url=https://museums.gov.il/en/items/Pages/ItemCard.aspx?IdItem=ICMS_IMJ_330094 |website=museums.gov.il |access-date=2019-05-05 |archive-date=2020-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801150646/https://museums.gov.il/en/items/Pages/ItemCard.aspx?IdItem=ICMS_IMJ_330094 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Belfer-Cohen|Bar-Yosef|1981|pp=35–36}} This may be one of the earliest known manifestation of human art, together with [[:File:Claimed Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave.jpg|the ocher pieces]] of [[Blombos Cave]] in [[South Africa]], before the outpouring of [[parietal art]] in Europe.{{sfn|Sale|2006|p=57}}<ref name="NYT-20180912"/>]] |
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[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]] supposedly engraved by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' dates as far back as 500,000 years ago, although the meaning and intention behind these engravings are not known.{{sfn|Joordens|d'Errico|Wesselingh|Munro|2015|pp=228–231}} Claims of [[Neanderthal]] art, adornment, and structures have been made, dating from around 130,000 before present, and suggesting that Neanderthals may have been capable of [[Symbolic behavior|symbolic thought]],{{sfn|Villa|Roebroeks|2014|p=e96424}}<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Sci News|last=E.|first=de Lazaro|date=January 18, 2017|title=Neanderthals Capable of Incorporating Symbolic Objects into Their Culture, Discovery Suggests|url=http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/neanderthals-symbolic-objects-04545.html|access-date=May 13, 2019|archive-date=May 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513054320/http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/neanderthals-symbolic-objects-04545.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but none of these claims are widely accepted.{{sfn|Branan|2010|p=7}} |
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Besides cave painting, in various parts of the world, especially in Europe, small prehistoric statuettes known as [[Venus figurine|Venus figurines]] with exaggerated breasts and bellies were made, the famous one being [[Venus of Willendorf]], found in [[Austria]]. Most have small heads, wide hips, and legs that taper to a point. Arms and feet are often absent, and the head is usually small and faceless.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Art|date=2017|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-78067-968-6|page=12|url=|language=}}</ref>{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=1 & 2}} |
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===Paleolithic=== |
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{{Main|Prehistoric art}} |
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{{See also|List of Stone Age art}} |
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The oldest secure human art that has been found dates to the [[Late Stone Age]] during the [[Upper Paleolithic]], possibly from around 70,000 BC,<ref name="NYT-20180912"/> but with certainty from around 40,000 BC, when the first creative works were made from shell, stone, and paint by ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', using symbolic thought.{{sfn|Blundell|2006|p=63}} During the [[Upper Paleolithic]] (50,000–10,000 BC), humans practiced [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] and lived in [[cave]]s, where [[cave painting]] was developed.{{sfn|Gardner|Kleiner|2009|p=2}} During the [[Neolithic period]] (10,000–3,000 BC) the production of [[handicrafts]] commenced. |
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The appearance of creative capacity within these early societies exemplifies an evolutionarily selective advantage for artistic individuals. Since survival is not contingent on the production of art, art-producing individuals demonstrated agency over their environments in that they had spare time to create once their essential duties, like hunting and gathering, were completed.{{sfn|Dissanayake|1974|pp=211–217}} These preliminary artists were rare and "highly gifted" within their communities.{{sfn|Morriss-Kay|2010|pp=158–176}} They indicated advancements in cognition and understanding of symbolism.{{sfn|Morriss-Kay|2010|pp=158–176}} |
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However, the earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject of some debate. It is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the [[Upper Paleolithic]] era, although it is quite possible that it began earlier. |
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The artistic manifestations of the Upper-Paleolithic reached their peak in the [[Magdalenian]] period (±15,000–8,000 BC). [[Behavioral modernity|This surge in creative outpourings]] is known as the "Upper Paleolithic Revolution" or the "Creative Explosion".{{sfn|Bar-Yosef|2016|pp=3–18}} Surviving art from this period includes small carvings in stone or bone and [[cave painting]]. The first traces of human-made objects appeared in southern [[Africa]], the [[Western Mediterranean]], [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] ([[Adriatic Sea]]), [[Siberia]] ([[Baikal Lake]]), India and Australia. These first traces are generally worked stone ([[flint]], [[obsidian]]), wood or [[bone]] tools. To [[painting|paint]] in [[red]], [[iron oxide]] was used. Color, pattern, and visual likeness were components of Paleolithic art. Patterns used included zig-zag, criss cross, and parallel lines.{{sfn|Morriss-Kay|2010|pp=158–176}} |
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Cave paintings have been found in the [[Franco-Cantabrian region]]. There are pictures that are [[Abstract art|abstract]] as well as pictures that are [[naturalism (visual art)|naturalistic]]. Cave paintings were symbolically representative of activities that required learned participants – they were used as teaching tools and showcase an increased need for communication and specialized skills for early humans.{{sfn|Haidle|2014|pp=244–245}} Animals were painted in the caves of [[Cave of Altamira|Altamira]], [[Trois Frères]], [[Chauvet Cave|Chauvet]] and [[Lascaux]]. [[Sculpture]] is represented by the so-called [[Venus figurines]], feminine figures which may have been used in [[fertility cult]]s, such as the [[Venus of Willendorf]].{{sfn|Gardner|Kleiner|2009|pp=3–4}} There is a theory that these figures may have been made by women as expressions of their own body.{{sfn|McCoid|McDermott|1996|pp=319–326}} Other representative works of this period are the ''Man from [[Brno]]'',{{sfn|Honour|Fleming|2005|p=?}} and [[Venus of Brassempouy]].{{sfn|Honour|Fleming|2002|pp=36–44}} |
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A function of Paleolithic art was magical, being used in rituals. Paleolithic artists were particular people, respected in the community because their artworks were linked with religious beliefs. In this way, artifacts were symbols of certain deities or spirits.{{sfn|Drimba|1985|p=33}} |
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<gallery widths="170" heights="170"> |
<gallery widths="170" heights="170"> |
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File:Claimed Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave.jpg|Possibly the "oldest known drawing by human hands", discovered in [[Blombos Cave]] in [[South Africa]]. Estimated to be 73,000 years old.<ref name="NYT-20180912">{{cite news|last=St. Fleur|first=Nicholas|title=Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever-found.html|date=12 September 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=15 September 2018|archive-date=14 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414094752/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/12/science/oldest-drawing-ever-found.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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File:Loewenmensch1.jpg|[[Lion-man]] or ''Löwenmensch figurine''; {{circa}} 35,000-40,000 BC ([[Aurignacian]] - [[Upper Paleolithic]]); mammoth ivory; [[Museum Ulm]] (Germany) |
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File:MUT-9846.jpg|[[Vogelherd Cave|Vogelherd]] horse; c. 34,000-31,000 BC; mammoth ivory; length: 5 cm; Protohistory and Medieval Archaeology, [[University of Tübingen]] (Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}} |
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File:Lascaux painting.jpg|[[Cave paintings]] from [[Lascaux]] caves ([[Montignac, Dordogne]], France) |
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File:Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|[[Venus of Willendorf]]; c. 26,000 BC (the [[Gravettian|Gravettian period]]); limestone with ochre coloring; [[Naturhistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria) |
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File:Vestonicka venuse edit.jpg|[[Venus of Dolní Věstonice]]; c. 26,000 BC; fired clay; height: 11.5 cm; [[Moravské zemské muzeum|Moravian Museum]] ([[Brno]], [[Czech Republic]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}} |
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File:Venus de Brassempouy.jpg|[[Venus of Brassempouy]]; c. 23,000 BC; mammoth ivory; height: 3.5 cm; [[National Archaeological Museum, France|National Archaeological Museum of France]] ([[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}} |
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File:F07 0054.Ma.JPG|''[[Bison Licking Insect Bite]]''; 15,000–13,000 BC; [[antler]]; National Museum of Prehistory ([[Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil]], France) |
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</gallery> |
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16 PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)RhinocérosEnFuite.jpg|Painting of [[Rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]]; {{c.}} 32,000-14,000 BC; [[charcoal]] on rock; length: {{c.}} 2 m; [[Chauvet Cave]] ([[Ardèche]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=2}} |
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===Mesolithic=== |
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{{Hatnote|Main article: [[Mesolithic]]}} |
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[[File:Lovers 9000BC british museum.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''[[Ain Sakhri lovers]]''; c. 9000 BC (late [[Epipalaeolithic Near East]]); [[calcite]]; height: 10.2 cm, width: 6.3 cm; from Ain Sakhri (near [[Bethlehem]], [[Israel]]); [[British Museum]] (London)]] |
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In Old World archaeology, Mesolithic ([[Ancient Greek language|Greek]]: μέσος, ''mesos'' "middle"; λίθος, ''lithos'' "stone") is the period between the [[Upper Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]]. The term [[Epipaleolithic]] is often used synonymously, especially for outside [[northern Europe]], and for the corresponding period in [[Epipaleolithic Near East|the Levant]] and [[Epipaleolithic Caucasus|Caucasus]]. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period of [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures in Europe and West Asia, between the end of the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] and the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BC, in Southwest Asia (the [[Epipalaeolithic Near East]]) roughly 20,000 to 8,000 BC. |
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The term is less used of areas further east, and not at all beyond Eurasia and North Africa. |
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Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|[[Venus of Willendorf]]; {{c.}} 25,000 BC; [[limestone]] with [[ochre]] colouring; height: 11 cm; [[Natural History Museum, Vienna|Natural History Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}} |
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===Neolithic=== |
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{{Main|Neolithic}} |
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The Neolithic period began about 10,000 BC. The [[rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin]]—dated between the Mesolithic and Neolithic eras—contained small, schematic paintings of human figures, with notable examples in [[Roca dels Moros|El Cogul]], Valltorta, [[Alpera]] and Minateda. |
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Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley-108435.jpg|Detail in the Hall of the Bulls; {{c.}} 18,000-15,000 BC; pigments on rock; [[Lascaux]] caves ([[Montignac, Dordogne]], France)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Art|date=2017|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-78067-968-6|page=12|url=|language=}}</ref> |
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Neolithic painting is similar to paintings found in northern Africa ([[Atlas Mountains|Atlas]], Sahara) and in the area of modern [[Zimbabwe]]. Neolithic painting is often schematic, made with basic strokes (men in the form of a [[cross]] and women in a [[triangle|triangular]] shape). There are also cave paintings in [[Pinturas River]] in [[Argentina]], especially the [[Cueva de las Manos]]. In [[portable art]], a style called [[Cardium pottery]] was produced, decorated with imprints of [[seashell]]s. New materials were used in art, such as [[amber]], [[crystal]], and [[jasper]]. In this period, the first traces of urban planning appeared, such as the remains in [[Jericho#Tell es-Sultan|Tell as-Sultan]] ([[Jericho]]), [[Jarmo]] ([[Iraq]]) and [[Çatalhöyük]] ([[Anatolia]]).{{sfn|Onians|2004|pp=20–25}} In South-Eastern Europe appeared many cultures, such as the [[Cucuteni-Trypillia culture]] (from [[Romania]], [[Republic of Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]]), and the [[Hamangia culture]] (from [[Romanian culture|Romania]] and [[Culture of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]). Other regions with many cultures are China, most notable being the [[Yangshao culture]] and the [[Longshan culture]]; and [[Culture of Egypt|Egypt]], with the [[Badarian culture|Badarian]], the [[Naqada I]], [[Naqada II|II]] and [[Naqada III|III]] cultures. |
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F07 0054.Ma.JPG|[[Bison Licking Insect Bite]]; {{c.}} 15,000-13,000 BC; [[antler]]; legth: 10.5 cm; {{ill|National Museum of Prehistory (France)|fr|Musée national de Préhistoire|lt=National Museum of Prehistory}} ([[Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}} |
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Common materials of Neolithic sculptures from [[Anatolia]], are ivory, stone, clay and bone. Many are [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]], especially female, [[zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] ones being rare. Female figurines are both fat and slender. Both zoomorphic and anthropomorphic carvings have been discovered in [[Siberia]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and [[China]].{{sfn|Drimba|1985|p=52}} |
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<gallery widths="170" heights="170"> |
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File:Urfa man.jpg|The ''[[Urfa Man]]''; from modern-day [[Turkey]]; c. 9000 BC; [[sandstone]]; height: 1.8 m; [[Şanlıurfa Archaeology and Mosaic Museum]] ([[Urfa]], Turkey) |
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File:Bowl fragment MET DP368821.jpg|Fragment of a bowl; by [[Halaf culture]] from [[Mesopotamia]]; 5600-5000 BC; cermaic; 8.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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File:Clay vase with polychrome decoration, Dimini, Magnesia, Late or Final Neolithic (5300-3300 BC).jpg|Globular jar; by [[Dimini#Neolithic|Dimini culture]] from Greece; 5300-4800 BC; ceramic; height: 25 cm (9{{fraction|3|4}} in.), diameter at rim: 12 cm (4{{fraction|3|4}} in.); [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens|National Archaeological Museum]] ([[Athens]]) |
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File:思想者塑像.JPG|''The Thinker''; by [[Hamangia culture]] from Romania; c. 5000 BC; terracotta; height: 11.5 cm (4{{1/2}} in.); [[National Museum of Romanian History]] ([[Bucharest]]) |
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File:Serbia, Vinça culture, Neolithic Era - Vinca Idol - 2000.201 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Female figure; by [[Vinča culture]] from [[Serbia]]; 4500-3500 BC; fired clay with paint; overall: 16.1 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Ohio]], US) |
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File:Predynastic bearded man-MGR Lyon-IMG 9928.jpg|Figurine of a bearded man; by the [[Naqada I]] culture from Egypt; 3800-3500 BC; [[breccia]]; from [[Upper Egypt]]; [[Musée des Confluences]] ([[Lyon]], France) |
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File:Clevelandart 1984.68.jpg|'Flame-style' vessel; from the [[Jōmon period]] of Japan; c. 2750 BC; earthenware with carved and applied decoration; height: 61 cm, diameter: 55.8 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Ohio]], US) |
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File:半山类型圆点纹彩陶壶.jpg|Dotted pottery pot, semi-mountain type; by the [[Yangshao culture]] from China; 2700–2300 BC; [[Gansu Provincial Museum]] ([[Lanzhou]]; China) |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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===Metal Age=== |
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{{Main|Metal Age}} |
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[[File:Solvognen-00100.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''[[Trundholm sun chariot]]''; c. 1400 BC; bronze; height: 35 cm (14 in.), width: 54 cm (21 in.); [[National Museum of Denmark]] ([[Copenhagen]])]] |
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The last prehistoric phase is the Metal Age (or [[Three-age system]]), during which the use of [[copper]], [[bronze]] and [[iron]] transformed ancient societies. When humans could smelt and forge, metal implements could be used to make new tools, weapons, and art. |
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In the [[Chalcolithic]] (Copper Age), [[megalith]]s emerged. Examples include the [[dolmen]], [[menhir]] and the [[England|English]] [[wikt:cromlech|cromlech]], as can be seen in the complexes at [[Newgrange]] and [[Stonehenge]].{{sfn|Gardner|Kleiner|2009|p=12}} In Spain, the [[Los Millares]] culture, which was characterized by the [[Beaker culture]], was formed. In [[Malta]], the [[Megalithic Temples of Malta|temple complexes]] consist of [[Ħaġar Qim]], [[Mnajdra]], [[Tarxien Temples|Tarxien]] and [[Ġgantija]] were built. In the [[Balearic Islands]], notable megalithic cultures were developed, with different types of monuments: the ''[[naveta]]'', a tomb shaped like a truncated [[pyramid]], with an elongated burial chamber; the ''[[taula]]'', two large stones, one put vertically and the other horizontally above each other; and the ''[[talaiot]]'', a tower with a covered chamber and a false [[dome]].{{sfn|Azcárate|1983|pp=24–28}} |
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In the [[Iron Age]], the cultures of [[Hallstatt]] ([[Austria]]) and [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] ([[Switzerland]]) emerged in Europe. The former was developed between the 7th and 5th century BC, featured by the [[List of necropoleis|necropoleis]] with tumular tombs and a wooden burial chamber in the form of a house, often accompanied by a four-wheeled cart. The pottery was [[Polychrome|polychromic]], with [[geometry|geometric]] decorations and applications of metallic ornaments. La Tène was developed between the 5th and 4th century BC, and is more popularly known as early [[Celtic art]]. It produced many iron objects such as [[sword]]s and [[spear]]s, which have not survived well to the 2000s due to rust.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} |
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The [[Bronze Age]] refers to the period when bronze was the best material available. Bronze was used for highly decorated [[shield]]s, [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulas]], and other objects, with different stages of evolution of the style. Decoration was influenced by [[Art in Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Etruscan art|Etruscan]] and [[Scythian art]].{{sfn|Onians|2004|pp=30–31}} |
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==Antiquity== |
==Antiquity== |
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{{Main|Ancient art}} |
{{Main|Ancient art}} |
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[[File:Gudea of Lagash Girsu.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Statues of Gudea|Statue of Gudea I]]'', dedicated to the god [[Ningishzida]]; 2120 BC (the [[Neo-Sumerian]] period); [[diorite]]; height: 46 cm, width: 33 cm, depth: 22.5 cm; [[Louvre]]]] |
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In the first period of recorded history, art coincided with [[writing]]. The great civilizations of the [[Near East]]: [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] arose. Globally, during this period the first great cities appeared near major rivers: the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], [[Indus]] and [[Yellow River]]. |
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One of the great advances of this period was writing, which was developed from the tradition of communication using pictures. The first form of writing were the [[Jiahu symbols]] from [[Neolithic China]], but the first true writing was [[Cuneiform|cuneiform script]], which emerged in [[Mesopotamia]] c. 3500 BC, written on [[clay]] tablets. It was based on [[Pictogram|pictographic]] and [[Ideogram|ideographic]] elements, while later [[Sumerians]] developed [[syllable]]s for writing, reflecting the [[phonology]] and [[syntax]] of the [[Sumerian language]]. In Egypt [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic writing]] was developed using pictures as well, appearing on art such as the [[Narmer Palette]] (3,100 BC). The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] sculpted seals with short texts and decorated with representations of animals and people. Meanwhile, the [[Olmecs]] sculpted [[Olmec colossal heads|colossal heads]] and decorated other sculptures with [[Olmecs#Writing|their own hieroglyphs]]. In these times, writing was accessible only for the elites. |
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===Mesopotamia=== |
===Mesopotamia=== |
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{{Main|Mesopotamian art}} |
{{Main|Mesopotamian art}} |
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[[File:Sumerian Cylinder Seal of King Ur-Nammu.jpg|thumb|[[Cylinder seal]] of Hash-hamer, showing enthroned king [[Ur-Nammu]], with modern impression; {{c.}} 2100 BC; greenstone; height: 5.3 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=7}}]] |
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[[Mesopotamian art]] was developed in the area between [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] Rivers in modern-day Syria and Iraq, where since the 4th millennium BC many different cultures existed such as [[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Amorite]] and [[Chaldea]]. [[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian architecture]] was characterized by the use of [[brick]]s, [[lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and [[cone mosaic]]. Notable examples are the [[ziggurat]]s, large [[temple]]s in the form of [[step pyramid]]s. The tomb was a chamber covered with a false [[dome]], as in some examples found at [[Ur]]. There were also [[palace]]s walled with a terrace in the form of a ziggurat, where gardens were an important feature. The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] was one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. |
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Southern [[Iraq]] in the 4th millennium BC witnessed the emergence of the first cities and the earliest form of writing. Ancient [[Mesopotamia]] covers present-day Iraq, and parts of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. Because the region is situated within the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris–Euphrates river delta]], numerous civilizations lived here, notably [[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]]. The earliest writing developed here, as one of several administrative technologies that also included the [[cylinder seal]].{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}}[[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian architecture]] was characterized by the use of [[brick]]s, [[lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and [[cone mosaic]]. Notable examples are the [[ziggurat]]s, large [[temple]]s in the form of [[step pyramid]]s. The tomb was a chamber covered with a false [[dome]], as in some examples found at [[Ur]]. There were also [[palace]]s walled with a terrace in the form of a ziggurat, where gardens were an important feature. The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] was one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. |
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[[Relief]] sculpture was developed in [[wood carving|wood]] and [[stone]]. Sculpture depicted religious, military, and hunting scenes, including both human and animal figures. In the [[Sumer|Sumerian period]], small statues of people were produced. These statues had an angular form and were produced from colored stone. The figures typically had bald head with hands folded on the chest. In the [[Akkadian Period|Akkadian period]], statues depicted figures with long hair and beards, such as the [[stele]] of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]]. In the [[Amorites|Amorite period]] (or [[Neo-Sumerian|Neosumerian]]), statues represented kings from [[Gudea]] of [[Lagash]], with their mantles and a turbans on their heads, and their hands on their chests. During [[Babylonia]]n rule, the [[stele of Hammurabi]] was important, as it depicted the great king [[Hammurabi]] above a written copy of the laws that he introduced. [[Assyrian sculpture]] is notable for its [[anthropomorphism]] of cattle and the [[winged genie]], which is depicted flying in many reliefs depicting war and hunting scenes, such as in the [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III|Black Obelisk]] of [[Shalmaneser III]].{{sfn|Azcárate|1983|pp=36–44}} |
[[Relief]] sculpture was developed in [[wood carving|wood]] and [[stone]]. Sculpture depicted religious, military, and hunting scenes, including both human and animal figures. In the [[Sumer|Sumerian period]], small statues of people were produced. These statues had an angular form and were produced from colored stone. The figures typically had bald head with hands folded on the chest. In the [[Akkadian Period|Akkadian period]], statues depicted figures with long hair and beards, such as the [[stele]] of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]]. In the [[Amorites|Amorite period]] (or [[Neo-Sumerian|Neosumerian]]), statues represented kings from [[Gudea]] of [[Lagash]], with their mantles and a turbans on their heads, and their hands on their chests. During [[Babylonia]]n rule, the [[stele of Hammurabi]] was important, as it depicted the great king [[Hammurabi]] above a written copy of the laws that he introduced. [[Assyrian sculpture]] is notable for its [[anthropomorphism]] of cattle and the [[winged genie]], which is depicted flying in many reliefs depicting war and hunting scenes, such as in the [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III|Black Obelisk]] of [[Shalmaneser III]].{{sfn|Azcárate|1983|pp=36–44}} |
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Ebih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg|The [[Statue of Ebih-Il]]; {{c.}} 2400 BC; [[gypsum]], [[schist]], [[Seashell|shells]], [[lapis lazuli]]; height: 52.5 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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Standing male worshiper MET DT850.jpg|Standing male worshipper, one of the twelve statues in the [[Tell Asmar Hoard]]; 2900-2600 BC; gypsum alabaster, shell, black limestone and bitumen; 29.5 × 12.9 × 10 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Sumerian Statues from Eshnunna and Khafajah of Diyala region, Iraq Museum.jpg|Sumerian Statues of worshippers (males and females); 2800-2400 BC ([[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic period]]); [[National Museum of Iraq]] ([[Baghdad]]) |
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Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden).jpg|King of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]; {{c.}} 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; [[Iraq Museum]] ([[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}} |
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Bull's head ornament for a lyre MET DP260070.jpg|Bull's head ornament from a lyre; 2600-2350 BC; bronze inlaid with shell and [[lapis lazuli]]; height: 13.3 cm, width: 10.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Raminathicket2.jpg|A ''[[Ram in a Thicket]]''; 2600–2400 BC; gold, copper, shell, [[lapis lazuli]] and [[limestone]]; height: 45.7 cm (1 ft 6 in.); [[British Museum]] (London) |
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File:Ishtar gate in Pergamon museum in Berlin..jpg|[[Reconstruction (architecture)|Reconstruction]] of the [[Ishtar Gate]]; {{c.}} 605-539 BC; glazed bricks; [[Pergamon Museum]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=6}} |
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Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8747049029) (2).jpg|The ''[[Standard of Ur]]''; 1600–1400 BC (the Early Dynastic Period III); shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; height: 21.7 cm, length: 50.4 cm; discovered at the [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]] ([[Dhi Qar Governorate]], Iraq); British Museum |
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Ebih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg|The ''[[Statue of Ebih-Il]]''; c. 2400 BC; [[gypsum]], [[schist]], shells and lapis lazuli; height: 52.5 cm; [[Louvre]] (Paris) |
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Human-headed winged lion (lamassu) MET DT880.jpg|[[Lamassu]]; {{c.}} 883–859 BC; gypsum alabaster; height 311.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Genie benisseur (3565923284).jpg|[[Assyria]]n relief with a [[winged genie]] with [[bucket and cone]]; 713-706 BC; height: 3.3 m, width: 2.1 m; Louvre |
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Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet with the Name of Senwosret II MET DT531.jpg|Pectoral and necklace of Princess [[Sithathoriunet]]; 1887–1813 BC; gold, [[carnelian]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[turquoise]], [[garnet]] & [[feldspar]]; height of the pectoral: 4.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Kheops-Pyramid.jpg|The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] ([[Giza]], Egypt), circa 2589-2566 BC, by [[Hemiunu]] |
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Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription 01.jpg|Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription; c. 1500 BC; limestone; [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]] (Germany) |
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Standing Hippopotamus MET DP248993.jpg|[[William the Faience Hippopotamus]]; {{c.}} 1961-1878 BC; [[Egyptian faience]]; height: 11.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Luxor Museum Amenophis III. Statue 05.jpg|[[Amenhotep III]]; {{c.}} 1390-1352 BC; [[quartzite]]; height: 2.49 m; [[Luxor Museum]] ([[Luxor]], Egypt){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=15}} |
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File:Relief depicting Akhenaton and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aton 01 (cropped).jpg|[[Relief]] of the royal family: [[Akhenaten]], [[Nefertiti]] and the three daughters; 1352–1336 BC; painted [[limestone]]; 25 × 20 cm; Egyptian Museum of Berlin |
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Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|[[Nebamun]] Hunting in the Marshes; {{c.}} 1380 BC; paint on [[plaster]]; 98 × 83 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=19}} |
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Relief depicting Akhenaton and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aton 01 (cropped).jpg|Royal family: [[Akhenaten]], [[Nefertiti]] and the three daughters; {{c.}} 1352–1336 BC; [[limestone]]; height: 50 cm; [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]] (Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=16}} |
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CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|The ''[[Mask of Tutankhamun]]''; {{c.|1327 BC}}; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; [[Egyptian Museum]] ([[Cairo]]) |
CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|The ''[[Mask of Tutankhamun]]''; {{c.|1327 BC}}; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; [[Egyptian Museum]] ([[Cairo]]) |
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Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|The ''[[Nefertiti Bust]]''; |
Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|The ''[[Nefertiti Bust]]''; 1352–1336 BC; painted [[limestone]]; height: 50 cm; [[Neues Museum]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=16}} |
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Philae temple at night.jpg|The well preserved The Temple of Isis from [[Philae]] (Egypt), one of the best preserved temples from ancient Egypt, 380 BC-117 AD |
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Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustration of various types of capitals, drawn by the egyptologist [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] |
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</gallery> |
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===Indus Valley Civilization=== |
===Indus Valley Civilization=== |
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{{main|Indus Valley Civilisation#Arts and crafts}} |
{{main|Indus Valley Civilisation#Arts and crafts}} |
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Discovered in 1922, long after the contemporary cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, aka the Harappan Civilization ({{c.}} 2400-1900 BC) is now recognized as extraordinarily advanced, comparable in some ways with those cultures. Its sites span an area stretching from today's northeast [[Afghanistan]], through much of [[Pakistan]], and into western and northwestern [[India]]. Major cities of the culture include [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], located respectively in [[Punjab]] and in [[Sindh]] province in northern Pakistan, and the port city [[Lothal]], in the state of [[Gujarat]] ([[India]]). The most numerous artefacts are square and rectangular [[stamp seal|stamp seals]] and seal impressions, featuring animals, usually bulls, very short [[Harappan script|Harappan texts]]. Many stylized terracotta figurines have also been found in Harappan sites, and a few stone and bronze sculptures, more naturalistic than the ceramic ones.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}} |
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{{see also|Mehrgarh}} |
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[[File:Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|upright|The ''[[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]]''; 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm (4{{fraction|1|4}} in.); [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] ([[New Delhi]], India)]] |
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Discovered long after the contemporary civilizations of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan civilization]] (c. 2400–1900 BC) is now recognized as extraordinally advanced, comparable in many ways with those cultures. |
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Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels [[Indian Pottery|pottery]], gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed figurines in [[terracotta]], bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites.{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|p=248}} |
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Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|The ''[[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] ([[New Delhi]], India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}} |
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Shiva Pashupati.jpg|[[Pashupati seal|Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal]]; {{c.}} 2400-1900 BC; [[steatite]]; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}} |
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A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the civilisation are religious symbols.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=?}} |
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Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|The ''[[Priest-King (sculpture)|Priest-King]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; [[National Museum of Pakistan]] ([[Karachi]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}} |
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Realistic statuettes have been found in the site in the Indus Valley Civilization. One of them is the famous bronze statuette of a slender-limbed [[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]] adorned with bangles, found in [[Mohenjo-daro]]. Two other realistic statuettes have been found in [[Harappa]] in proper stratified excavations, which display near-[[Classical antiquity|Classical]] treatment of the human shape: the [[:File:Harappa 13 grey stone male dancer statuette.jpg|statuette of a dancer]] who seems to be male, and a [[:File:Harappa red jasper male torso.jpg|red jasper male torso]], both now in the Delhi National Museum. Archaeologist [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] reacted with surprise when he saw these two statuettes from Harappa:{{sfn|Marshall|1931|p=45}} |
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Clevelandart 1973.160.jpg|Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; {{c.}} 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US) |
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{{quote|When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged ... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|p=45}}}} |
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These statuettes remain controversial, due to their advanced techniques. Regarding the red jasper torso, the discoverer, [[Madho Sarup Vats|Vats]], claims a Harappan date, but Marshall considered this statuette is probably historical, dating to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period, comparing it to the much later [[Lohanipur torso]].{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=111–112}} A second rather similar grey stone statuette of a dancing male was also found about 150 meters away in a secure Mature Harappan stratum. Overall, anthropologist [[Gregory Possehl]] tends to consider that these statuettes probably form the pinnacle of Indus art during the Mature Harappan period.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=111}} |
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Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a [[yoga]]-like pose such as the so-called ''[[Pashupati seal|Pashupati]]''. This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, [[Shiva]].{{sfn|Marshall|1931|p=?}} If this can be validated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the [[Vedas|Veda]].{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} |
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File:Ceremonial Vessel LACMA AC1997.93.1.jpg|Ceremonial vessel; 2600-2450 BC; terracotta with black paint; 49.53 × 25.4 cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] (US) |
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File:Stamp seal and modern impression- unicorn and incense burner (?) MET DP23101 (cropped).jpg|Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?); 2600-1900 BC; burnt [[steatite]]; 3.8 × 3.8 × 1 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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File:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|The ''Priest-King''; 2400–1900 BC; low fired steatite; height: 17.5 cm; [[National Museum of Pakistan]] ([[Karachi]]) |
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File:Harappa 13 grey stone male dancer statuette.jpg|Male dancing torso; 2400-1900 BC; limestone; height: 9.9 cm; [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] ([[New Delhi]], India) |
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Baltimore Painter - Volute Krater - Walters 4886 - Side A.jpg|Volute krater; 320-310 BC; ceramic; height: 1.1 m; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], US) |
Baltimore Painter - Volute Krater - Walters 4886 - Side A.jpg|Volute krater; 320-310 BC; ceramic; height: 1.1 m; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], US) |
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Terracotta statuette of a draped woman MET DP117152.jpg|Statuette of a draped woman; 2nd century BC; terracotta; height: 29.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Front views of the Venus de Milo.jpg|''[[Venus de Milo]]''; 130–100 BC; marble; height: 203 cm (80 in); Louvre |
Front views of the Venus de Milo.jpg|''[[Venus de Milo]]''; 130–100 BC; marble; height: 203 cm (80 in); Louvre |
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=== Phoenician === |
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{{main|Phoenicia#Art}} |
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Phoenician art lacks unique characteristics that might distinguish it from its contemporaries. This is due to its being highly influenced by foreign artistic cultures: primarily [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], Greece and [[Assyria]]. Phoenicians who were taught on the banks of the [[Nile]] and the [[Euphrates]] gained a wide artistic experience and finally came to create their own art, which was an amalgam of foreign models and perspectives.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news |url= https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1879/01/05/81740354.pdf |title= Phoenician Art |work= The New York Times |access-date= 2008-06-20 |date= 1879-01-05 |archive-date= 2020-03-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200309031426/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1879/01/05/81740354.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> In an article from ''[[The New York Times]]'' published on January 5, 1879, Phoenician art was described by the following:<blockquote>He entered into other men's labors and made most of his heritage. The [[Sphinx]] of Egypt became [[Asian people|Asiatic]], and its new form was transplanted to [[Nineveh]] on the one side and to Greece on the other. The rosettes and other patterns of the [[Babylonia]]n cylinders were introduced into the handiwork of Phoenicia, and so passed on to the West, while the hero of the ancient [[Chaldea]]n epic became first the [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrian]] [[Melkart]]h, and then the [[Herakles]] of [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]].</blockquote> |
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National Museum of Beirut – Byblos figurine 6.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Byblos figurines]]'', Phoenician statuettes from [[Byblos]]; 19–18th century BC; bronze, probably gilded; [[National Museum of Beirut]] (Lebanon) |
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Phoenician, Iraq, Nimrud, 9th-8th Century BC - Decorative Plaque- Man; and Griffin in Combat - 1968.45 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and [[griffin]]; 900–800 BC; [[Nimrud ivories]]; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Ohio]], US) |
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Phoenician grinning mask - Cagliari, Museo Archeologico Nazionale (26721011486).jpg|Mask; 4th century BC; found in a grave at [[San Sperate]] ([[Sardinia]], Italy); [[Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari]] ([[Cagliari]], Sardinia, Italy) |
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Glass face bead MET DP121044.jpg|Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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=== Etruscan === |
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{{main|Etruscan art|Etruscan vase painting}} |
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[[Etruscan art]] was produced by the [[Etruscan civilization]] in [[central Italy]] between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. From around 600 BC it was heavily influenced by [[Greek art]], which was imported by the Etruscans, but always retained distinct characteristics. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (especially life-size on [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] or temples), wall-painting and [[metalworking]] especially in bronze. Jewellery and [[engraved gem]]s of high quality were produced.{{sfn|Boardman|Johnston|Smith|Pollitt|1993|pp=350–351}} |
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Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but relatively few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was relatively little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including [[Carrara marble]], which seems not to have been exploited until [[Roman Empire|the Romans]]. |
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The great majority of survivals came from tombs, which were typically crammed with [[sarcophagi]] and [[grave goods]], and terracotta fragments of architectural sculpture, mostly around temples. Tombs have produced all the [[fresco]] wall-paintings, which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects. |
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File:Le sarcophage des Époux dans l'exposition Un rêve d'Italie de la collection Campana$.jpg|The ''[[Sarcophagus of the Spouses]]''; 530–520 BC; [[terracotta]]; 111 × 194 × 69 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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File:Herakles and the Hydra Water Jar (Etruscan, c. 525 BC) -- Getty Villa - Collection.jpg|Water jar with [[Herakles]] and the [[Lernaean Hydra|Hydra]]; c. 525 BC; [[black-figure pottery]]; height: 44.5 cm, diameter: 33.8 cm; [[Getty Villa]] ([[California]], US) |
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File:Decorazione fittile del santuario di portonaccio, 510-500 ac ca, acroteri, apollo 02.jpg|''[[Apollo of Veii]]''; c. 510 BC; painted terracotta; height: 1.81 m; [[National Etruscan Museum]] ([[Rome]]) |
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File:Danseurs et musiciens, tombe des léopards.jpg|Fresco with dancers and musicians; c. 475 BC; fresco secco; height (of the wall); 1.7 m; [[Tomb of the Leopards]] ([[Monterozzi necropolis]], [[Lazio]], Italy) |
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=== Dacian === |
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{{main|Dacian art}} |
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{{see also|Dacian bracelets}} |
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[[Dacian art]] is the art associated with the peoples known as [[Dacians]] or ''[[North Thracian|North Thracians (Getae)]]''; The Dacians created an art style in which the influences of [[Scythians]] and the Greeks can be seen. They were highly skilled in gold and silver working and in pottery making. Pottery was white with red decorations in floral, geometric, and stylized animal motifs. Similar decorations were worked in metal, especially the figure of a horse, which was common on Dacian coins.{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=208}} Today, a big collection of Dacic masterpieces is in the [[National Museum of Romanian History]] ([[Bucharest]]), one of the most famous being the [[Helmet of Coțofenești]]. |
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The Geto-Dacians lived in a very large territory, stretching from the [[Balkans]] to the northern [[Carpathians]] and from the [[Black Sea]] and the river [[Tyras]] to the [[Tisza|Tisa]] plain, sometimes even to the [[Middle Danube]].{{sfn|MacKenzie|1986|p=25}} Between 15th–12th century, the Dacian-Getae culture was influenced by the Bronze Age [[Tumulus culture|Tumulus]]-[[Urnfield culture|Urnfield]] warriors.{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}} |
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Tesoro di cacuteni-baiceni, braccialetto d'oro, V-IV sec. ac..JPG|Bracelet; 5th-4th century BC; gold; [[National History Museum of Romania]] ([[Bucharest]], Romania) |
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Helmet of Cotofenesti at the National Museum of Romanian History 2011 - Front View.jpg|The ''[[Helmet of Coțofenești]]''; 4th century BC; gold; height: 25.5 cm, diameter: 22 cm; weight: 821.35 g; National History Museum of Romania |
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Rhyton getico da poroina mare, IV-III sec. ac. 02.JPG|[[Rhyton]]; 4th-3rd century BC; possibly made of gold and silver; National History Museum of Romania |
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Sepoltura principesca di peretu, elmo in argento dorato, 310-290 ac. ca. 01.JPG|The ''[[Helmet of Peretu]]''; 310-290 BC; gilded silver; from [[Peretu]] ([[Teleorman County]], Romania); National History Museum of Romania |
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=== Pre-Roman Iberian === |
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{{see also|Iberian sculpture}} |
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Pre-Roman Iberian art refers to the styles developed by the [[Iberians]] from the [[Bronze Age]] up to the [[Roman conquest of Hispania|Roman conquest]]. For this reason it is sometimes described as "Iberian art". |
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Almost all extant works of Iberian sculpture visibly reflect [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Phoenicia]]n influences, and [[Assyria]]n, [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Egypt]]ian influences from which those derived; yet they have their own unique character. Within this complex stylistic heritage, individual works can be placed within a spectrum of influences – some of more obvious Phoenician derivation, and some so similar to Greek works that they could have been directly imported from that region. Overall the degree of influence is correlated to the work's region of origin, and hence they are classified into groups on that basis. |
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Proyecto REMAN3D 18529 (44188146514).jpg|The ''[[Bicha of Balazote]]''; 6th century BC; carved of two [[limestone]] blocks; height: 73 cm; [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain]] (Madrid) |
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The Lady of Elche, once polychrome stone bust discovered by chance in 1897 at L'Alcúdia, believed to be a piece of Iberian sculpture from the 4th century BC, National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid (20098349590).jpg|The ''[[Lady of Elche]]''; c. 450 BC; [[limestone]]; National Archaeological Museum of Spain |
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León ibérico (17718603962) (2).jpg|The ''Lion from Nueva Carteya''; 4th century BC; limestone; height: 60 cm; [[Archaeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba]] (Spain) |
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Standing Male LACMA M.76.97.785.jpg|Figurine of a standing male; 3rd-2nd century BC; cast bronze; height: 6.8 cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] (US) |
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</gallery> |
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=== Hittite === |
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{{main|Hittite art}} |
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Hittite art was produced by the [[Hittites|Hittite civilization]] in ancient [[Anatolia]], in modern-day [[Turkey]], and also stretching into [[Syria]] during the second millennium BC from the nineteenth century up until the twelfth century BC. This period falls under the Anatolian [[Bronze Age]]. It is characterized by a long tradition of canonized images and motifs rearranged, while still being recognizable, by artists to convey meaning to a largely illiterate population: <blockquote>Owing to the limited vocabulary of figural types [and motifs], invention for the Hittite artist usually was a matter of combining and manipulating the units to form more complex compositions.{{sfn|Alexander|1986|p=122}}</blockquote>Many of these recurring images revolve around the depiction of [[Hittite mythology and religion|Hittite deities and ritual practices]]. There is also a prevalence of hunting scenes in Hittite relief and representational animal forms. Much of the art comes from settlements like [[Alaca Höyük]], or the Hittite capital of [[Hattusa]] near modern-day [[Boğazkale]]. Scholars do have difficulty dating a large portion of Hittite art, citing the fact that there is a lack of inscription and much of the found material, especially from burial sites, was moved from their original locations and distributed among museums during the nineteenth century. |
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<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> |
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Drinking cup in the shape of a fist, MFA, Boston (11244059164).jpg|Drinking cup in the shape of a fist; 1400-1380 BC; silver; from Central Turkey; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US) |
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Vessel terminating in the forepart of a stag MET DT871.jpg|Vessel terminating in the forepart of a stag; c. 14th–13th century BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 18 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Anatolian - Seal of Tarkummuwa, King of Mera - Walters 571512.jpg|''Seal of [[Tarkasnawa]]'', King of [[Kingdom of Mira|Mira]]; c. 1220 BC; silver; height: 1 cm, diameter: 4.2 cm; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], US) |
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Adana Müze10.jpg|Three reliefs from the [[Adana Archaeology Museum]] (Turkey) |
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</gallery> |
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=== Bactrian === |
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{{main|Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex#Art}} |
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The [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (a.k.a. the Oxus civilisation)]] is the modern archaeological designation for a [[Bronze Age]] [[civilization]] of [[Central Asia]], dated to c. 2300–1700 BC, in present-day northern [[Afghanistan]], eastern [[Turkmenistan]], southern [[Uzbekistan]] and western [[Tajikistan]], centred on the upper [[Amu Darya]] (Oxus River). Its sites were discovered and named by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] archaeologist [[Viktor Sarianidi]] (1976).{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Monumental urban centers, palaces and cultic buildings were uncovered, notably at [[Gonur Depe|Gonur-depe]] in Turkmenistan. |
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BMAC materials have been found in the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], on the [[Iranian Plateau]], and in the [[Persian Gulf]].{{sfn|Lamberg-Karlovsky|2002|pp=63–88}} Finds within BMAC sites provide further evidence of trade and cultural contacts. They include an [[Elam]]ite-type cylinder seal and a [[Harappa]]n seal stamped with an elephant and Indus script found at Gonur-depe.{{sfn|Kohl|2007|pp=196–199}} The relationship between [[Altyndepe|Altyn-Depe]] and the Indus Valley seems to have been particularly strong. Among the finds there were two [[Harappa]]n seals and ivory objects. The Harappan settlement of [[Shortugai]] in Northern Afghanistan on the banks of the [[Amu Darya]] probably served as a trading station.{{sfn|Dani|Masson|1993|p=242}} |
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A famous type of Bactrian artworks are the "Bactrian princesses" (a.k.a. "Oxus ladies"). Wearing large stylized dresses with puffed sleeves, as well as headdresses that merge with the hair, they embody the ranking goddess, character of the central Asian mythology that plays a regulatory role, pacifying the untamed forces. These statuettes are made by combining and assembling materials of contrasting colors. The preferred materials are [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] (or similar dark green stones), a whitish limestone or mottled [[alabaster]] or marine shells from the [[Indian Ocean]].{{sfn|Caubet|2019|p=221}} The different elements of body and costume were carved separately and joined, as in a puzzle, by tenon and mortices glue. |
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Shaft-hole axe head with bird-headed demon, boar, and dragon MET 1982.5.jpg|Axe with eagle-headed demon & animals; late 3rd millennium-early 2nd millennium BC; [[gilt silver]]; length: 15 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Bactrian camel MET DP-14200-001.jpg|Camel figurine; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; copper alloy; 8.89 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Monstrous male figure MET dp22227.jpg|Monstrous male figure; late 3rd–early 2nd millennium BC; [[Chlorite group|chlorite]], [[calcite]], gold and iron; height: 10.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Seated Female Figure LACMA M.2000.1a-f (1 of 3).jpg|Female figurine of the "Bactrian princess" type; 2500–1500 BC; chlorite (dress and headdress) and limestone (head, hands and a leg); height: 13.33 cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] (US) |
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</gallery> |
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=== Celtic === |
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{{main|Celtic art}} |
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Celtic art is associated with the peoples known as [[Celts]]; those who spoke the [[Celtic languages]] in Europe from pre-history through to the modern period. It also refers to the art of ancient peoples whose language is uncertain, but have cultural and stylistic similarities with speakers of Celtic languages. |
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Celtic art is a difficult term to define, covering a huge expanse of time, geography and cultures. A case has been made for artistic continuity in Europe from the [[Bronze Age]], and indeed the preceding [[Neolithic age]]; however archaeologists generally use "Celtic" to refer to the culture of the [[European Iron Age]] from around 1000 BC onwards, until the conquest by the [[Roman Empire]] of most of the territory concerned, and art historians typically begin to talk about "Celtic art" only from the [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] period (broadly 5th to 1st centuries BC) onwards.{{sfn|Megaw|2001|p=?}} Early Celtic art is another term used for this period, stretching in Britain to about 150 AD.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/project_archive/technologies_of_enchantment.aspx |title=Technologies of Enchantment: Early Celtic Art in Britain |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120804214909/http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/project_archive/technologies_of_enchantment.aspx |archive-date=2012-08-04 |publisher=[[British Museum]]}} It is also used by Jacobsthal; however the equivalent "Late Celtic art" for Early Medieval work is much rarer, and "Late Celtic art" can also mean the later part of the prehistoric period.</ref> The [[Early Medieval]] art of Britain and Ireland, which produced the [[Book of Kells]] and other masterpieces, and is what "Celtic art" evokes for much of the general public in the English-speaking world, is called [[Insular art]] in art history. This is the best-known part, but not the whole of, the Celtic art of the Early Middle Ages, which also includes the [[Pictish art]] of Scotland.{{sfn|Laing|2001|pp=6–12}} |
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<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> |
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Casque d'Amfreville Eure arrière.jpg|The ''[[Amfreville helmet]]''; by [[La Tène culture]]; late 4th century BC; bronze, iron, [[gold leaf]] and enamel; height: 21.4 cm; [[National Archaeological Museum, France|National Archaeological Museum of France]] ([[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]], France) |
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London - British Museum - 2453.jpg|Detail of the ''[[Battersea Shield]]''; 4th to 3rd century BC; copper alloy and emanel; height: 77.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London) |
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Stone sculpture of celtic hero.jpg|The ''[[Mšecké Žehrovice Head]]''; 150-50 BC; [[marlstone]]; height: 23.4 cm, width: 17.4 cm; [[National Museum (Prague)|National Museum of the Czech Republic]] ([[Prague]]) |
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Romano-Celtic mirror (Desborough).jpg|The ''[[Desborough mirror]]''; 20 BC-20 AD; copper alloy; height (with handle): 35 cm; British Museum |
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</gallery> |
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===Achaemenid=== |
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{{main|Persian art#Achaemenids}} |
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Achaemenid art includes [[frieze]] reliefs, metalwork, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Most survivals of court art are monumental sculpture, above all the [[relief]]s, double animal-headed [[Persian column]] capitals and other sculptures of [[Persepolis]].{{sfn|Cotterell|1993|pp=161–162}} |
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Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they produced not simply a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.{{sfn|Lipiński|Lerberghe|1995|p=119}}{{sfn|Cotterell|1993|p=162}} [[Cyrus the Great]] in fact had an extensive ancient Iranian heritage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the [[Medes]], was for instance in the tradition of earlier sites. |
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There are a number of very fine pieces of jewellery or inlay in precious metal, also mostly featuring animals, and the [[Oxus Treasure]] has a wide selection of types. Small pieces, typically in gold, were sewn to clothing by the elite, and a number of gold [[torc]]s have survived.{{sfn|Cotterell|1993|pp=161–162}} |
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<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> |
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Apadana Persepolis Iran.JPG|Relief from [[Persepolis]] ([[Iran]]) that represents people who carry bowls and [[amphorae]]s |
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Immortels - dynamosquito.jpg|Frieze of archers; c. 510 BC; bricks; from the [[Palace of Darius]] at [[Susa]]; [[Louvre]] |
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Armlet from the Oxus Treasure BM 1897.12-31.116.jpg|Gold bracelet, part of the [[Oxus Treasure]]; 5th to 4th century BC; gold; width: 11.6 cm; [[British Museum]] (London) |
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National Meusem Darafsh 6 (52).JPG|Column capital; 5th to 4th century BC; stone; height: 1.75 m; from [[Persepolis]]; [[National Museum of Iran]] ([[Teheran]]) |
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</gallery> |
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===Rome=== |
===Rome=== |
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Bronze statuette of a philosopher on a lamp stand MET DT2527.jpg|Bronze statuette of a philosopher on a lamp stand; late 1st century BC; bronze; overall: 27.3 cm; weight: 2.9 kg; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Statue-Augustus.jpg|''[[Augustus of Prima Porta]]''; c. 20 BC; white [[marble]]; height: 2.06 m; [[Vatican Museums]] ([[Vatican City]]) |
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Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale MET DP170950.jpg|Restoration of a fresco from an Ancient villa bedroom; 50-40 BC; dimensions of the room: 265.4 × 334 × 583.9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Autel funéraire d'Amemptus Louvre Ma 488 n1.jpg|[[Altar]] with [[festoon]]s; c. 50 AD; marble; height: 99.5 cm, width: 61.5 cm, depth: 47 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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MBALyon2018 - Expo Claude - Relief Pretoriens - cropped foreground.jpg|The ''[[Praetorians Relief]]''; c. 51–52; marble; 163 × 134 × 28 cm; [[Louvre-Lens]] ([[Lens, Pas-de-Calais|Lens]], France) |
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Marble calyx-krater with reliefs of maidens and dancing maenads MET DT4541.jpg|[[Krater|Calyx-krater]] with reliefs of maidens and dancing maenads; 1st century AD; [[Mount Pentelicus#Pentelic Marble|Pentelic marble]]; height: 80.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Einblick Panorama Pantheon Rom.jpg|Panoramic view of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] (Rome), built between 113 and 125 |
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Marble head of a goddess wearing a diadem MET DP271743.jpg|Head of a goddess wearing a [[diadem]]; 1st–2nd century; marble; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays MET DP138722.jpg|Couch and footstool; 1st–2nd century AD; wood, bone and glass; couch: 105.4 × 76.2 × 214.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Sarcofago con apollo, minerva e le muse, dalla via appia, 200 dc ca. 01.JPG|[[Sarcophagus]] with [[Apollo]], [[Minerva]] and the [[Muses]]; c. 200 AD; from [[Appian Way|Via Appia]]; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] (Berlin) |
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Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor) - Google Art Project.jpg|Marine [[mosaic]] (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); height: 2,915 mm, width: 2,870 mm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US) |
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Theseus Mosaic - Google Art Project.jpg|The ''Theseus Mosaic''; 300–400; marble and limestone pebbles; 4.1 × 4.2 m; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria) |
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</gallery> |
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===Olmec=== |
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{{main|Olmecs#Art}} |
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The olmecs were the earliest known major civilization in [[Mesoamerica]] following a progressive development in [[Soconusco]]. Olmec is the first to be elaborate as a pre-Columbian civilization of Mesoamerica (c. 1200–400 BC) and one that is thought to have set many of the fundamental patterns evinced by later American Indian cultures of Mexico and Central America, notably the Maya and the Aztec. |
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They lived in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in the present-day states of [[Veracruz]] and [[Tabasco]]. It has been speculated that the Olmecs derive in part from neighboring [[Mokaya]] or [[Mixe–Zoque languages|Mixe–Zoque]]. The Olmecs flourished during [[Mesoamerica]]'s [[Mesoamerican chronology|formative period]], dating roughly from as early as 1500 BC to about 400 BC. Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished in the area since about 2500 BC, but by 1600–1500 BC, early Olmec culture had emerged, centered on the [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán]] site near the coast in southeast Veracruz.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Olmecs : America's First Civilization|author-link=Richard Diehl|last=Diehl|first=Richard A.|publisher=Thames and Hudson|year=2004|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-28503-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9 9–25]|url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh/page/9}}</ref> They were the first Mesoamerican civilization, and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed. |
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The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture.{{sfn|Coe|2002|p=62}} Wrought in a large number of media – jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others – much Olmec art, such as [[The Wrestler (sculpture)|''The Wrestler'']], is naturalistic. Other art expresses fantastic [[anthropomorphic]] creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning.<ref>{{harvnb|Coe|2002|p=88}} and others.</ref> Common [[motif (art)|motifs]] include downturned mouths and a cleft head, both of which are seen in representations of [[Olmec were-jaguar|were-jaguars]].{{sfn|Coe|2002|p=62}} |
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<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> |
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Cabeza Colosal nº1 del Museo Xalapa.jpg|Colossal Head N° 1 of [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán|San Lorenzo]], 1200 to 900 BCE, 2.9 metres (9 ft 6 in) high and 2.1 metres (6 ft 11 in) wide. A historical person, likely an Olmec leader, is depicted in this monumental sculpture found at [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán|San Lorenzo]] (in [[Tabasco]], [[Mexico]]), a principal olmec center |
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Seated Figure MET DP295629.jpg|Seated figurine; 12th–9th century BC; painted ceramic; height: 34 cm, width: 31.8 cm, depth: 14.6 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Bird Vessel MET DP23080.jpg|Bird-shaped vessel; 12th–9th century BC; ceramic with red [[ochre]]; height: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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British Museum Mesoamerica 052.jpg|[[Olmec#Kunz axes|Kunz axe]]; 1200–400 BC; polished green quartz ([[aventurine]]); height: 29 cm, width: 13.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London) |
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Mihrab (Prayer Niche) MET DP235035.jpg|[[Mihrab]] (prayer niche); 1354–1355; mosaic of polychrome-glazed cut tiles on stonepaste body, set into mortar; 343.1 × 288.7 cm, weight: 2041.2 kg; from [[Isfahan]] ([[Iran]]); Metropolitan Museum of Art |
Mihrab (Prayer Niche) MET DP235035.jpg|[[Mihrab]] (prayer niche); 1354–1355; mosaic of polychrome-glazed cut tiles on stonepaste body, set into mortar; 343.1 × 288.7 cm, weight: 2041.2 kg; from [[Isfahan]] ([[Iran]]); Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Miraj by Sultan Muhammad.jpg|[[Persian miniature]] of the [[Isra and Mi'raj|Mi'raj]] of the Prophet by [[Sultan Mohammed]], showing Chinese-influenced clouds and angels; 1539–1543; gouache and ink on paper; height: 28.7 cm; [[British Library]] (London) |
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Dish MET DP269019.jpg|[[İznik pottery|İznik]] dish; 16th century; stonepaste, polychrome-painted under transparent glaze; height: 6 cm, diameter: 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
Dish MET DP269019.jpg|[[İznik pottery|İznik]] dish; 16th century; stonepaste, polychrome-painted under transparent glaze; height: 6 cm, diameter: 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Mixtechi-aztechi, maschera di tezcatlipoca con mosaico in turchese, 1400-1521 circa, 0.JPG|The Mask of [[Tezcatlipoca]]; 1400–1521; turquoise, [[pyrite]], [[pine]], [[lignite]], human bone, deer skin, conch shell and [[agave]]; height: 19 cm, width: 13.9 cm, length: 12.2 cm; British Museum |
Mixtechi-aztechi, maschera di tezcatlipoca con mosaico in turchese, 1400-1521 circa, 0.JPG|The Mask of [[Tezcatlipoca]]; 1400–1521; turquoise, [[pyrite]], [[pine]], [[lignite]], human bone, deer skin, conch shell and [[agave]]; height: 19 cm, width: 13.9 cm, length: 12.2 cm; British Museum |
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Double headed turquoise serpentAztecbritish museum.jpg|[[Double-headed serpent]]; 1450–1521; [[Cedrela odorata|Spanish cedar]] wood (''Cedrela odorata''), [[turquoise]], shell, traces of gilding & 2 resins are used as adhesive (pine resin and Bursera resin); height: 20.3 cm, width: 43.3 cm, depth: 5.9 cm; British Museum |
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Codex Borbonicus (p. 14).jpg|Page 12 of the [[Codex Borbonicus]], (in the big square): [[Tezcatlipoca]] (night and fate) and [[Quetzalcoatl]] (feathered serpent); before 1500; bast fiber paper; height: 38 cm, length of the full manuscript: 142 cm; [[Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale (Paris)|Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale]] (Paris) |
Codex Borbonicus (p. 14).jpg|Page 12 of the [[Codex Borbonicus]], (in the big square): [[Tezcatlipoca]] (night and fate) and [[Quetzalcoatl]] (feathered serpent); before 1500; bast fiber paper; height: 38 cm, length of the full manuscript: 142 cm; [[Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale (Paris)|Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale]] (Paris) |
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1479 Stein der fünften Sonne, sog. Aztekenkalender, Ollin Tonatiuh anagoria.JPG|[[Aztec calendar stone]]; 1502–1521; [[basalt]]; diameter: 358 cm; thick: 98 cm; discovered on 17 December 1790 during repairs on the [[Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral|Mexico City Cathedral]]; [[National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)|National Museum of Anthropology]] ([[Mexico City]]) |
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Tlaloc Vasija.jpg|[[Tlāloc]] effigy vessel; 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; {{lang|es|[[Museo del Templo Mayor]]|italic=no}} (Mexico City) |
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Kneeling Female Figure MET DP246686.jpg|Kneeling female figure; 15th–early 16th century; painted stone; overall: 54.61 × 26.67 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
Kneeling Female Figure MET DP246686.jpg|Kneeling female figure; 15th–early 16th century; painted stone; overall: 54.61 × 26.67 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Monument 151 de Tonina, prisonnier, exposition "Mayas", Musée du Quai Branly, Paris.jpg|Statue depicting a bound prisoner; 600-900 AD; limestone; from [[Toniná]] (Mexico); [[Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac]] (Paris) |
Monument 151 de Tonina, prisonnier, exposition "Mayas", Musée du Quai Branly, Paris.jpg|Statue depicting a bound prisoner; 600-900 AD; limestone; from [[Toniná]] (Mexico); [[Musée du quai Branly – Jacques Chirac]] (Paris) |
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K'inich Janaab Pakal I v2.jpg|Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I; 615–683; stucco; height: 43 cm; [[National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)|National Museum of Anthropology]] (Mexico City) |
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Codex-Style Vase with Mythological Scene MET DP-579-002.jpg|[[Maya ceramics|Codex-style vase]] with a mythological scene; 7th–8th century; ceramic; height: 19 cm, diameter: 11.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
Codex-Style Vase with Mythological Scene MET DP-579-002.jpg|[[Maya ceramics|Codex-style vase]] with a mythological scene; 7th–8th century; ceramic; height: 19 cm, diameter: 11.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg|One of the Yaxchilan lintels, this one showing a bloodletting ritual performed by the king of Yaxchilan, and his wife, Lady K'ab'al Xook; 723–726; limestone; height: 108 cm, width: 78 cm; British Museum |
Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg|One of the Yaxchilan lintels, this one showing a bloodletting ritual performed by the king of Yaxchilan, and his wife, Lady K'ab'al Xook; 723–726; limestone; height: 108 cm, width: 78 cm; British Museum |
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Maya Presentation of Captives Kimbell.jpg|Relief showing Aj Chak Maax presenting captives before ruler Itzamnaaj B'alam III of [[Yaxchilan]]; 22 August 783; limestone with traces of pigment; height: 1.15 m; [[Kimbell Art Museum]] ([[Fort Worth]], Texas, US) |
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Head MET DP258267.jpg|[[Old Bering Sea]] head; 2nd–4th century; ivory (walrus); height: 6.35 cm (2{{fraction|1|2}} in.); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
Head MET DP258267.jpg|[[Old Bering Sea]] head; 2nd–4th century; ivory (walrus); height: 6.35 cm (2{{fraction|1|2}} in.); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Knife Handle MET 1979.206.603 b.jpg|[[Punuk]] knife handle; 11th–12th century; walrus ivory; height: 3.8 cm, width: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
Knife Handle MET 1979.206.603 b.jpg|[[Punuk]] knife handle; 11th–12th century; walrus ivory; height: 3.8 cm, width: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Mask Alaska DMA.jpg|[[Yupik people|Yupik]] mask with seal or sea otter spirit; late 19th century; wood, paint, gut cord, & feathers; [[Dallas Museum of Art]] ([[Texas]], US) |
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Boat mask of a shaman - Jacobsen Yup'ik collection, 1883 - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01050.JPG|Yupik boat mask of a shaman; 1883; [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]] (Germany) |
Boat mask of a shaman - Jacobsen Yup'ik collection, 1883 - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01050.JPG|Yupik boat mask of a shaman; 1883; [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]] (Germany) |
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Sarnath_capital.jpg|The [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]; c. 250 BC; [[sandstone]]; height: 2.15 m; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India) |
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Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|Seated Buddha; c. 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum |
Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|Seated Buddha; c. 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum |
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Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg|''Chaumukha'' idol; c. 600; sandstone; 58.42 × 43.18 × 44.45 cm; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] (US) |
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022 Cave 1, Padmapani (33896247830).jpg|''Bodhisattva Padmapani''; 450–490; pigments on rock; height: c. 1.2 m; [[Ajanta Caves]] (India) |
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Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg|The [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] ([[Khajuraho]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India), c. 1030 |
Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg|The [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] ([[Khajuraho]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India), c. 1030 |
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Ming Pilgerflasche Museum Rietberg U 138.jpg|Pilgrim flask decorated with peaches and pomegrenates, made with the [[cloisonné]] technique; 1st half of the 17th century (the [[Ming Dynasty]]); Museum Rietberg |
Ming Pilgerflasche Museum Rietberg U 138.jpg|Pilgrim flask decorated with peaches and pomegrenates, made with the [[cloisonné]] technique; 1st half of the 17th century (the [[Ming Dynasty]]); Museum Rietberg |
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11 Temple of Heaven.jpg|Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, the main building of the [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[Beijing]]), 1703-1790 |
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Ding Guanpeng - Peaceful Start for the New Year.jpg|''Peaceful Start for the New Year''; by [[Ding Guanpeng]]; 1748; ink and color on paper; height: 179.3 cm; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]) |
Ding Guanpeng - Peaceful Start for the New Year.jpg|''Peaceful Start for the New Year''; by [[Ding Guanpeng]]; 1748; ink and color on paper; height: 179.3 cm; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]) |
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Kitagawa Utamaro - Toji san bijin (Three Beauties of the Present Day)From Bijin-ga (Pictures of Beautiful Women), published by Tsutaya Juzaburo - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Three Beauties of the Present Day]]''; by [[Kitagawa Utamaro]]; c. 1793; height: 3.87 cm (15.23 in), width: 2.62 cm (10.31 in); [[Toledo Museum of Art]] ([[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], [[Ohio]], US) |
Kitagawa Utamaro - Toji san bijin (Three Beauties of the Present Day)From Bijin-ga (Pictures of Beautiful Women), published by Tsutaya Juzaburo - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Three Beauties of the Present Day]]''; by [[Kitagawa Utamaro]]; c. 1793; height: 3.87 cm (15.23 in), width: 2.62 cm (10.31 in); [[Toledo Museum of Art]] ([[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], [[Ohio]], US) |
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Japan, 19th century - Plate (Imari ware?) - 1991.1050 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Plate; 1800s; overglaze enameled porcelain; diameter: 48.3 cm, overall: 5.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art |
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Inro-BHM 1079-P8260170.JPG|[[Inrō]]; 19th century; wood, lacquer and gold; [[Historical Museum of Bern]] (Switzerland) |
Inro-BHM 1079-P8260170.JPG|[[Inrō]]; 19th century; wood, lacquer and gold; [[Historical Museum of Bern]] (Switzerland) |
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Yaka Maske Museum Rietberg RAC 503.jpg|Mask; by [[Yaka people]]; early 20th century; wood, raffia & color pigments; [[Museum Rietberg]] ([[Zürich]], Switzerland) |
Yaka Maske Museum Rietberg RAC 503.jpg|Mask; by [[Yaka people]]; early 20th century; wood, raffia & color pigments; [[Museum Rietberg]] ([[Zürich]], Switzerland) |
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Bush Buffalo Mask, early-mid 1900s, Western Sudan, Burkina Faso, possibly Bwa people, wood, fibers - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08709.JPG|Buffalo mask; possibly by [[Bwa people]]; early-mid 1900s; fibres and painted wood; Cleveland Museum of Art |
Bush Buffalo Mask, early-mid 1900s, Western Sudan, Burkina Faso, possibly Bwa people, wood, fibers - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08709.JPG|Buffalo mask; possibly by [[Bwa people]]; early-mid 1900s; fibres and painted wood; Cleveland Museum of Art |
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Koussoukoingou2.jpg|A traditional tata-somba house in [[Benin]] |
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</gallery> |
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Masi (barkcloth) from Fiji, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|''Masi'' (barkcloth); 20th century; from [[Fiji]]; [[Honolulu Museum of Art]] (Hawaii, US) |
Masi (barkcloth) from Fiji, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG|''Masi'' (barkcloth); 20th century; from [[Fiji]]; [[Honolulu Museum of Art]] (Hawaii, US) |
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Men's club house, Palau, 1907 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00974.JPG|Men's club house, 1907, from [[Palau]], now in [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]] (Germany) |
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Abelam ceremonial supply house, Kalabu, Papua New Guinea, 1950 - Südseeabteilung - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC00971.JPG|Detail of a ceremonial supply house, from [[Papua New Guinea]], now in Ethnological Museum of Berlin |
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Necklace, shark vertebrae, shell, and glass beads, Wuwulu, 1909 - Staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde München - DSC08289.JPG|Necklace; before 1909; shark vertebrae, shell (Cassis rufa), glass beads, fibre; diameter: c. 35 cm; from [[Wuvulu]] (Papua New Guinea); [[Museum Five Continents]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Brunt|Thomas|Salmond|Kasarherou|2018|p=299}} |
Necklace, shark vertebrae, shell, and glass beads, Wuwulu, 1909 - Staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde München - DSC08289.JPG|Necklace; before 1909; shark vertebrae, shell (Cassis rufa), glass beads, fibre; diameter: c. 35 cm; from [[Wuvulu]] (Papua New Guinea); [[Museum Five Continents]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Brunt|Thomas|Salmond|Kasarherou|2018|p=299}} |
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Maria Lach 02.jpg|''[[Maria Laach Abbey]]'' (near [[Andernach]], Germany), one of the most iconic Romanesque churches |
Maria Lach 02.jpg|''[[Maria Laach Abbey]]'' (near [[Andernach]], Germany), one of the most iconic Romanesque churches |
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Durham Cathedral Nave.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Durham Cathedral]] ([[Durham, England|Durham]], [[UK]]), 1093-1133 |
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Évangiles de Liessies - saint Jean - Avesnes-sur-Helpe.jpg|Miniature of [[Saint John the Evangelist]]; before 1147; illumination on parchment; 35.5 cm; [[Avesnes-sur-Helpe]] (France) |
Évangiles de Liessies - saint Jean - Avesnes-sur-Helpe.jpg|Miniature of [[Saint John the Evangelist]]; before 1147; illumination on parchment; 35.5 cm; [[Avesnes-sur-Helpe]] (France) |
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Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|The Royal Chapel, seen from the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Versailles |
Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|The Royal Chapel, seen from the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Versailles |
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LouisXIV-Bernini.jpg|The |
LouisXIV-Bernini.jpg|The ''[[Bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|Bust of Louis XIV]]''; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1665; marble; 105 × 99 × 46 cm; Palace of Versailles |
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Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Art of Painting]]''; by [[Johannes Vermeer]]; 1666-1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum |
Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Art of Painting]]''; by [[Johannes Vermeer]]; 1666-1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum |
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The Coiffure MET DT296553.jpg|''The coiffure''; made by the Ludwigsburg Porcelain Manufactory; c. 1770; hard-paste porcelain; overall: 12.4 × 9.8 × 7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
The Coiffure MET DT296553.jpg|''The coiffure''; made by the Ludwigsburg Porcelain Manufactory; c. 1770; hard-paste porcelain; overall: 12.4 × 9.8 × 7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Coiffure à l’indépendance ou Le triomphe de la liberté 14524 podl.jpg|Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la Liberté; 1778; engraving; [[Château de Blérancourt]] ([[Blérancourt]], France). In this print a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing touches to her toilette<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marnie|first1=Fogg|title=Fashion: The Whole Story|date=2013|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=9780500291108|page=111 & 112|url=|language=ro}}</ref> |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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Angelica Kauffman - El juicio de Paris.jpg|''The Judgment of Paris''; by [[Angelica Kauffman]]; c. 1781; oil on canvas;100.9 × 80 cm; Museo del Ponce ([[Puerto Rico]]) |
Angelica Kauffman - El juicio de Paris.jpg|''The Judgment of Paris''; by [[Angelica Kauffman]]; c. 1781; oil on canvas;100.9 × 80 cm; Museo del Ponce ([[Puerto Rico]]) |
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Jacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]''; by [[Jacques-Louis David]]; 1784; oil on canvas; height: 330 cm, width: 425 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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David - The Death of Socrates.jpg|''[[The Death of Socrates]]''; by Jacques-Louis David; 1787; oil on canvas; 129.5 cm × 196.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
David - The Death of Socrates.jpg|''[[The Death of Socrates]]''; by Jacques-Louis David; 1787; oil on canvas; 129.5 cm × 196.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
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Clock Thomire Louvre OA9511.jpg|Clock with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]; c. 1810; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre |
Clock Thomire Louvre OA9511.jpg|Clock with [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]; c. 1810; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre |
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Berlin Hotel Kaiserhof Speisesaal AS.jpg|Dining room of the Centralhotel (Berlin), designed in 1881 by von der Hude & Hennicke |
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Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason]] stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=740}} Events such as the [[age of enlightenment]], revolutions and democracies in [[American Revolution|America]] and [[French Revolution|France]], and the [[Industrial Revolution]] had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy begin in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=767}} |
Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason]] stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=740}} Events such as the [[age of enlightenment]], revolutions and democracies in [[American Revolution|America]] and [[French Revolution|France]], and the [[Industrial Revolution]] had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy begin in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=767}} |
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Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of [[Orientalism]], the deeper influence of [[Japonisme]], to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the USA the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artist were emerging around the world: e.g. [[Foujita]] (Japan), [[Arshile Gorky]] (Armenia), [[Diego Rivera]] and [[Frida Kahlo]] (Mexico), [[Wifredo Lam]] (Cuba), [[Edvard Munch]] (Norwegian), [[Roberto Matta]] (Chilean), [[Mark Rothko]] (Lithuanian-American), [[Fernando Botero Angulo]] (Colombia), [[Constantin Brâncuși]] and [[Victor Brauner]] (Romania).{{sfn|Starobinski|1964}}{{sfn|Keyser|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=221}} |
Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of [[Orientalism]], the deeper influence of [[Japonisme]], to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the USA the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artist were emerging around the world: e.g. [[Foujita]] (Japan), [[Arshile Gorky]] (Armenia), [[Diego Rivera]] and [[Frida Kahlo]] (Mexico), [[Wifredo Lam]] (Cuba), [[Edvard Munch]] (Norwegian), [[Roberto Matta]] (Chilean), [[Mark Rothko]] (Lithuanian-American), [[Fernando Botero Angulo]] (Colombia), [[Constantin Brâncuși]] and [[Victor Brauner]] (Romania).{{sfn|Starobinski|1964}}{{sfn|Keyser|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=221}} |
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<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px"> |
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Étienne-Louis Boullée Memorial Newton Night.jpg|''Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night''; by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; [[Bibliothèque Nationale]] |
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Goya Dog.jpg|''[[The Dog (Goya)|The Dog]]''; [[Francisco de Goya]]; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; [[Museo del Prado]] |
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Joseph Mallord William Turner - Death on a pale horse - Google Art Project.jpg|''Death on a Pale Horse''; [[J. M. W. Turner]]; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; [[Tate Britain]] |
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Honoré daumier, le celebrità dell'Aurea mediocritas, terracotta, 1832-35, charles philipon.JPG|''Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu''; [[Honoré Daumier]]; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
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Daguerre kynzvart.jpg|''[[Kynžvart Daguerreotype|Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans]]''; by [[Louis Jacques Daguerre]]; c. 1839; daguerreotype |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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====Romanticism (c. 1770–1860)==== |
====Romanticism (c. 1770–1860)==== |
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{{main|Romanticism#Visual arts}} |
{{main|Romanticism#Visual arts}} |
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[[File:English landscape garden at Stourhead, England (cropped).jpg|thumb|260px|English landscape garden at Stourhead, England (designed ca. 1744-1765 / photographed 1993) Henry Flitcroft (designer), Henry Hoare (owner, planner)]] |
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[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|thumb|left|''[[The Nightmare]]''; by [[John Henry Fuseli]]; 1781; oil on canvas; 101.6 × 127 cm; [[Detroit Institute of Arts]] ([[Detroit]], US)]][[Romanticism]] emerged in the late 18th century and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, poetry, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the [[English landscape garden]], carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The [[Palace of Westminster]] (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as [[Gothic Revival]].{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of [[Francisco Goya]] in Spain, [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[Théodore Géricault]] in France, [[William Blake]], [[Henry Fuseli]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner|William Turner]] in England, [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and [[Philipp Otto Runge]] in Germany, [[Francesco Hayez]] in Italy, [[Johan Christian Claussen Dahl]] in Norway, and [[Thomas Cole]] in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include [[Antoine-Louis Barye]], [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]], [[Auguste Préault]], and [[François Rude]]. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1981|p=?}} |
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[[Romanticism]] emerged in the late 18th century and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, poetry, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the [[English landscape garden]], carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The [[Palace of Westminster]] (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as [[Gothic Revival]].{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of [[Francisco Goya]] in Spain, [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[Théodore Géricault]] in France, [[William Blake]], [[Henry Fuseli]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner|William Turner]] in England, [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and [[Philipp Otto Runge]] in Germany, [[Francesco Hayez]] in Italy, [[Johan Christian Claussen Dahl]] in Norway, and [[Thomas Cole]] in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include [[Antoine-Louis Barye]], [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]], [[Auguste Préault]], and [[François Rude]]. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1981|p=?}} |
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"Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity.....while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Romanticism often attempts to address the viewer through the heart and psyche, evoking passions and emotions, often reflecting on mankind's relationship and place in nature in the industrial revolution; in contrast to the symmetry, rational, "cult of reason"{{sfn|Claudon|1980|p=?}} of Neoclassicism.{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}} |
"Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity.....while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Romanticism often attempts to address the viewer through the heart and psyche, evoking passions and emotions, often reflecting on mankind's relationship and place in nature in the industrial revolution; in contrast to the symmetry, rational, "cult of reason"{{sfn|Claudon|1980|p=?}} of Neoclassicism.{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}} |
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<gallery widths=" |
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File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|''[[The Nightmare]]''; by [[John Henry Fuseli]]; 1781; oil on canvas; 101.6 × 127 cm; [[Detroit Institute of Arts]] |
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File:English landscape garden at Stourhead, England.jpg|English landscape garden at Stourhead, England (designed ca. 1744-1765 / photographed 1993) Henry Flitcroft (designer), Henry Hoare (owner, planner). |
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Newton-WilliamBlake.jpg|''[[Newton (Blake)|Newton]]''; by [[William Blake]]; 1795; color print, pen & ink, watercolor; 46 × 60 cm; [[Tate Britain]] |
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File:Philippe_Jacques_de_Loutherbourg,_Landscape_with_Boar_Hunt_(c._1780)_oil_on_canvas_(144.1_×_155.6_cm)_Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Houston_II.jpg|''Landscape with Boar Hunt''; by [[Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg]]; c. 1780; oil on canvas; 144.1 × 155.6 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston]] (US) |
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El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[The Third of May 1808]]''; by Francisco Goya; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.6 × 3.4 m; [[Museo del Prado]] |
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JEAN LOUIS THÉODORE GÉRICAULT - La Balsa de la Medusa (Museo del Louvre, 1818-19).jpg|''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]''; [[Théodore Géricault]]; 1818–1819; oil on canvas; 491 × 716 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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File:The Skating Minister.jpg|''[[The Skating Minister|The Rev Robert Walker Skating on Duddingston Loch]]''; by Sir [[Henry Raeburn]]; 1790s; oil on canvas; 25in × 30in; [[National gallery of scotland]] ([[Edinburgh]]) |
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Caspar David Friedrich - Das Eismeer - Hamburger Kunsthalle - 02.jpg|''[[The Sea of Ice]]''; by [[Caspar David Friedrich]]; 1823–1824; oil on canvas; 97 × 127 cm; [[Kunsthalle Hamburg]] |
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Delacroix - La Mort de Sardanapale (1827).jpg|''[[The Death of Sardanapalus]]''; by [[Eugène Delacroix]]; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.9 × 4.9 m; [[Louvre]] |
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Carl Gustav Carus - The Goethe Monument - WGA4518.jpg|''The Goethe Monument''; by [[Carl Gustav Carus]]; 1832; oil on canvas; 71 × 52.2 cm; [[Kunsthalle Hamburg]] |
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Slave-ship.jpg|''[[Slave Ship (painting)|Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On)]]''; by [[J. M. W. Turner]]; 1840; oil on canvas (90.8 × 122.6 cm.); [[Museum of Fine Arts Boston]] |
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London Parliament 2007-1.jpg|Houses of Parliament; by [[Sir Charles Barry]] and [[Pugin|A. Welby Pugin]]; begun in 1836; London |
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File:JEAN LOUIS THÉODORE GÉRICAULT - La Balsa de la Medusa (Museo del Louvre, 1818-19).jpg|''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]''; [[Théodore Géricault]]; 1818–1819; oil on canvas; 491 × 716 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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Ugolino and His Sons; by Carpeaux; 1857-60; Marble;; Metropolotin Museum, New York.jpg|''[[Ugolino and His Sons (Carpeaux)|Ugolino and His Sons]]''; by [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]]; 1857–60; Marble; 197.5 × 149.9 × 110.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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File:Delacroix - La Mort de Sardanapale (1827).jpg|''[[The Death of Sardanapalus]]''; by [[Eugène Delacroix]]; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.9 × 4.9 m; Louvre |
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File:John Constable 012.jpg|''[[The Vale of Dedham (painting)|The Vale of Dedham]]''; by [[John Constable]]; 1828; oil on canvas; 145 cm × 122 cm; National Gallery of Scotland |
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File:Carl Gustav Carus - The Goethe Monument - WGA4518.jpg|''The Goethe Monument''; by [[Carl Gustav Carus]]; 1832; oil on canvas; 71 × 52.2 cm; Kunsthalle Hamburg |
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File:Python Killing a Gnu; by Antoine-Louis Barye; 1834-39; bronze; 21.6 × 29.2 × 24.1 cm; Walters Art Museum (Baltimore, USA).jpg|''Python Killing a Gnu''; by [[Antoine-Louis Barye]]; 1834–39; bronze; 21.6 × 29.2 × 24.1 cm; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], USA) |
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File:London Parliament 2007-1.jpg|Houses of Parliament; by [[Sir Charles Barry]] and [[Pugin|A. Welby Pugin]]; begun in 1836; London |
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File:Budapest-Parliament-0006.jpg|''[[Orszaghaz]]'' Houses of Parliament; by [[Imre Steindl]]; [[Gothic Revival]]; begun in 1885; [[Budapest]] |
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File:Cole Thomas The Course of Empire The Savage State 1836.jpg|''[[The Course of Empire (paintings)|The Course of Empire: The Savage State]]''; by [[Thomas Cole]]; 1836; oil on canvas; 100 × 161 cm; [[New York Historical Society]] (New York City) |
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File:Slave-ship.jpg|''[[Slave Ship (painting)|Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On)]]''; by [[J. M. W. Turner]]; 1840; oil on canvas (90.8 × 122.6 cm.); [[Museum of Fine Arts Boston]] (Massachusetts, USA) |
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File:John Martin - Sodom and Gomorrah.jpg|''[[The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah]]''; by [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]]; 1852; oil on canvas; 136.3 × 212.3 cm; [[Laing Art Gallery]] ([[Newcastle upon Tyne]], England) |
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File:Ugolino and His Sons; by Carpeaux; 1857-60; Marble;; Metropolotin Museum, New York.jpg|''[[Ugolino and His Sons (Carpeaux)|Ugolino and His Sons]]''; by [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]]; 1857–60; Marble; 197.5 × 149.9 × 110.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==== Realism (c. 1840–1880) ==== |
==== Realism (c. 1840–1880) ==== |
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{{main|Realism (art movement)}} |
{{main|Realism (art movement)}} |
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[[File: |
[[File:Gustave Courbet - Bonjour Monsieur Courbet - Musée Fabre.jpg|thumb|''Bonjour Monsieur Courbet'' (1854), oil on canvas, 132 x 150.5 cm., [[Musée Fabre]]]] |
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[[Realism (art movement)|Realism]] emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} |
[[Realism (art movement)|Realism]] emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} |
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Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such as [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]] and [[Honoré Daumier]] had loose associations with realism, as did members of the [[Barbizon School]], particularly [[Jean-François Millet]], but it was perhaps [[Gustave Courbet]] who was the central figure in the movement, self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such as [[Édouard Manet]]. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting landscapes [[en plein air]] and its subsequent influence on [[impressionism]]. |
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File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - St-André-en-Morvan.jpg|''Saint-André-en-Morvan''; by [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]]; 1842; oil on canvas; 31 × 59 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as [[Wilhelm Leibl]] in Germany, [[Ford Madox Brown]] in England, and [[Winslow Homer]] in the United States. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason|H. H. Arnason]] wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism, romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}} and this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|Leymarie|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Faunce|1993|p=?}} |
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File:Théodore Rousseau - Pool in the Forest - 17.3241 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|''Pool in the Forest''; by [[Théodore Rousseau]]; early 1850s; oil on canvas; 39.4 × 57.4 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US) |
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File:Ford Madox Brown - The Last of England - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Last of England (painting)|The Last of England]]''; by [[Ford Madox Brown]]; 1852–1855; oil on panel; height: 82.5 cm, width: 75 cm; [[Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery]] (England) |
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File:Gustave Courbet 010.jpg|''[[La rencontre|The Meeting]] ("Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet")''; 1854; oil on canvas; [[Musée Fabre]] [[Montpellier]] |
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Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - St-André-en-Morvan.jpg|''Saint-André-en-Morvan''; by [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]]; 1842; oil on canvas; 31 × 59 cm; [[Louvre]] |
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File:Honorè_Daumier,_Third_Class_Carriage_(1856-58)_oil_on_panel_(26_x_33.9_cm)_Fine_Arts_Museums_of_San_Francisco.jpg|''Third Class Carriage''; by Honorè Daumier; 1856–1858; oil on panel; 26 × 33.9 cm; [[Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[San Francisco]], US) |
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Théodore Rousseau - Pool in the Forest - 17.3241 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|''Pool in the Forest''; by [[Théodore Rousseau]]; early 1850s; oil on canvas; 39.4 × 57.4 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] |
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Ford Madox Brown - The Last of England - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Last of England (painting)|The Last of England]]''; by [[Ford Madox Brown]]; 1852–1855; oil on panel; height: 82.5 cm, width: 75 cm; [[Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery]] |
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Honorè_Daumier,_Third_Class_Carriage_(1856-58)_oil_on_panel_(26_x_33.9_cm)_Fine_Arts_Museums_of_San_Francisco.jpg|''Third Class Carriage''; by Honorè Daumier; 1856–1858; oil on panel; 26 × 33.9 cm; [[Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco|Museum of Fine Arts]] |
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Edouard Manet - The Absinthe Drinker - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Absinthe Drinker (Manet)|The Absinthe Drinker]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1859; oil on canvas; 18.05 × 10.56 mm; [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]] |
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The Death of Cleopatra.JPG|''The Death of Cleopatra''; by [[Edmonia Lewis]]; 1876; marble; [[Smithsonian Museum for American Art]] |
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Jean-François Millet - La gardeuse d'oies.jpg|''The Goosegirl''; by [[Jean-François Millet]]; 1866–67; oil on canvas; 45.7 × 55.9 cm; [[Tokyo Fuji Art Museum]] |
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Winslow Homer - Artists Sketching in the White Mountains.jpg|''Artists Sketching in the White Mountains''; by [[Winslow Homer]]; 1868; oil on panel; 24.1 cm × 40.3 cm; [[Portland Museum of Art]] |
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Wilhelm Leibl - Drei Frauen in der Kirche (1882).jpg|''Three Women in Church''; by [[Wilhelm Leibl]]; 1882; oil on [[mahogany]] wood; height: 113 cm, width: 77 cm; [[Kunsthalle Hamburg]] |
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Aleksander Gierymski, Święto Trąbek I.jpg|''[[Feast of Trumpets]]''; by [[Aleksander Gierymski]]; 1884; oil on canvas; 47 × 64.5 cm; [[National Museum, Warsaw]] |
Aleksander Gierymski, Święto Trąbek I.jpg|''[[Feast of Trumpets]]''; by [[Aleksander Gierymski]]; 1884; oil on canvas; 47 × 64.5 cm; [[National Museum, Warsaw]] |
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Anna_Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa_-_Black_girl_-_MP_5531_-_National_Museum_in_Warsaw.jpg|''[[A Negress]]''; by [[Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowicz]]; 1884; oil on canvas; 63 × 48.5 cm; [[National Museum, Warsaw]] |
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Wyczółkowski Rybak z sieciami.jpg|''Fisherman with his Nets''; by [[Leon Wyczółkowski]]; 1890s; oil on millboard; [[Gdansk Museum]] (Poland) |
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Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, [[impasto]] strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was art for art's sake, an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}} |
Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, [[impasto]] strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was art for art's sake, an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}} |
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Edgar Degas, 1867c - Ballerinas in Pink.jpg|''Dancers in Pink''; [[Edgar Degas]]; 1867; oil on canvas; 59 × 74 cm; [[Hill–Stead Museum]] ([[Farmington, Connecticut|Farmington]] |
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Frédéric Bazille 002.jpg|''View of the Village''; by [[Frédéric Bazille]]; 1868; oil on canvas, 130 × 89 cm.; [[Musée Fabre]] |
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Armand Guillaumin - Soleil couchant à Ivry - 1869.jpg|''Soleil couchant à Ivry''; by [[Armand Guillaumin]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 65 × 81.0 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
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Monet Painting on His Studio Boat Edouard Manet 1874.jpg|''[[Claude Monet Painting in his Studio]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 × 98 cm; [[Neue Pinakothek]] |
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Claude Monet 010.jpg|''The Railway Bridge at Argenteuil''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1874; oil on canvas; 60 × 80 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
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Jean-baptiste carpeaux, la danse, 1869, 02.JPG|''The Dance'', an example of an Impressionist sculpture; by [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]]; stone; 420 x 298 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=ART ● Architecture ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Design|date=2011|publisher=|isbn=978-1-4454-5585-3|page=376|url=|language=en}}</ref> |
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Gustave Caillebotte - Mademoiselle Boissière Knitting - Google Art Project.jpg|''Mademoiselle Boissière Knitting''; by [[Gustave Caillebotte]]; 1877; oil on canvas; 65 × 80 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston]] |
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Nature morte, bol de pommes, par Paul Cézanne.jpg|''Bowl with Apples''; by [[Paul Cézanne]]; 1878–79; oil on canvas; 45.5 × 55 cm; Annenberg Collection |
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Berthe Morisot - Sommertag - 1879.jpeg|''[[Summer's Day|Summer-day: Lake in the Bois de Boulogne]]''; by [[Berthe Morisot]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 × 75.2 cm; [[National Gallery]] |
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Alfred Sisley, Banks of the Seine at By.jpg|''Banks of the Seine at By''; by Alfred Sisley; ca. 1880–81; oil on canvas; 54.3 × 73.3 cm; [[Clark Art Institute]] ([[Williamstown, Massachusetts|Williamstown]], [[Massachusetts]]) |
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Mary Cassatt, Automne, portrait de Lydia Cassatt, 1880, ppp706, Petit Palais.jpg|''Autumn, Lydia Cassatt''; [[Mary Cassatt]]; 1880; oil on canvas; 92.5 × 65.5 cm; [[Petit Palais]] |
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Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''[[La Loge|The Loge]]''; by [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]; 1881; oil on canvas; 127 × 92 cm; [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] |
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Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.jpg|''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1881–82; oil on canvas, 96 × 130 cm.; [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] |
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Bordighera.jpg|''Bordighera''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1884; oil on canvas, 81 × 65 cm.; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] |
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Camille Pissarro 003.jpg|''[[Rue Saint-Honoré, dans l'après-midi. Effet de pluie]]''; by [[Camille Pissarro]]; 1898; oil on canvas, 73.6 × 91.4 cm.; [[Minneapolis Institute of Art]] |
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Claude Monet - The Water Lilies - Morning - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Water Lilies (Monet series)|Water Lilies, Morning]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; ca. 1914–24; oil on canvas, 2,000 × 12,750 mm; [[Musée de l'Orangerie]] |
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File:Berthe Morisot - Sommertag - 1879.jpeg|''Summer-day: Lake in the Bois de Boulogne''; by [[Berthe Morisot]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 × 75.2 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London) |
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File:Alfred Sisley, Banks of the Seine at By.jpg|''Banks of the Seine at By''; by Alfred Sisley; ca. 1880–81; oil on canvas; 54.3 × 73.3 cm; [[Clark Art Institute]] ([[Williamstown, Massachusetts|Williamstown]], [[Massachusetts]], USA) |
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File:Mary Cassatt, Automne, portrait de Lydia Cassatt, 1880, ppp706, Petit Palais.jpg|''Autumn, Lydia Cassatt''; [[Mary Cassatt]]; 1880; oil on canvas; 92.5 × 65.5 cm; [[Petit Palais]] (Paris) |
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File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''[[La Loge|The Loge]]''; by [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]; 1881; oil on canvas; 127 × 92 cm; [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] (London) |
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File:Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.jpg|''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1881–82; oil on canvas, 96 × 130 cm.; Courtauld Institute of Art |
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File:Bordighera.jpg|''Bordighera''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1884; oil on canvas, 81 × 65 cm.; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] (US) |
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File:Camille Pissarro 003.jpg|''[[Rue Saint-Honoré, dans l'après-midi. Effet de pluie]]''; by [[Camille Pissarro]]; 1898; oil on canvas, 73.6 × 91.4 cm.; [[Minneapolis Institute of Art]] (USA) |
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File:Claude Monet - The Water Lilies - Morning - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Water Lilies (Monet series)|Water Lilies, Morning]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; ca. 1914–24; oil on canvas, 2,000 × 12,750 mm; [[Musée de l'Orangerie]] (Paris) |
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Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of [[Charles Baudelaire|Charles Baudelaire's]] ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]'' (''The Flowers of Evil'') in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into [[Art Nouveau]]. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Les Nabis]], the [[Decadent Movement]], the [[Fin de siècle|Fin-de Siecle]], [[Art Nouveau]], The [[Munich Secession]], The [[Vienna Secession]], [[Expressionism]], and even the [[Pre-Raphaelites]], which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Eugène Carrière]], [[Ferdinand Hodler]], [[Fernand Khnopff]], [[Giovanni Segantini]], [[Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer]], [[Jean Delville]], and [[James Ensor]] all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}} It quickly began to fade with the onset of [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]] and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the [[Metaphysical art|metaphysical school]], which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} |
Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of [[Charles Baudelaire|Charles Baudelaire's]] ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]'' (''The Flowers of Evil'') in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into [[Art Nouveau]]. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Les Nabis]], the [[Decadent Movement]], the [[Fin de siècle|Fin-de Siecle]], [[Art Nouveau]], The [[Munich Secession]], The [[Vienna Secession]], [[Expressionism]], and even the [[Pre-Raphaelites]], which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Eugène Carrière]], [[Ferdinand Hodler]], [[Fernand Khnopff]], [[Giovanni Segantini]], [[Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer]], [[Jean Delville]], and [[James Ensor]] all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}} It quickly began to fade with the onset of [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]] and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the [[Metaphysical art|metaphysical school]], which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} |
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The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as [[metaphors]] or [[allegories]], aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"<ref name="nyt-morris-2007">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=Roderick Conway |date=2007-03-16 |title=The elusive Symbolist movement |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |access-date=2021-04-30 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} The English painter [[George Frederic Watts]] stated "I paint ideas, not things."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} |
The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as [[metaphors]] or [[allegories]], aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"<ref name="nyt-morris-2007">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=Roderick Conway |date=2007-03-16 |title=The elusive Symbolist movement |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |access-date=2021-04-30 |website=The New York Times |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} The English painter [[George Frederic Watts]] stated "I paint ideas, not things."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} |
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Le Pigeon-Pierre Puvis de Chavannes-IMG 8272.JPG|''The Carrier Pigeon''; by [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]]; 1871; oil on canvas; 136.7 × 86.5 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
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Félicien Rops - Pornokratès - 1878.jpg|''Pornocrates''; by [[Félicien Rops]]; 1878; watercolor, [[gouache]] and pastel; 75 × 48 cm; Musée Félicien Rops ([[Namur]], Belgium) |
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Klinger - Entführung.jpeg|''Entführung'' [Abduction]; by [[Max Klinger]]; 1891; etching and [[aquatint]]; 11,9 × 26,9 cm; [[Albertina]] |
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Odilon Redon - Chimäre.jpeg|''Chimera''; by [[Odilon Redon]]; 1883; charcoal and black chalk on paper; 50,4 × 34 cm; [[Kröller-Müller Museum]] |
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Andrómede - Auguste Rodin.jpg|''Andromeda'' (previous title ''Danaid''); by [[Auguste Rodin]]; 1886; marble; 29 × 32 × 20 cm; [[Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires)|Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes]] |
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File:Klinger - Entführung.jpeg|''Entführung'' [Abduction]; by [[Max Klinger]]; 1891; etching and [[aquatint]]; 11,9 × 26,9 cm; [[Albertina]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]) |
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Arnold Böcklin - Die Toteninsel V (Museum der bildenden Künste Leipzig).jpg|''Isle of the Dead'' (5th. version); by [[Arnold Böcklin]]; 1886; oil on panel (80.7 × 150 cm.); [[Museum der bildenden Künste]] |
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O grave, where is thy Victory 1892 Jan Toorop.jpg|''O grave, where is thy Victory''; [[Jan Toorop]]; 1892; pencil and chalk; 60.4 × 75.3 cm; [[Rijksmuseum]] |
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Suende Franz Stuck ohne Rahmen.jpg|''[[The Sin (painting)|The Sin]]''; by [[Franz von Stuck]]; 1893; oil on canvas; 94.5 × 59.5 cm; [[Neue Pinakothek]] |
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Edvard Munch - Vampire (1894), private collection.jpg|''[[Love and Pain (painting)|Love and Pain]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1894; oil on canvas; 100 × 110 cm; [[Munch Museum]] |
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File:Andrómede - Auguste Rodin.jpg|''Andromeda'' (previous title ''Danaid''); by [[Auguste Rodin]]; 1886; marble; 29 × 32 × 20 cm; [[Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires)|Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes]] ([[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]) |
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Albert Pinkham Ryder - The Race Track (c.1896-1908).jpg|''The Race Track'' (''Death on a Pale Horse''); by [[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]; from 1896 to 1908; oil on canvas; 70.5 × 90 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] |
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Paul Gauguin 142.jpg|''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]''; by [[Paul Gauguin]]; 1897; oil on canvas; 141 × 376 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] |
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Medusa by Fernand Khnopff 01.jpg|''Medusa''; by [[Fernand Khnopff]]; 1900; bronze, marble base; Fin de Siècle Museum (part of the [[Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium]] |
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The lady on the horse.jpg|''The Lady on the Horse''; by [[Alfred Kubin]]; 1901; pen, ink, wash and spray; 39.7 × 31 cm |
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Vrubel Fallen Demon.jpg|''[[The Demon Downcast]]''; by [[Mikhail Vrubel]]; 1902; [[State Tretyakov Gallery]] |
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Gustav Klimt 020.jpg|''[[The Three Ages of Woman (Klimt)|The Three Ages of Woman]]''; by [[Gustav Klimt]]; 1905; oil on canvas; 180 × 180 cm; [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna e Contemporanea]] |
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File:Edvard Munch - Vampire (1894), private collection.jpg|''[[Love and Pain (painting)|Love and Pain]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1894; oil on canvas; 100 × 110 cm; [[Munch Museum]] ([[Oslo]], [[Norway]]) |
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File:Albert Pinkham Ryder - The Race Track (c.1896-1908).jpg|''The Race Track'' (''Death on a Pale Horse''); by [[Albert Pinkham Ryder]]; from 1896 to 1908; oil on canvas; 70.5 × 90 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] (USA) |
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File:Paul Gauguin 142.jpg|''[[Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?]]''; by [[Paul Gauguin]]; 1897; oil on canvas; 141 × 376 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], USA) |
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File:Medusa by Fernand Khnopff 01.jpg|''Medusa''; by [[Fernand Khnopff]]; 1900; bronze, marble base; Fin de Siècle Museum (part of the [[Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium]], in [[Brussels]]) |
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File:The lady on the horse.jpg|''The Lady on the Horse''; by [[Alfred Kubin]]; 1901; pen, ink, wash and spray; 39.7 × 31 cm |
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File:Vrubel Fallen Demon.jpg|''[[The Demon Downcast]]''; by [[Mikhail Vrubel]]; 1902; [[State Tretyakov Gallery]] (Moscow) |
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File:Dorelia in a Black Dress by Gwen John (1903-4).jpg|''Dorelia in a Black Dress''; by [[Gwen John]]; 1903–04; [[Tate Britain]] (London) |
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File:Gustav Klimt 020.jpg|''[[The Three Ages of Woman (Klimt)|The Three Ages of Woman]]''; by [[Gustav Klimt]]; 1905; oil on canvas; 180 × 180 cm; [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna e Contemporanea]] (Rome) |
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Widely exhibited in Europe, the Arts and Crafts style's simplicity inspired artists such as [[Carl Larsson]] and wife, [[Karin Bergöö Larsson]], designers like [[Henry van de Velde]] and styles such as [[Art Nouveau]], the Dutch [[De Stijl]] group, [[Vienna Secession]], and eventually the [[Bauhaus]] style. [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] regarded the style as a prelude to [[Modernism]], which used simple forms without ornamentation.{{sfn|Pevsner|2005|p=?}} The Vienna Secession encouraged in part Central European artists and writers under [[Habsburg rule]] to return to their national and folk roots. In Poland this gave rise to the flowering of "Młoda Polska" ([[Young Poland]]), whose noted exponents included [[Jacek Malczewski]], [[Jan Stanisławski (painter)|Jan Stanisławski]], [[Józef Mehoffer]], [[Józef Pankiewicz]], [[Leon Wyczółkowski]], [[Olga Boznańska]], [[Stanisław Wyspiański]], [[Wojciech Gerson]] and [[Wojciech Kossak]].{{sfn|Barucka|2010|pp=83, 86}} |
Widely exhibited in Europe, the Arts and Crafts style's simplicity inspired artists such as [[Carl Larsson]] and wife, [[Karin Bergöö Larsson]], designers like [[Henry van de Velde]] and styles such as [[Art Nouveau]], the Dutch [[De Stijl]] group, [[Vienna Secession]], and eventually the [[Bauhaus]] style. [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] regarded the style as a prelude to [[Modernism]], which used simple forms without ornamentation.{{sfn|Pevsner|2005|p=?}} The Vienna Secession encouraged in part Central European artists and writers under [[Habsburg rule]] to return to their national and folk roots. In Poland this gave rise to the flowering of "Młoda Polska" ([[Young Poland]]), whose noted exponents included [[Jacek Malczewski]], [[Jan Stanisławski (painter)|Jan Stanisławski]], [[Józef Mehoffer]], [[Józef Pankiewicz]], [[Leon Wyczółkowski]], [[Olga Boznańska]], [[Stanisław Wyspiański]], [[Wojciech Gerson]] and [[Wojciech Kossak]].{{sfn|Barucka|2010|pp=83, 86}} |
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Olga Boznańska 1896 Dziewczynka w ogrodzie.jpg|''Girl on garden bench''; by [[Olga Boznańska]]; 1896; oil on cardboard; 65.5 cm × 42.5 cm; [[National Museum of Poland]] ([[Warsaw]]) |
Olga Boznańska 1896 Dziewczynka w ogrodzie.jpg|''Girl on garden bench''; by [[Olga Boznańska]]; 1896; oil on cardboard; 65.5 cm × 42.5 cm; [[National Museum of Poland]] ([[Warsaw]]) |
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The Well at the World's End MET DP322253.jpg|The Well at the World's End; by [[William Morris]] and [[Edward Burne-Jones]]; 1896; illustrations: woodcuts; one of eight vellum bound copies; 28.9 × 21 × 5.1 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Willa pod Jedlami w Zakopanem.jpg|''Villa pod Jedlami''; designed by [[Stanisław Witkiewicz]]; 1890s; timber and glass; [[Zakopane Style]] [[Zakopane]] |
Willa pod Jedlami w Zakopanem.jpg|''Villa pod Jedlami''; designed by [[Stanisław Witkiewicz]]; 1890s; timber and glass; [[Zakopane Style]] [[Zakopane]] |
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Stanisław Wyspiański, Autoportret.jpg|''Self-portrait''; by [[Stanisław Wyspiański]]; 1902; pastel on paper; 37.5 cm × 36.8 cm; National Museum of Poland |
Stanisław Wyspiański, Autoportret.jpg|''Self-portrait''; by [[Stanisław Wyspiański]]; 1902; pastel on paper; 37.5 cm × 36.8 cm; National Museum of Poland |
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Gustav Stickley. Dropfront Desk, ca. 1903..jpg|Dropfront desk; by [[Gustav Stickley]]; c. 1903; oak with copper hardware; 130.8 × 65.4 × 27.6 cm; [[Brooklyn Museum]] |
Gustav Stickley. Dropfront Desk, ca. 1903..jpg|Dropfront desk; by [[Gustav Stickley]]; c. 1903; oak with copper hardware; 130.8 × 65.4 × 27.6 cm; [[Brooklyn Museum]] |
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Carl Larsson Azalea Thielska 215.tif|''Azalea''; by [[Carl Larsson]]; 1906; [[Thiel Gallery]] |
Carl Larsson Azalea Thielska 215.tif|''Azalea''; by [[Carl Larsson]]; 1906; [[Thiel Gallery]] |
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Józef Mehoffer - Słońce majowe.jpg|''Sun in May''; by [[Józef Mehoffer]]; 1911; oil on canvas; 95 cm × 78 cm; National Museum of Poland |
Józef Mehoffer - Słońce majowe.jpg|''Sun in May''; by [[Józef Mehoffer]]; 1911; oil on canvas; 95 cm × 78 cm; [[National Museum of Poland]] |
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'''[[Neo-Impressionism]]''' ([[Divisionism]] or [[Pointillism]], c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by [[Art Nouveau]]. The leading artists were [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Signac]], others include [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], [[Maximilien Luce]], [[Albert Dubois-Pillet]], and for a period [[Pissarro]] and [[Van Gogh]]. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. '''[[Synthetism]]''' ([[Cloisonnism]] c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by [[Émile Bernard]] and immediately taken up and developed by [[Paul Gauguin]] and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled [[cloisonné enamel]] or [[stained glass]], with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and [[Paul Sérusier]], is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include [[Cuno Amiet]], [[Louis Anquetin]], [[Charles Filiger]], [[Meyer de Haan|Jacob Meyer de Haan]], [[Charles Laval]], and [[Armand Séguin (painter)|Armand Seguin]]. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. '''[[Les Nabis]]''' (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. [[La Revue Blanche]] often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of [[Édouard Vuillard]],{{sfn|Preston|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Warnod|1989|p=?}} and [[Pierre Bonnard]],{{sfn|Terrasse|1964|p=?}}{{sfn|Fermigier|1969|p=?}} ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include [[Maurice Denis]], [[Maxime Dethomas]], [[Meyer de Haan]], [[Henri-Gabriel Ibels]], [[Georges Lacombe (painter)|Georges Lacombe]], [[Aristide Maillol]], [[Paul Ranson]], [[Ker-Xavier Roussel]], [[Armand Séguin]], [[Paul Sérusier]], [[Félix Vallotton]], [[Jan Verkade]], and others.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}} |
'''[[Neo-Impressionism]]''' ([[Divisionism]] or [[Pointillism]], c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by [[Art Nouveau]]. The leading artists were [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Signac]], others include [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], [[Maximilien Luce]], [[Albert Dubois-Pillet]], and for a period [[Pissarro]] and [[Van Gogh]]. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. '''[[Synthetism]]''' ([[Cloisonnism]] c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by [[Émile Bernard]] and immediately taken up and developed by [[Paul Gauguin]] and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled [[cloisonné enamel]] or [[stained glass]], with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and [[Paul Sérusier]], is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include [[Cuno Amiet]], [[Louis Anquetin]], [[Charles Filiger]], [[Meyer de Haan|Jacob Meyer de Haan]], [[Charles Laval]], and [[Armand Séguin (painter)|Armand Seguin]]. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. '''[[Les Nabis]]''' (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. [[La Revue Blanche]] often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of [[Édouard Vuillard]],{{sfn|Preston|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Warnod|1989|p=?}} and [[Pierre Bonnard]],{{sfn|Terrasse|1964|p=?}}{{sfn|Fermigier|1969|p=?}} ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include [[Maurice Denis]], [[Maxime Dethomas]], [[Meyer de Haan]], [[Henri-Gabriel Ibels]], [[Georges Lacombe (painter)|Georges Lacombe]], [[Aristide Maillol]], [[Paul Ranson]], [[Ker-Xavier Roussel]], [[Armand Séguin]], [[Paul Sérusier]], [[Félix Vallotton]], [[Jan Verkade]], and others.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}} |
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Georges Seurat - Models (Poseuses) - BF811 - Barnes Foundation.jpg|''[[Models (painting)|Models]]'' (''Les Poseuses''); by [[Georges Seurat]]; 1886–1888; oil on canvas; 200 × 249.9 cm; [[Barnes Foundation]] |
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Sunset, 1889 - Paul Signac.jpg|''Sunset, Herblay, Opus 206''; by [[Paul Signac]]; 1889; oil on canvas, 57 × 90 mm.; [[Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum]] |
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Montagne Sainte-Victoire, par Paul Cézanne 109.jpg|''Mont Sainte-Victoire''; by [[Paul Cézanne]]; 1904–06; oil on canvas, 65 × 81 cm.; [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]] |
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Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Starry Night]]''; by [[Vincent van Gogh]]; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Starry Night]]''; by [[Vincent van Gogh]]; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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Paul Sérusier - Landscape at Le Pouldu - 79.255 - Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.jpg|''Landscape at Le Pouldu''; by [[Paul Sérusier]]; 1890; oil on canvas, 74 × 92 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston]] |
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Paul Gauguin 071.jpg|''[[Ia Orana Maria]]'' (''We Greet Thee, Mary''); by [[Paul Gauguin]]; 1891; oil on canvas, 114 × 89 cm.; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Maurice Denis (9376285403) - 'Les arbres verts' ou 'Les hêtres de Kerduel' (1893) (cropped).jpg|''The Green Trees'' 'or' ''The Beeches of Kerduel''; by [[Maurice Denis]]; 1893; oil on canvas, 46 × 43 cm.; [[Musée d'Orsay, Paris]] |
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Pierre Bonnard Figures in the Street.jpg|''Figures in the Street''; by [[Pierre Bonnard]]; ca. 1894; oil on paper, 24 × 25.5 cm.; Private collection |
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Madame Vuillard Cousant (1895) by Edouard Vuillard.jpg|''Madame Vuillard Cousant'' or ''Old Lady Examining her Needlework''; by [[Édouard Vuillard]]; 1893; oil on board, 29.2 × 27.9 cm.; Private collection |
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WLANL - Quistnix! - Museum Boijmans van Beuningen - La Mediterranee, Artistide Maillol.jpg|''The Mediterranean''; by [[Aristide Maillol]]; 1902–03; bronze, 104 cm. high; [[Museum Boijmans van Beuningen]] |
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The history of [[20th-century art]] is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of [[Fauvism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Cubism]], [[abstract art]], [[Dada]]ism and [[Surrealism]] led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as [[Pablo Picasso]] being influenced by [[Iberian sculpture]], [[African art|African sculpture]] and [[Primitivism]]. [[Japonism]], and Japanese [[woodcut]]s (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by [[Paul Gauguin]]'s interest in [[Oceanic art]] and the sudden popularity among the [[Connoisseur|cognoscenti]] in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, [[Henri Matisse]], and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, [[Pop Art]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]] came to prominence. |
The history of [[20th-century art]] is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of [[Fauvism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Cubism]], [[abstract art]], [[Dada]]ism and [[Surrealism]] led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as [[Pablo Picasso]] being influenced by [[Iberian sculpture]], [[African art|African sculpture]] and [[Primitivism]]. [[Japonism]], and Japanese [[woodcut]]s (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by [[Paul Gauguin]]'s interest in [[Oceanic art]] and the sudden popularity among the [[Connoisseur|cognoscenti]] in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, [[Henri Matisse]], and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, [[Pop Art]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]] came to prominence. |
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Dimitri petrovitch soukhov, credenza, mosca 1903, 01.JPG|Russian Revival sideboard; by [[Dimitri Petrovitch Soukhov]]; 1903; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
Dimitri petrovitch soukhov, credenza, mosca 1903, 01.JPG|Russian Revival sideboard; by [[Dimitri Petrovitch Soukhov]]; 1903; [[Musée d'Orsay]] |
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The Assan House from Bucharest (Romania).jpg|The ''[[Assan House]]'' from [[Bucharest]] ([[Romania]]), 1906–1914, built to the design of the architect [[Ion D. Berindey]], in the French [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] style |
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Gustav Klimt 046.jpg|''[[Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I]]'', an [[Art Nouveau]] masterpiece; by [[Gustav Klimt]]; 1907; oil, silver, and gold on canvas; 140 × 140 cm; [[Neue Galerie New York]] |
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Constantin Brancusi, 1907-08, The Kiss, Exhibited at the Armory Show and published in the Chicago Tribune, 25 March 1913..jpg|''[[The Kiss (Brâncuși sculpture)|The Kiss]]''; by [[Constantin Brâncuși]]; 1907; stone; height: 28 cm; [[Craiova Art Museum]] |
Constantin Brancusi, 1907-08, The Kiss, Exhibited at the Armory Show and published in the Chicago Tribune, 25 March 1913..jpg|''[[The Kiss (Brâncuși sculpture)|The Kiss]]''; by [[Constantin Brâncuși]]; 1907; stone; height: 28 cm; [[Craiova Art Museum]] |
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Henri Rousseau - Le Rêve - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Dream (Rousseau painting)|The Dream]]''; by [[Henri Rousseau]]; 1910; oil on canvas; 204.5 × 298.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art |
Henri Rousseau - Le Rêve - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Dream (Rousseau painting)|The Dream]]''; by [[Henri Rousseau]]; 1910; oil on canvas; 204.5 × 298.5 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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Woman's Head MET DT203051.jpg|Female head; by [[Amedeo Modigliani]]; 1912; [[limestone]]; height: 68.3 cm, width: 15.9 cm, depth: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art |
Woman's Head MET DT203051.jpg|Female head; by [[Amedeo Modigliani]]; 1912; [[limestone]]; height: 68.3 cm, width: 15.9 cm, depth: 24.1 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Image-Chagall Fiddler.jpg|''The Violinist''; by [[Marc Chagall]]; 1912–1913; oil on checked tablecloth; 1.88 × 1.58 m; [[Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam]] |
Image-Chagall Fiddler.jpg|''The Violinist''; by [[Marc Chagall]]; 1912–1913; oil on checked tablecloth; 1.88 × 1.58 m; [[Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam]] |
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3, Strada Cristofor Columb, Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Baroque Revival architecture|Baroque Revival]] house in Bucharest, built in 1920 |
3, Strada Cristofor Columb, Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Baroque Revival architecture|Baroque Revival]] house in Bucharest, built in 1920 |
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Art Nouveau often abandoned geometric forms and angles in favor of arabesque lines suggestive of vegetation, winding vines, and other elements of nature. Many artisans sought to breakdown the divide between fine art, applied art, and decorative art and merge them all into every aspect of daily life. Individual artist frequently moved back and forth between various disciplines and worked in several media. It was not unusual for architects to produce the furniture and other furnishings for the houses and building they designed, for painters to design advertising posters and book illustrations, or jewelers to produce art glass, and stained glass windows.{{sfn|Bouillon|1985|p=?}}{{sfn|Fahr-Becker|1997|p=?}} |
Art Nouveau often abandoned geometric forms and angles in favor of arabesque lines suggestive of vegetation, winding vines, and other elements of nature. Many artisans sought to breakdown the divide between fine art, applied art, and decorative art and merge them all into every aspect of daily life. Individual artist frequently moved back and forth between various disciplines and worked in several media. It was not unusual for architects to produce the furniture and other furnishings for the houses and building they designed, for painters to design advertising posters and book illustrations, or jewelers to produce art glass, and stained glass windows.{{sfn|Bouillon|1985|p=?}}{{sfn|Fahr-Becker|1997|p=?}} |
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Aubrey Beardsley - The Climax.jpg|''[[The Climax (illustration)|The Climax]]'', illustration for Oscar Wilde's ''[[Salome (play)|Salome]]''; by [[Aubrey Vincent Beardsley]]; 1893; line block print; 34 × 27 cm; private collection{{sfn|Andrew|2018|p=387}} |
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Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec - Divan Japonais - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Divan Japonais (lithograph)|Divan Japonais]]''; by [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]; c. 1893–1894; litograph; 81 × 62.3 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], USA) |
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec - Divan Japonais - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Divan Japonais (lithograph)|Divan Japonais]]''; by [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]; c. 1893–1894; litograph; 81 × 62.3 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], USA) |
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Statuette Loïe Fuller par Pierre Roche.jpg|''[[Loie Fuller]] Dancing''; by [[Pierre Roche]]; 1894 (bronze, 1901); Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris) |
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Castel Béranger, February 16, 2013.jpg|Gate of the ''[[Castel Béranger]]'' (an apartment building); by [[Hector Guimard]]; 1895–1898; Paris |
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Hôtel Solvay; by Victor Horta; 1895-1898; Brussels.jpg|[[Hôtel Solvay]]; by [[Victor Horta]]; 1895–1898; [[Brussels]] ([[Belgium]]) |
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Louis Welden Hawkins - Masque - Google Art Project.jpg|''Masque''; by [[Louis Welden Hawkins]]; 1895–1905; black chalk and pencil on light brown paper; 43.2 × 23.8 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Houston]], USA) |
Louis Welden Hawkins - Masque - Google Art Project.jpg|''Masque''; by [[Louis Welden Hawkins]]; 1895–1905; black chalk and pencil on light brown paper; 43.2 × 23.8 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Houston]], USA) |
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Vase, by Émile Gallé, 1896; glass, height, 17.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City).jpg|Vase; by [[Émile Gallé]]; 1896; glass; height: 17.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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Alfons Mucha - 1896 - Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile.jpg|''Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile'', advertisement; by [[Alfons Mucha]]; 1897; lithograph; 62 × 43.5 cm; private collection |
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René lailique, pettorale libellula, in oro, smalti, crisoprazio, calcedonio, pietre lunari e diamanti, 1897-98 ca. 01.jpg|The ''Dragonfly brooch''; by [[René Lalique]]; c. 1897–1898; gold, [[vitreous enamel]], [[chrysoprase]], [[chalcedony]], [[moonstone (gemstone)|moonstone]] and diamond; height: 23 cm, width: 26.5 cm; [[Calouste Gulbenkian Museum]] ([[Lisboa]], Portugal) |
René lailique, pettorale libellula, in oro, smalti, crisoprazio, calcedonio, pietre lunari e diamanti, 1897-98 ca. 01.jpg|The ''Dragonfly brooch''; by [[René Lalique]]; c. 1897–1898; gold, [[vitreous enamel]], [[chrysoprase]], [[chalcedony]], [[moonstone (gemstone)|moonstone]] and diamond; height: 23 cm, width: 26.5 cm; [[Calouste Gulbenkian Museum]] ([[Lisboa]], Portugal) |
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René lalique, pettine in corno, oro, smalti e brillanti, 1902 ca-V2.jpg|Hair ornament; by [[René Lalique]]; c. 1902; gold, emeralds and diamonds; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris) |
René lalique, pettine in corno, oro, smalti e brillanti, 1902 ca-V2.jpg|Hair ornament; by [[René Lalique]]; c. 1902; gold, emeralds and diamonds; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris) |
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Casa Batllo Overview Barcelona Spain cut.jpg|The ''[[Casa Batlló]]''; by Antoni Gaudí; Barcelona |
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Art Nouveau Dining Masson.jpg|Cabinet; [[Eugene Vallin]] in collaboration with [[Victor Prouvé]]; c. 1903–1906; probably made of mahogany; [[Musée de l'École de Nancy]] ([[Nancy, France|Nancy]], France) |
Art Nouveau Dining Masson.jpg|Cabinet; [[Eugene Vallin]] in collaboration with [[Victor Prouvé]]; c. 1903–1906; probably made of mahogany; [[Musée de l'École de Nancy]] ([[Nancy, France|Nancy]], France) |
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{{main|Fauvism}} |
{{main|Fauvism}} |
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[[File:Albert Marquet, 1898 - Nu fauve.jpg|thumb|''Life Class at the École des Beaux-Arts''; by [[Albert Marquet]]; 1898; oil on canvas, 73 × 50 cm; |
[[File:Albert Marquet, 1898 - Nu fauve.jpg|thumb|''Life Class at the École des Beaux-Arts''; by [[Albert Marquet]]; 1898; oil on canvas, 73 × 50 cm; |
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Musée des Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux, France]] Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when [[Henri Matisse]], the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of [[Gustave Moreau]] at the [[Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris)|Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. There he met [[Georges Rouault]], [[Charles Camoin]], [[Henri Manguin]], and [[Albert Marquet]]. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include [[Georges Braque]], [[André Derain]], [[Raoul Dufy]], [[Othon Friesz]], [[Jean Metzinger]], [[Jean Puy]], [[Louis Valtat]], [[Kees van Dongen]], and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]]. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), |
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux, France]] Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when [[Henri Matisse]], the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of [[Gustave Moreau]] at the [[Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris)|Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. There he met [[Georges Rouault]], [[Charles Camoin]], [[Henri Manguin]], and [[Albert Marquet]]. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include [[Georges Braque]], [[André Derain]], [[Raoul Dufy]], [[Othon Friesz]], [[Jean Metzinger]], [[Jean Puy]], [[Louis Valtat]], [[Kees van Dongen]], and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]]. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse spent the summer of 1904 in [[Saint-Tropez]] painting with the neo-impressionist [[Paul Signac]] and [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], followed in1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and Marquet. The artist exhibited regularity at the [[Salon Des Independants|Salon des Indepéndants]] and the [[Salon d'Automne]] 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal. Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin, Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In the center of this room the sculptor [[Albert Marque|Marque]] exhibited a bust of a child very much in the Italian style. [[Louis Vauxcelles|Vauxcelles]] [art critic for [[Gil Blas (periodical)|Gil Blas]]] entered the room and said, Well! well! [[Donatello]] in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."{{sfn|Clay|1978}} The movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the 1950s.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}<{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)">Diehl, Gaston (1972) The Fauves: Library of Great Art Movements. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York. 168 pp. {{ISBN|0-8109-0114-5}}</ref>{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)">Jacobus, J. (1973) Matisse: Library of Great Painters. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, 184 pp.</ref> |
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The fauvist painted landscapes [[en plein air]], interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in [[primitivism]] were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power"{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)" />{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)" /> |
The fauvist painted landscapes [[en plein air]], interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in [[primitivism]] were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power"{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)" />{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)" /> |
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Bonheur Matisse.jpg|''[[Le bonheur de vivre]]'', by [[Henri Matisse]]; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; 175 × 241 cm; [[Barnes Foundation]] |
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Houses at Chatou.jpg|''Houses at Chatou''; by [[Maurice de Vlaminck]]; ca. 1905; oil on canvas, 81 × 101 cm; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] |
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Fauvism Landscape; by Louis Valtat; oil on canvas, Speed Art Museum, Louisville, Kentucky II.jpg|''Fauve Landscape''; by [[Louis Valtat]]; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; [[Speed Art Museum]] |
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Derain CharingCrossBridge.png|''Charing Cross Bridge, London''; by [[André Derain]]; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; [[National Gallery of Art]] |
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LA CIOTAT.PNG|''La Ciotat''; by [[Othon Friesz]]; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; collection unknown |
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[[File:Kirchner - Mädchen unter Japanschirm.jpg|left|thumb|''Girl Under a Japanese Umbrella''; by [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]]; 1906; oil on canvas, 36.5 × 31.5; [[Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen]], Düsseldorf, Germany]] Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the [[Second Viennese School]] and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the [[Die Brücke]]. However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including [[Lovis Corinth]], [[James Ensor]], [[Käthe Kollwitz]], [[Paula Modersohn-Becker]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], and [[Christian Rohlfs]] among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, frequently thick, [[impasto]] brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. [[Woodcut print]]s are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]], [[fauvism]], [[cubism]], [[futurism]], abstraction, and [[dada]]. Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}} |
[[File:Kirchner - Mädchen unter Japanschirm.jpg|left|thumb|''Girl Under a Japanese Umbrella''; by [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]]; 1906; oil on canvas, 36.5 × 31.5; [[Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen]], Düsseldorf, Germany]] Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the [[Second Viennese School]] and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the [[Die Brücke]]. However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including [[Lovis Corinth]], [[James Ensor]], [[Käthe Kollwitz]], [[Paula Modersohn-Becker]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], and [[Christian Rohlfs]] among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, frequently thick, [[impasto]] brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. [[Woodcut print]]s are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]], [[fauvism]], [[cubism]], [[futurism]], abstraction, and [[dada]]. Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}} |
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[[Die Brücke]] (The Bridge: 1905 -1913) aspired to connect "all revolutionary and surging elements."{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}} It was founded by four architectural students [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]], [[Erich Heckel]], [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]], and [[Fritz Bleyl]]. Sharing a studio in Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions, separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later joined by [[Emil Nolde]] and [[Max Pechstein]] in 1906, and [[Otto Mueller]] in 1910 among others. Influences included [[Gothic art]], [[primitivism]], [[Art Nouveau]], and developments in Paris, particularly [[Van Gogh]] and [[fauvism]]. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and later dissolved in 1913. '''[[Der Blaue Reiter]] (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914)''', founded by [[Wassily Kandinsky]] and [[Franz Marc]], was a relatively informal group that organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist & impressionist), Phalanx in 1901 (postimpressionist), [[Neue Künstlervereinigung München|Neue Kunstler Vereiningung]] in 1909, and The Blue Rider in 1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included the [[David Burliuk|Burliuk]] brothers, [[Heinrich Campendonk]], [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]], and [[Marianne von Werefkin]]. The euphonious almanac ''Der Blaue Reiter'', a collection of influential essays, and Kandinsky's ''[[Concerning the Spiritual in Art]]'' with his ideas on non-objective art were both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in which Macke and Marc both died.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}} |
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[[File:Kollwitz.jpg|thumb|''Mother with dead child''; by [[Kathe Kollwitz]]; 1903; etching; [[National Gallery of Art]], [[Washington, D.C.]]]] |
[[File:Kollwitz.jpg|thumb|''Mother with dead child''; by [[Kathe Kollwitz]]; 1903; etching; [[National Gallery of Art]], [[Washington, D.C.]]]] |
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After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, [[Picasso]] and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] neoclassical periods, and [[Giorgio de Chirico|De Chirico's]] late work. This tendency was called '''[[New Objectivity]] (ca. 1919–1933)''' in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and [[dada]] milieus including [[Otto Dix]], [[Christian Schad]], [[Rudolf Schlichter]], [[Georg Scholz]], and [[Jeanne Mammen]]. [[Max Beckmann]] and [[George Grosz]] also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the '''[[Staatliches Bauhaus]] (School of Building: 1919–1933)''' was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects [[Walter Gropius]] (1919–1928), [[Hannes Meyer]] (1928–1930), and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included [[Josef Albers]], [[Theo van Doesburg]], [[Lyonel Feininger]], [[Johannes Itten]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[El Lissitzky]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], [[László Moholy-Nagy]], [[Oskar Schlemmer]]. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the [[Nazi Party]] rose to power, modern art was dubbed "[[degenerate art]]" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}} |
After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, [[Picasso]] and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] neoclassical periods, and [[Giorgio de Chirico|De Chirico's]] late work. This tendency was called '''[[New Objectivity]] (ca. 1919–1933)''' in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and [[dada]] milieus including [[Otto Dix]], [[Christian Schad]], [[Rudolf Schlichter]], [[Georg Scholz]], and [[Jeanne Mammen]]. [[Max Beckmann]] and [[George Grosz]] also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the '''[[Staatliches Bauhaus]] (School of Building: 1919–1933)''' was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects [[Walter Gropius]] (1919–1928), [[Hannes Meyer]] (1928–1930), and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included [[Josef Albers]], [[Theo van Doesburg]], [[Lyonel Feininger]], [[Johannes Itten]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[El Lissitzky]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], [[László Moholy-Nagy]], [[Oskar Schlemmer]]. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the [[Nazi Party]] rose to power, modern art was dubbed "[[degenerate art]]" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}} |
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James Ensor (1891) - Geraamten twistend om een gehangene 001.jpg|''Skeletons Fighting for the Body of a Hanged Man''; by [[James Ensor]]; 1891; oil on canvas; 59 × 74 cm; [[Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp]] |
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Lovis Corinth 006.jpg|''In the Slaughterhouse''; by [[Lovis Corinth]]; 1893; oil on canvas, 78 × 89 cm.; [[Staatsgalerie Stuttgart]] |
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Edvard-Munch-The-Scream.jpg|''[[The Scream]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1893; oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard, 91 × 73 cm; [[National Gallery of Norway]] |
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Wassily Kandinsky Cossacks or Cosaques 1910–1.jpg|''The Cossacks''; by [[Wassily Kandinsky]]; 1910–11; oil on canvas, 94 × 130 cm.; [[Tate Modern]] |
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Franz Marc-The Yellow Cow-1911.jpg|''The Yellow Cow''; by [[Franz Marc]]; 1911; oil on canvas, 140.5 × 189.2 cm.; [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] |
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Ernst Barlach, The Avenger, 1914, NGA 206701.jpg|''The Avenger''; by [[Ernst Barlach]]; 1914; bronze, 58.4 cm. width; [[National Gallery of Art]] |
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Kirchner - Selbstbildnis als Soldat.jpg|''Self-portrait as a Soldier''; by [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]]; 1915, 69.2 × 60.9 cm.; [[Allen Memorial Art Museum]] |
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Egon Schiele 012.jpg|''[[Death and the Maiden (Schiele)|Death and the Maiden]]''; by [[Egon Schiele]]; 1915; oil on canvas, 150 × 180 cm; [[Österreichische Galerie Belvedere]] |
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Wilhelm Lehmbruck - Der Gestürzte.2.jpg|''The Fallen''; by [[Wilhelm Lehmbruck]]; 1915–16; plaster 29.5 × 94.5; Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg |
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Max Beckmann, 1918-19, The Night (Die Nacht), oil on canvas, 133 x 154 cm, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf.jpg|''The Night''; by [[Max Beckmann]]; 1918–19; oil on canvas, 133 × 154 cm, [[Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen]] |
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Still Life with Rayfish MET DT4177.jpg|''Still Life with Rayfish''; by [[Chaim Soutine]]; ca. 1924; oil on canvas, 81.3 × 100 cm.; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Grosses Schauspielhaus (Grand Theatre; by Hans Poelzig; 1919; Berlin, Germany.jpg|''Grosses Schauspielhaus'' (''Grand Theatre''); by [[Hans Poelzig]]; 1919; Berlin, Germany |
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La tour Einstein (Potsdam, Allemagne) (9616566364).jpg|''Einstein Tower''; by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]; 1920. Potsdam, Germany |
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Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari.JPG|''Cabinet of Dr. Caligari''; by Atelier Ledl Bernhard; 1920; promotional poster for the film directed by [[Robert Wiene]] |
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Paul Klee, Swiss - Fish Magic - Google Art Project.jpg|''Fish Magic''; by [[Paul Klee]]; 1925; oil & watercolor on canvas on panel, 77 × 98 cm.; [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]] |
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'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] in 1913. Five years earlier, [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Georges Braque]] – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival [[Realism (arts)|realism]] for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}} |
'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] in 1913. Five years earlier, [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Georges Braque]] – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival [[Realism (arts)|realism]] for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}} |
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Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]''; by [[Pablo Picasso]]; 1907; oil on canvas; 244 × 234 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]''; by [[Pablo Picasso]]; 1907; oil on canvas; 244 × 234 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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Georges Braque, 1908, Maisons et arbre, oil on canvas, 40.5 x 32.5 cm, Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider Art.jpg|''[[Houses at l'Estaque]]''; by [[Georges Braque]]; 1908; oil on canvas; 73 × 59.5 cm; [[Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider Art]] |
Georges Braque, 1908, Maisons et arbre, oil on canvas, 40.5 x 32.5 cm, Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider Art.jpg|''[[Houses at l'Estaque]]''; by [[Georges Braque]]; 1908; oil on canvas; 73 × 59.5 cm; [[Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider Art]] |
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Juan Gris - Playing Cards and Glass of Beer (1913).jpg|''Glass of Beer and Playing Cards''; by [[Juan Gris]]; 1913; oil and collage on canvas; 52.5 × 36.5 cm; [[Columbus Museum of Art]] |
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'Unique Forms of Continuity in Space', 1913 bronze by Umberto Boccioni.jpg|''[[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space]]''; by [[Umberto Boccioni]]; 1913; bronze; height: 1.09 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
'Unique Forms of Continuity in Space', 1913 bronze by Umberto Boccioni.jpg|''[[Unique Forms of Continuity in Space]]''; by [[Umberto Boccioni]]; 1913; bronze; height: 1.09 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by [[Sigmund Freud]] regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}} |
With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by [[Sigmund Freud]] regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}} |
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Giorgio de Chirico, 1914-15, The Seer, oil on canvas, 89.6 x 70.1 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg|''The Seer''; by [[Giorgio de Chirico]]; 1914–15; oil on canvas; 89.6 × 70.1 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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Time Transfixed.jpg|''[[Time Transfixed]]''; by [[René Magritte]]; 1938; oil on canvas; 147 × 98.7 cm.; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] |
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Victor Brauner, 1942, Signe (Le vent), Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris. DSC09041.jpg|''Signe (Le vent)'', by [[Victor Brauner]]; 1942; white marble; 31 cm; [[Cimetière de Montmartre]] (Paris) |
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File:Time Transfixed.jpg|''[[Time Transfixed]]''; by [[René Magritte]]; 1938; oil on canvas; 147 × 98.7 cm.; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] ([[Chicago]], USA) |
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File:Victor Brauner, 1942, Signe (Le vent), Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris. DSC09041.jpg|''Signe (Le vent)'', by [[Victor Brauner]]; 1942; white marble; 31 cm; [[Cimetière de Montmartre]] (Paris) |
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In the early 1960s, in the [[United States]] themselves, the public saw for the first time the works that since have become famous: [[Andy Warhol]]'s [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]]'s comic-strip oils, [[Claes Oldenberg]]'s gigantiv [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] burgers and ice cream cones, and [[Tom Wesselmann]]'s nudes set in domestic settings that incorporate real shower curtains, telephones and bathroom cabinets. Public attention culminated in a large international exhibition mounted at the [[Sidney Janis Gallery]] in New York in 1962. Works by British, French, Italian, Swedish and American artists were grouped around the themes of the 'daily object', 'mass media', and the 'repetition' or 'accumulation' of mass-produced objects. It was a defining moment. Sidney Janis was the leading dealer in blue-chip European moderns and [[Abstract Expressionism|Abstract Expressionists]], and his exhibition consecrated the work as the next art historical movement to be discussed and collected.{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|pp=116–117}} |
In the early 1960s, in the [[United States]] themselves, the public saw for the first time the works that since have become famous: [[Andy Warhol]]'s [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Roy Lichtenstein]]'s comic-strip oils, [[Claes Oldenberg]]'s gigantiv [[Polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] burgers and ice cream cones, and [[Tom Wesselmann]]'s nudes set in domestic settings that incorporate real shower curtains, telephones and bathroom cabinets. Public attention culminated in a large international exhibition mounted at the [[Sidney Janis Gallery]] in New York in 1962. Works by British, French, Italian, Swedish and American artists were grouped around the themes of the 'daily object', 'mass media', and the 'repetition' or 'accumulation' of mass-produced objects. It was a defining moment. Sidney Janis was the leading dealer in blue-chip European moderns and [[Abstract Expressionism|Abstract Expressionists]], and his exhibition consecrated the work as the next art historical movement to be discussed and collected.{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|pp=116–117}} |
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NY Met demuth figure 5 gold.JPG|''[[I Saw the Figure 5 in Gold]]''; by [[Charles Demuth]]; 1928; 90.2 × 76.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
NY Met demuth figure 5 gold.JPG|''[[I Saw the Figure 5 in Gold]]''; by [[Charles Demuth]]; 1928; 90.2 × 76.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |
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Roy Lichtenstein Drowning Girl.jpg|''[[Drowning Girl]]''; by [[Roy Lichtenstein]]; 1963; oil and synthetic polymer paint on canvas; 171.6 × 169.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art |
Roy Lichtenstein Drowning Girl.jpg|''[[Drowning Girl]]''; by [[Roy Lichtenstein]]; 1963; oil and synthetic polymer paint on canvas; 171.6 × 169.5 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] |
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Shinjuku - panoramio (2).jpg|''[[Love (sculpture)|Love]]''; by [[Robert Indiana]]; 1966; painted [[aluminium]]; height: 1.7 m; [[Shinjuku]] ([[Tokyo]], Japan){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=386}} |
Shinjuku - panoramio (2).jpg|''[[Love (sculpture)|Love]]''; by [[Robert Indiana]]; 1966; painted [[aluminium]]; height: 1.7 m; [[Shinjuku]] ([[Tokyo]], Japan){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=386}} |
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Rapid advances in science and technology led to the late Modern and [[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] period. In these periods, the art and cultures of the world went through many changes, and there was a great deal of intermixture between cultures, as new [[mass media|communications technologies]] facilitated the national and even global dissemination of music, art and style. The separation of regional cultures that had marked the 19th century was replaced by a global culture. Postmodernism describes a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late-20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism which marked a departure from modernism.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism |title=Postmodernism |work=[[Oxford Dictionaries]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=29 September 2018 |date= |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504031759/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |first=Ruth |last=Reichl |author-link=Ruth Reichl |date=1989 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |dictionary=[[American Heritage Dictionary]] |title=postmodern |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081209075319/http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |archive-date=9 December 2008 |access-date=29 September 2018 |edition=4th |publisher=Houghton Mifflin}}</ref>{{sfn|Mura|2012|pp=68–87}} One contemporary view of Postmodern art shows that it can be understood as an expansion of technology-based media enabling multiple new forms of art simultaneously.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hoetzlein |first=Rama |year=2009 |title=What is New Media Art? |url=http://ramakarl.com/website/what-is-new-media-art/ |access-date=2018-12-06 |archive-date=2018-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206145708/http://ramakarl.com/website/what-is-new-media-art/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The transition from linear art movements of the early 20th century modern era to multiple simultaneous movements of the last 20th century Postmodern is shown in a [http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap/ Timeline of 20th.C Art and New Media].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hoetzlein |first=Rama |year=2009 |title=Timeline of 20th C. Art and New Media |url=http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap// |access-date=2018-12-06 |archive-date=2018-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206192514/http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Art movements specific of the late 20th and early 21st centuries include [[land art]], [[video art]], [[photorealism]], [[Hyperrealism (visual arts)|hyperrealism]], and [[digital art]]. |
Rapid advances in science and technology led to the late Modern and [[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] period. In these periods, the art and cultures of the world went through many changes, and there was a great deal of intermixture between cultures, as new [[mass media|communications technologies]] facilitated the national and even global dissemination of music, art and style. The separation of regional cultures that had marked the 19th century was replaced by a global culture. Postmodernism describes a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late-20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism which marked a departure from modernism.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism |title=Postmodernism |work=[[Oxford Dictionaries]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=29 September 2018 |date= |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504031759/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |first=Ruth |last=Reichl |author-link=Ruth Reichl |date=1989 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |dictionary=[[American Heritage Dictionary]] |title=postmodern |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081209075319/http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html |archive-date=9 December 2008 |access-date=29 September 2018 |edition=4th |publisher=Houghton Mifflin}}</ref>{{sfn|Mura|2012|pp=68–87}} One contemporary view of Postmodern art shows that it can be understood as an expansion of technology-based media enabling multiple new forms of art simultaneously.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hoetzlein |first=Rama |year=2009 |title=What is New Media Art? |url=http://ramakarl.com/website/what-is-new-media-art/ |access-date=2018-12-06 |archive-date=2018-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206145708/http://ramakarl.com/website/what-is-new-media-art/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The transition from linear art movements of the early 20th century modern era to multiple simultaneous movements of the last 20th century Postmodern is shown in a [http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap/ Timeline of 20th.C Art and New Media].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hoetzlein |first=Rama |year=2009 |title=Timeline of 20th C. Art and New Media |url=http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap// |access-date=2018-12-06 |archive-date=2018-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206192514/http://ramakarl.com/website/artmap/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Art movements specific of the late 20th and early 21st centuries include [[land art]], [[video art]], [[photorealism]], [[Hyperrealism (visual arts)|hyperrealism]], and [[digital art]]. |
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<gallery widths=" |
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px"> |
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Dona i Ocell.JPG|''[[Dona i Ocell]]''; by [[Joan Miró]]; 1983; [[Parc Joan Miró]] |
Dona i Ocell.JPG|''[[Dona i Ocell]]''; by [[Joan Miró]]; 1983; [[Parc Joan Miró]] |
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PENCILS.jpg|''Pencils''; by [[Guerrino Boatto]]; 1 August 1986; acrylic on scholler; 70 × 50 cm; private collection |
PENCILS.jpg|''Pencils''; by [[Guerrino Boatto]]; 1 August 1986; acrylic on scholler; 70 × 50 cm; private collection |
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Isa Genzken Rose.jpg|''Rose''; by [[Isa Genzken]]; 1993; in front of Neue Leipziger Messe ([[Leipzig]], Germany) |
Isa Genzken Rose.jpg|''Rose''; by [[Isa Genzken]]; 1993; in front of Neue Leipziger Messe ([[Leipzig]], Germany) |
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Nana-Engel in Zürich HB.jpg|''L'Ange Protecteur''; by [[Niki de Saint Phalle]]; inception in 1997; [[Zürich Hauptbahnhof]] |
Nana-Engel in Zürich HB.jpg|''L'Ange Protecteur''; by [[Niki de Saint Phalle]]; inception in 1997; [[Zürich Hauptbahnhof]] |
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Bilbao - Guggenheim 28.jpg|''[[Maman (sculpture)|Maman]]''; by [[Louise Bourgeois]]; bronze and glass; inception late 1990s; [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim]] |
Bilbao - Guggenheim 28.jpg|''[[Maman (sculpture)|Maman]]''; by [[Louise Bourgeois]]; bronze and glass; inception late 1990s; [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim]] |
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Ai Weiweis Ice Sculptures in Stockholm 2014.jpg|[[Chinese guardian lions|Chinese guardian lion]]; by [[Ai |
Ai Weiweis Ice Sculptures in Stockholm 2014.jpg|[[Chinese guardian lions|Chinese guardian lion]]; by [[Ai Weiwei]]; 2014; ice; Stockholm International Film Festival 2014 |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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<gallery class="centered" perrow="5" heights="150" widths="150" caption="Chemogramme and Chimigramme"> |
<gallery class="centered" perrow="5" heights="150" widths="150" caption="Chemogramme and Chimigramme"> |
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Josef H Neumann- Gustav I (1976).jpg|[[Josef H. Neumann]]: Chemogramm,''Gustav I'' (1976) |
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Paolo Monti - Serie fotografica - BEIC 6363434.jpg|[[Paolo Monti]]: Chimigramm, Serie fotografica, 1970 |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Elizabeth P. |author-link=Elizabeth P. Benson|year=1996 |chapter=110. Votive Axe |title=Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico |editor1=Elizabeth P. Benson |editor2=Beatriz de la Fuente |edition=To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 |publisher=[[National Gallery of Art]] |location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-89468-250-4}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Blundell |first1=Geoffrey |title=Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=Juta and Company Ltd |isbn=9781770130401 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |access-date=2019-05-11 |archive-date=2020-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124231600/https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Blunden |first=Maria |title=Impressionists and impressionism |date=1976 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0047-4 |location=Geneva}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bris |first=Michel Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ |title=Romantics and Romanticism by Michel Le Bris |date=1981 |publisher=MacMillan}} |
* {{cite book |last=Bris |first=Michel Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ |title=Romantics and Romanticism by Michel Le Bris |date=1981 |publisher=MacMillan |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Boardman |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ |author-link=John Boardman (art historian) |title=The Oxford History of Classical Art |location=Oxford |last2=Johnston |first2=Alan |last3=Smith |first3=R. R. R. |last4=Pollitt |first4=Jerome Jordan |last5=Huskinson |first5=Janet |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-814386-9 |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030458/https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Bouillon |first=Jean-Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ |title=Journal de l'art nouveau : 1870-1914 |date=1985 |publisher=Skira |isbn=2-605-00069-9 |location=Genèva |trans-title=Journal of Art Nouveau: 1870-1914}} |
* {{cite book |last=Bouillon |first=Jean-Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ |title=Journal de l'art nouveau : 1870-1914 |date=1985 |publisher=Skira |isbn=2-605-00069-9 |location=Genèva |trans-title=Journal of Art Nouveau: 1870-1914 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224303/https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Breton |first=André |date=1929-12-15 |orig-year=1930 |editor-last=Kra |editor-first=Simon |title=Second Manifeste du Surréalisme |trans-title=Second manifesto of surrealism |url=https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf |url-status=live |journal=La Révolution surréaliste |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions Kra |volume=2 |issue=12 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308225152/https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf }} |
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* {{Citation |last=Breton |first=André |title=Manifeste du Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |url=https://tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm |volume=1st |year=1924 |trans-title=Manifesto of Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |place=Paris |publisher=Aux du Sagittaire |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30}} |
* {{Citation |last=Breton |first=André |title=Manifeste du Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |url=https://tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm |volume=1st |year=1924 |trans-title=Manifesto of Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |place=Paris |publisher=Aux du Sagittaire |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181009/https://www.tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book| editor-last=Clay |editor-first=Jean |year=1978 |title=From Impressionism to Modern Art 1890–1918 |publisher=Chartwell Books Inc |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |isbn=0-89009-544-2}} |
* {{cite book| editor-last=Clay |editor-first=Jean |year=1978 |title=From Impressionism to Modern Art 1890–1918 |publisher=Chartwell Books Inc |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |isbn=0-89009-544-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Clay |first=Jean |title=Romanticism |date=1981 |publisher=Chartwell Books, Inc. Secaucus |isbn= |location=New Jersey}} |
* {{cite book |last=Clay |first=Jean |title=Romanticism |date=1981 |publisher=Chartwell Books, Inc. Secaucus |isbn= |location=New Jersey}} |
||
* {{cite book |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs0000coem |title=Mexico : from the Olmecs to the Aztecs |date=2002 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-28346-X |edition=5th ed., rev. and expanded |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs0000coem |title=Mexico : from the Olmecs to the Aztecs |date=2002 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-28346-X |edition=5th ed., rev. and expanded |location=New York }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |title=Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec |date=1966 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0512-4 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Cotterell |first=Arthur |title=The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations |date=1993 |publisher=Viking |isbn=0-670-82699-5 |edition=1st |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |title=Impressionism |date=1979 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0202-8 |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |title=Georges Seurat |date=1988 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-1519-7 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224307/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |title=Modern art: The decisive years 1884-1914 |date=1979 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0212-4 |location=Geneva |language=fr |translator-last=Harrison |translator-first=Helga |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224305/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |title=Avant-garde art, 1914-1939 |date=1980 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0334-1 |location=Geneva}} |
* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |title=Avant-garde art, 1914-1939 |date=1980 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0334-1 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=De la Bédoyère |first=Camilla |title=Art nouveau |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-78664-470-1 |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Delevoy |first=Robert L. |title=Symbolists and Symbolism |date=1978 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0141-1 |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Drimba |first=Ovidiu |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20934624 |title=Istoria Culturii și Civilizației |date=1985 |isbn=973-44-0118-1 |location=București |oclc=20934624 |trans-title=History of Culture and Civilization |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://www.worldcat.org/title/istoria-culturii-si-civilizatiei-histoire-de-la-culture-et-de-la-civilisation/oclc/20934624 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Dube |first=Wolf Dieter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |title=Expressionists and expressionism |date=1983 |publisher=Skira |isbn=978-0-8478-0494-8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |title=Gauguin: Biographical and Critical Studies: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953a |volume=1 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |title=Van Gogh: Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953b |publisher=Skira |volume=2 |location=Geneva |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Fermigier |first=André |title=Pierre Bonnard: The Library of Great Painters |date=1969 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0041-6 |edition=1st |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Goldwater |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ |title=Paul Gauguin: The Library of Great Painters |date=1972 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|language=ro}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=Jacques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |title=Matisse: Biographical and Critical Study |date=1959 |publisher=Skira}} |
* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=Jacques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |title=Matisse: Biographical and Critical Study |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |title=Impressionism, Vols. 11 & 12: The Taste of Our Time |date=1955 |publisher=Skira |volume=11-12 |location=Geneva}} |
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |title=Impressionism, Vols. 11 & 12: The Taste of Our Time |date=1955 |publisher=Skira |volume=11-12 |location=Geneva}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |title=Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Translated by James Emmons |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |volume=28}} |
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |title=Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Translated by James Emmons |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |volume=28 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |title=French Painting: The Nineteenth Century |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva}} |
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |title=French Painting: The Nineteenth Century |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224252/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book | |
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* {{cite book |last=MacKenzie |first=Andrew |title=Archaeology in Romania: The Mystery of the Roman Occupation |date=1986 |publisher=Hale |isbn=0-7090-2724-9 |location=London}} |
* {{cite book |last=MacKenzie |first=Andrew |title=Archaeology in Romania: The Mystery of the Roman Occupation |date=1986 |publisher=Hale |isbn=0-7090-2724-9 |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Marshall |first1=John |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |date=1931 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722/page/n81 |publisher=Arthur Probsthain}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Marshall |first1=John |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |date=1931 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722/page/n81 |publisher=Arthur Probsthain }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Mattinson |first=Lindsay |title=Understanding Architecture: A Guide To Architectural Styles |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-78274-748-2 |publisher=Amber Books |location=London}} |
* {{cite book |last=Mattinson |first=Lindsay |title=Understanding Architecture: A Guide To Architectural Styles |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-78274-748-2 |publisher=Amber Books |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Megaw |first=M. Ruth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKZ_QgAACAAJ |title=Celtic art: From Its Beginnings to the Book of Kells |date=2001 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-28265-X |edition=Rev. and expanded |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Megaw |first=M. Ruth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKZ_QgAACAAJ |title=Celtic art: From Its Beginnings to the Book of Kells |date=2001 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-28265-X |edition=Rev. and expanded |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220201/https://books.google.com/books?id=kKZ_QgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=McCoid|first1=Catherine Hodge |last2=McDermott |first2=Leroy D. |date=1996|title=Toward Decolonizing Gender: Female Vision in the Upper Paleolithic|jstor=682890|journal=American Anthropologist |volume=98|issue=2|doi=10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00080}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=McCoid|first1=Catherine Hodge |last2=McDermott |first2=Leroy D. |date=1996|title=Toward Decolonizing Gender: Female Vision in the Upper Paleolithic|jstor=682890|journal=American Anthropologist |volume=98|issue=2|pages=319–326 |doi=10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00080}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|date=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|first=Jane|last=McIntosh|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}} |
* {{cite book|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|date=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|first=Jane|last=McIntosh|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}} |
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* {{cite journal|last1=Morriss-Kay|first1=Gillian M.|title=The evolution of human artistic creativity|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=216|issue=2|year=2010|issn=0021-8782|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x|pmid=19900185|pmc=2815939}} |
* {{cite journal|last1=Morriss-Kay|first1=Gillian M.|title=The evolution of human artistic creativity|journal=Journal of Anatomy|volume=216|issue=2|year=2010|pages=158–176|issn=0021-8782|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x|pmid=19900185|pmc=2815939}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Mountain |first=Harry |title=The Celtic encyclopedia |date=1998 |publisher=Universal Publishers |isbn=1-58112-889-4 |edition=1 |location=Parkland, Fla.}} |
* {{cite book |last=Mountain |first=Harry |title=The Celtic encyclopedia |date=1998 |publisher=Universal Publishers |isbn=1-58112-889-4 |edition=1 |location=Parkland, Fla.}} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |last1=Musset |first1=Lucien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |title=La tapisserie de Bayeux: œuvre d'art et document historique |last2=Bertrand |first2=Simone |date=1966 |publisher=Zodiaque |isbn=978-2-7369-0170-7 |location=La Pierre-qui-Vire |language=fr |trans-title=The Bayeux tapestry: work of art and historical document |quote=et combien pauvre alors ce nom de broderie nous apparaît-il! |trans-quote=and how poor then this name of embroidery appears to us! |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2012 |title=The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity |journal=Language and Psychoanalysis |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=68–87 |url=https://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |doi=10.7565/landp.2012.0005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008211951/http://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2015 }} |
* {{cite journal |last=Mura |first=Andrea |year=2012 |title=The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity |journal=Language and Psychoanalysis |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=68–87 |url=https://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |doi=10.7565/landp.2012.0005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008211951/http://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2015 }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Onians |first=John |author-link=John Onians |title=Atlas of World Art |location=London |publisher=[[Laurence King Publishing]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-85669-377-6}} |
* {{cite book |last=Onians |first=John |author-link=John Onians |title=Atlas of World Art |location=London |publisher=[[Laurence King Publishing]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-85669-377-6}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Passeron |first=René |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Surrealism |date=1975 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-664-3 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}} |
* {{cite book |last=Passeron |first=René |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Surrealism |date=1975 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-664-3 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}} |
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* {{cite book | |
* {{cite book |last1=Petrie |first1=Milton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVTCRYPfFMC |title=Treasures of the Holy Land: Ancient Art from the Israel Museum |last2=Rose |first2=Frederick |last3=Tisch |first3=Laurence A. |last4=Grant |first4=Eugene M. |last5=Zuckerman |first5=Mortimer B. |date=1986 |work=Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Bradford D. Kelleher |isbn=978-0-87099-470-8 |editor-last=O'Neill |editor-first=John Patrick |location=New York |editor-last2=Howard |editor-first2=Kathleen |access-date=2019-05-05 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220202/https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVTCRYPfFMC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Pevsner |first=Nikolaus |title=Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius |date=2005 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10571-1 |edition=4th |location=New Haven, Conn.}} |
* {{cite book |last=Pevsner |first=Nikolaus |title=Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius |date=2005 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10571-1 |edition=4th |location=New Haven, Conn.}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Picon |first=Gaëtan |title=Surrealists and Surrealism, 1919-1939 |date=1977 |publisher=Rizzoli International |isbn=0-8478-0041-5 |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Picon |first=Gaëtan |title=Surrealists and Surrealism, 1919-1939 |date=1977 |publisher=Rizzoli International |isbn=0-8478-0041-5 |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Ponente |first=Nello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Structures of the Modern World, 1850-1900 |date=1965 |publisher=Skira}} |
* {{cite book |last=Ponente |first=Nello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Structures of the Modern World, 1850-1900 |date=1965 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |
* {{cite book |last1=Possehl |first1=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC |isbn=9780759101722 |year=2002 |access-date=2019-05-18 |archive-date=2019-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027025441/https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Preston |first=Stuart |title=Edouard Vuillard |date=1974 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc.}} |
* {{cite book |last=Preston |first=Stuart |title=Edouard Vuillard |date=1974 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc.}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |title=Modern Painting: Painting, Color, History |date=1953 |publisher=Skira |language=fr |translator-last=Gilbert |translator-first=Stuart}} |
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |title=Modern Painting: Painting, Color, History |date=1953 |publisher=Skira |language=fr |translator-last=Gilbert |translator-first=Stuart |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |title=Cézanne: Biographical and Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1954 |publisher=Skira |volume=8|location=Geneva}} |
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |title=Cézanne: Biographical and Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1954 |publisher=Skira |volume=8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Rubin |first=William |title=Dada and surrealist art |date=1968 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0060-2 |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Rubin |first=William |title=Dada and surrealist art |date=1968 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0060-2 |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Richard |first=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Expressionism |date=1978 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-665-1 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}} |
* {{cite book |last=Richard |first=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Expressionism |date=1978 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-665-1 |location=Secaucus, N.J. |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Sale |first=Kirkpatrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2q9780EgEBEC&pg=PA57 |title=After Eden: The Evolution of Human Domination |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=0-8223-3885-8 |location=Durham}} |
* {{cite book |last=Sale |first=Kirkpatrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2q9780EgEBEC&pg=PA57 |title=After Eden: The Evolution of Human Domination |date=2006 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=0-8223-3885-8 |location=Durham |access-date=2019-05-06 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://books.google.com/books?id=2q9780EgEBEC&pg=PA57 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Schneede |first=Uwe M. |title=Surrealism |date=1974 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0499-3 |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Schneede |first=Uwe M. |title=Surrealism |date=1974 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0499-3 |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |title=Vincent Van Gogh: The Library of Great Painters |date=1950 |publisher=Abrams}} |
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |title=Vincent Van Gogh: The Library of Great Painters |date=1950 |publisher=Abrams |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |title=Paul Cezanne |date=1962 |publisher=Abrams |isbn=978-0-8109-0052-3}} |
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |title=Paul Cezanne |date=1962 |publisher=Abrams |isbn=978-0-8109-0052-3 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Starobinski |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |title=The invention of liberty: 1700-1789 |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |language=es}} |
* {{cite book |last=Starobinski |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |title=The invention of liberty: 1700-1789 |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |language=es |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224251/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite journal | |
* {{cite journal |last1=Tani |first1=Maurizio |last2=Murphy |first2=D. L. |date=2006 |title=Le origini mediterranee ed eurasiatiche dell'arte vichinga: casi esemplari dall'Islanda |url=https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/2242019 |journal=Le Origini Mediterranee ed Eurasiatiche dell'arte Vichinga |language=it |trans-title=The Mediterranean and Eurasian origins of Viking art: exemplary cases from Iceland |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=1000–1015 |doi=10.1400/94820 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/2242019 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Terrasse |first=Antoine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |title=Bonnard: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |volume=42}} |
* {{cite book |last=Terrasse |first=Antoine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |title=Bonnard: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |volume=42 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224256/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Toman |first=Rolf |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077 |title=Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Drawings, 1750-1848 |date=2000 |publisher=Könemann |isbn=3-8290-1575-5 |location=Cologne}} |
* {{cite book |last=Toman |first=Rolf |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077 |title=Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Drawings, 1750-1848 |date=2000 |publisher=Könemann |isbn=3-8290-1575-5 |location=Cologne |oclc=45588077 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030501/https://www.worldcat.org/title/neoclassicism-and-romanticism-architecture-sculpture-painting-drawings-1750-1848/oclc/45588077 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |date=December 1971 |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |doi= 10.1017/S0009840X00221331 |jstor=708631}} |
* {{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |date=December 1971 |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=439–442 |doi= 10.1017/S0009840X00221331 |jstor=708631}} |
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* {{cite journal | |
* {{cite journal |last1=Villa |first1=Paola |last2=Roebroeks |first2=Wil |date=2014 |title=Neandertal Demise: An Archaeological Analysis of the Modern Human Superiority Complex |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e96424 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096424 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4005592 |pmid=24789039|bibcode=2014PLoSO...996424V |doi-access=free }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Waldberg |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |title=Surrealismus |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |volume=37}} |
* {{cite book |last=Waldberg |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |title=Surrealismus |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |volume=37 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-4964-6 |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Waldman |first1=Carl |last2=Mason |first2=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-4964-6 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2015-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128103819/https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Warnod |first=Jeanine |title=E. Vuillard |date=1989 |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=0-517-57277-X |location=New York}} |
* {{cite book |last=Warnod |first=Jeanine |title=E. Vuillard |date=1989 |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=0-517-57277-X |location=New York}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=Classical heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern art |date=1981 |publisher=Variorum Reprints |isbn=0-86078-087-2 |location=London}} |
* {{cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=Classical heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern art |date=1981 |publisher=Variorum Reprints |isbn=0-86078-087-2 |location=London}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=Julian|title=Mirror of the World: A New History of Art|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=2010|isbn=978-0-500-28754-5}} |
* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=Julian|title=Mirror of the World: A New History of Art|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=2010|isbn=978-0-500-28754-5}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Gombrich|first=E.H.|title=The Story of Art|edition=15th|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ|publisher=Prentice-Hall|date=1990}} |
* {{cite book|last=Gombrich|first=E.H.|title=The Story of Art|edition=15th|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ|publisher=Prentice-Hall|date=1990}} |
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* {{cite book|last1=Honour|first1=Hugh|last2=Fleming|first2=John|title=A World History of Art|edition=7th|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|date=2005}} {{ISBN|1-85669-451-8|978-1-85669-451-3}}. |
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* {{cite book|last1=Janson|first1=H.W.|last2=Davies|first2=Penelope J.E.|title=Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition|edition=7th|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|date=2007}} |
* {{cite book|last1=Janson|first1=H.W.|last2=Davies|first2=Penelope J.E.|title=Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition|edition=7th|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|date=2007}} |
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* {{cite book|editor-last=Grau|editor-first=Oliver|editor-link=Oliver Grau|title=MediaArtHistories|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=MIT-Press|date=2007}} |
* {{cite book|editor-last=Grau|editor-first=Oliver|editor-link=Oliver Grau|title=MediaArtHistories|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=MIT-Press|date=2007}} |