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|title=The Pathare Prabhus |
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|publisher=Department of Theoretical Physics ([[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]]) |
|publisher=Department of Theoretical Physics ([[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]]) |
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|accessdate=2008-11-08}}</ref> and other parts of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in [[Gujarat]] around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign.<ref name="prabhu"/> He is also supposed to have brought |
|accessdate=2008-11-08}}</ref> and other parts of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in [[Gujarat]] around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign.<ref name="prabhu"/> He is also supposed to have brought Palshis, Pachkalshis, Bhandaris, Vadvals, Bhois, [[Agri]]s and [[Brahmin]]s to these islands.<ref name="bhimdev">{{cite web |
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|url=http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/persons/raja-bhimdev.html |
|url=http://theory.tifr.res.in/bombay/persons/raja-bhimdev.html |
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|title=Raja Bhimdev |
|title=Raja Bhimdev |
Revision as of 15:37, 14 November 2008
Part of a series on the |
History of Mumbai |
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Pre-historic period |
Kolis East Indians |
Ancient period |
Islamic period |
Portuguese period |
British period |
Independent India |
The History of Mumbai recounts the growth of a collection of seven islands on the western coast of India becoming the commercial capital of the nation and one of the most populous cities in the world. Although human habitation existed during the Stone Age, the Kolis were the earliest settlers of the islands. The Maurya Empire gained control of the islands during the third century BCE, and transformed the islands into a centre for Hindu and Buddhist culture and religion. The Satavahanas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas ruled the islands later, before it fell to the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260.
King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in Bombay in the late 13th century, and brought many settlers to the islands. The Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat captured the islands in 1343 ending the Hindu sovereignty over the islands. The Treaty of Diu between Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate and the Portuguese, placed the islands into Portuguese possession in 1534. The Portuguese were involved in the spread of Christianity to the islands. In 1661, the islands were ceded to Charles II of England as the dowry of Catherine de Braganza, and he later leased them to the British East India Company in 1668. The city was named Bombay by the British, an attribution to the word Bom Bahia (Good Bay) by the Portuguese soldier Francisco de Almeida when his ship sailed in the archipelago in 1508. It served as the city's official name until 1995.
Under the British, the islands were constantly under threat from attacks by native powers till 1817. During the mid-18th century, the city emerged as an important centre of commerce and industry, with the first-ever Indian railway line beginning operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane on 16 April 1853. The Hornby Vellard project united the seven islands of Bombay into a single island. During the early 20th century, the city became a strong base of the Indian independence movement and was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 and Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946.
The city was incorporated into the dominion of the newly created Maharashtra state from the State of Bombay on 1 May 1960, following protests from the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. Intermittent incidents of xenophobic attacks on South Indians by the regional party Shiv Sena persisted during 1960s and 1970s. The city's secular fabric was torn apart in the riots of 1992–93, after large scale sectarian violence caused extensive loss of life and property. In 1995, the city was renamed Mumbai. During the 21st century, the city suffered several bombings and incidents of xenophobic attacks on North Indians in 2008.
Ancient period (200 BCE - 1348 CE)
Geologists believe that coast of western India came into being around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. Soon after its detachment, the peninsular region of the Indian plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot, a volcanic hotspot in the earth's lithosphere near the island of Réunion. An eruption here some 65 mya is thought to have laid down the Deccan Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers parts of central India. This volcanic activity resulted in the formation of basaltic outcrops, such as the Gilbert Hill, that are seen at various locations in Mumbai. Further tectonic activity in the region led to the formation of hilly islands separated by a shallow sea.[1] Pleistocene sediments found near Kandivali in northern Bombay by the British archaeologist Todd in 1939 posit the theory that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age.[2] The port of Sopara (present-day Nala Sopara near Mumbai) was an important trading centre during ancient times.[3] In the 3rd century BCE, the islands were incorporated into the Maurya Empire under Emperor Ashoka of Magadha. The empire's patronage gradually made the islands a centre of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture.[4] Buddhist monks, scholars, and artists created the artwork, inscriptions, and sculpture of the Kanheri Caves in the mid 3rd century BCE[5] and Mahakali Caves caves.[6] After the decline of the Maurya Empire around 185 BCE, these islands fell to the Satvahanas.[7]
The islands were known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.[8] The Kolis, who were a fishing community, were the earliest inhabitants of these islands.[9] After the end of the Satvahana rule in 250 CE, the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra and Vakatakas of Vidarbha held dominion over Bombay. The Abhiras ruled for 167 years, till around 417 CE. During the fifth century, Bombay was ruled by the Kalachuris of Central India. These islands were then acquired by the Mauryas, who were feudatories of Kalachuris.[7] The Jogeshwari Caves were constructed during the Mauryan regime between 520 to 525.[10] The Elephanta Caves also dates back to the sixth century.[11] Christianity arrived in the sixth century, when the Nestorian Church made its presence in India.[12] The Mauryan presence ended when the Chalukyas of Badami under Pulakesi II invaded Bombay in 610. During 749-750, Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Karnataka conquered Bombay.[7] The Silhara dynasty of Konkan ruled the region between 810 and 1260.[13] The Banganga Tank (12th century)[14] and Walkeshwar Temple[15] were constructed under the patronage of the Silhara rulers. Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, and Ibn Batuta, an Arab explorer, had sailed through the islands of Bombay, but never landed here.[4] In the late 13th century, King Bhimdev founded a kingdom in Bombay with his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).[16] He built the first Babulnath temple in Bombay and introduced many fruit-bearing trees, including coconut palms to the islands.[17] The Pathare Prabhus, one of the earliest settlers of Bombay, were brought to Mahim[18] from Patan[19] and other parts of Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign.[18] He is also supposed to have brought Palshis, Pachkalshis, Bhandaris, Vadvals, Bhois, Agris and Brahmins to these islands.[17] After his death in 1303, he was succeeded by his son Pratapbimba, who built his capital at Marol in Salsette, which he named Pratappur. The islands were wrested from Pratapbimba's control by Mubarak Khan, a self-proclaimed regent of the Khilji dynasty, who occupied Mahim and Salsette in 1318. It was later reconquered by Pratapbimba, which he ruled till 1331. Later, his brother-in-law Nagardev for 17 years till 1348. In 1348, the islands came under the control of the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat, thus ending the sovereignty of Hindu rulers over the islands of Bombay.[7]
Islamic period (1348 - 1534)
From 1348 to 1391, the islands were under the Muzaffarid dynasty. During their rule, a group of Konkani Muslims called Naitias or Navayats from Bhatkal in Karnataka first appeared in these islands.[20] In 1391, after the establishment of the Gujarat Sultanate, Muzaffar Shah I was appointed viceroy of north Konkan.[21] For the administration of Bombay, he appointed a governor for Mahim. During the reign of Ahmad Shah I (1411 - 1443), Malik-us-Sharq was appointed governor of Mahim, and he improved the existing revenue system of the islands. During the early 14th century, the Bhandaris seized the island of Mahim from the Sultanate and ruled it for eight years. It was reconquered by Rai Qutb of the Gujarat Sultanate.[22] Firishta, a Persian historian, recorded that by 1429 the seat of government of the Gujarat Sultanate had transferred from Thane to Mahim (Bombay).[23] On Rai Qutb's death in 1429-1430, Ahmad Shah I Wali of the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan succeeded in capturing Salsette and Mahim.[22]
Ahmad Shah I retaliated by sending his son Jafar Khan to recapture the lost territory. Khan emerged victorious in the battle fought between him and Ahmad Shah I Wali. In 1431, Mahim was recaptured by the Sultanate of Gujarat. On the Gujarat commandant of Mahim Kutb Khan's death after a few years, Ahmad Shah I Wali again despatched a large army to capture Mahim. In response, Ahmad Shah I sent down a huge army and navy under Jafar Khan. The defeat of Ahmad Shah I Wali in the battle witnessed the freedom of Bombay from attacks by the Bahmani Sultanate.[22] The Gujarat Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many Islamic mosques, prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah, built in honour the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431.[24] Later, the islands came under Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Gujarat Sultanate. During 1491–1494, Bombay was wrested from Gilani's control by the Bahamani general Mahmud Gavan.[22] In 1508, Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida's ship sailed into the deep natural harbour of the island and he called it Bom Bahia (Good Bay).[25] However, the Portuguese paid their first visit to Bombay on 21 January 1509, when they landed at Mahim after capturing a Gujarat barge in the Bandra creek.[8] After a series of attacks by the Gujarat Sultanate on Bombay, the islands were recaptured by Sultan Bahadur Shah from Mahmud Gavan.[22]
In 1526, the Portuguese established their factory at Bassein.[26] During 1528-29, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio seized the fort of Mahim from the Gujarat Sultanate, when the King was at war with Nizam-ul-mulk, the emperor of Cheul, a town south of Bombay.[27] Bahadur Shah had grown apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun and he was obliged to sign the Treaty of Diu with the Portuguese in 1534. According to the treaty, the islands of Bombay and Bassein were offered to the Portuguese.[28] Bassein and the seven islands were surrendered later by a treaty of peace and commerce between Bahadur Shah and Nuno da Cunha on 25 October 1535, ending the Islamic rule in Bombay.[27]
Portuguese period (1534 - 1661)
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their religious orders in Bombay. The islands were leased to Mestre Diogo in 1534. The St. Michael Church in Mahim, one of the oldest churches in Bombay, was built by the Portuguese in 1540.[29] Parel, Wadala, Sion, and Worli were granted to Manuel Serrão between 1545 and 1548,[27] during the viceroyalty of João de Castro.[30] Salsette was granted for three years to João Rodrigues Dantas, Cosme Corres, and Manuel Corres.[30] Trombay and Chembur were granted to Dom Roque Tello de Menezes,[27] and the Island of Pory (Elephanta Island) to João Pirez in 1548.[31] Garcia de Orta, a Portuguese physician and botanist, was granted the possession of Bombay in 1554[32] by viceroy Pedro Mascarenhas.[33]
The Portuguese encouraged intermarriage with the local population, and strongly supported the Roman Catholic Church. They started the Inquisition in India in 1560, which resulted in forcible conversions to Christianity of the local Koli population in Mahim, Worli, and Bassein.[34] These Christians were known as Portuguese Christians, who later came to be known as the East Indian Catholics during the British regime.[35] On Garcia's death in Goa in 1570, the possession of the islands were passed on to his sons. During this time, Bombay's main trade was coconuts and coir. The island of Salsette also exported rice. Bandra, Parel, Wadala, and Sion were given to the Portuguese Jesuits,[34] and they built the St. Andrew Church at Bandra in 1570.[36] They set up their base at Mazagaon, and claimed ownership of the land. King Sebastian of Portugal refused to handover the land to them, and in 1572 granted the islands in perpetuity to the Sousa e Lima family.[37]
The annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 opened the way for other European powers to follow the spice routes to Bombay. The Dutch arrived first, closely followed by the British.[34] The first English merchants arrived in Bombay on 10 November 1583, and travelled through Bassein, Thane, and Chaul.[38] The Portuguese Franciscans had obtained practical control of Salsette and Mahim by 1585, and built Nossa Senhora de Bom Concelho at Sion and Nossa Senhora de Salvacao at Dadar.[27] The Battle of Swally was fought between the British and the Portuguese at Surat in 1612 for the possesion of Bombay.[39] Dorabji Nanabhoy, a trader, was the first Parsi to settle in Bombay in 1640.[40] The growing power of the Dutch by the middle of the seventeenth century forced the Surat Council of the British Empire to acquire Bombay from the King of Portugal in 1659.[27] The marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Portugal on 8 May 1661 placed Bombay in British possession as a part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.[41]
British period (1661 - 1947)
Struggle with native powers (1661 - 1817)
On 18 January 1665, Charles II granted Humphrey Cooke the possession of Bombay.[42] However, Salsette, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possesion.[43] Later, Cooke managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala for the English. On 21 September 1668, the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668, led to the transfer of Bombay from Charles II to the British East India Company for an annual rent of £10 (equivalent retail price index of £1,226 in 2007).[44] The Company immediately set about the task of opening up the islands by constructing a quay and warehouses. A customs house was also built. Fortifications were built around Bombay Castle. A Judge-Advocate was appointed for the purpose of civil administration.[45] George Oxenden became the first Governor of Bombay under the British East India Company[46] on 23 September 1668.[47] Gerald Aungier, who was appointed Governor of Bombay on July 1669, established the first mint in Bombay in 1670.[48] He offered various business incentives, which attracted Parsis, Armenians, Jews, Dawoodi Bohras, Gujarati Banias from Surat and Diu, and Brahmins from Salsette.[45] He also planned extensive fortifications in the city from Dongri in the north to Mendham's Point (near present day Lion Gate) in the south. The harbour was also developed during his governorship, with space for the berthing of 20 ships.[45] In 1670, the Parsi businessman Bhimjee Parikh imported the first printing press into Bombay.[49] Between 1661 and 1675 there was a six-fold increase in population from 10,000 to 60,000.[50] On 20 February 1673, Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-General of Dutch India attacked Bombay, but the attack was resisted by Aungier.[51] The Treaty of Westminster (1674), concluded between England and the Netherlands, relieved the British settlements in Bombay of further apprehension from the Dutch.[52] In 1686, the Company shifted its main holdings from Surat to Bombay.[53]
Yakut Khan, the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, landed at Sewri on 14 February 1689,[54] and razed the Mazagon Fort in June 1690.[55] After a payment made by the British to Aurangzeb, the ruler of the Mughal Empire, Yakut evacuated Bombay on 8 June 1690.[56] The arrival of many Indian and British merchants led to the development of Bombay's trade. Soon it was trading in salt, rice, ivory, cloth, lead and sword blades with many Indian ports as well as with the Arabian ports of Mecca and Basra.[45] By the end of the seventeenth century, Bombay had developed into an important port.[57] By 1710, the construction of Bombay Castle was finished, which fortified the islands from sea attacks by European pirates and the Marathas.[58] By 26 December 1715, Charles Boone assumed the Governorship of Bombay. He implemented Aungier's plans for the fortification of the island, and had walls built from Dongri in the north to Mendham's point in the south.[57] He established a force of Marines[57] and constructed the St. Thomas Cathedral in 1718, which was the first Anglican Church in Bombay.[59] In 1728, a Mayor's court was established in Bombay and the first reclamation was started which was a temporary work in Mahalaxmi, on the creek separating Bombay from Worli.[60] The shipbuilding industry started in Bombay in 1735[61] and soon the Naval Dockyard was established in the same year.[62]
In 1737, Salsette was captured by Baji Rao I of the Maratha Empire from the Portuguese, and the Portuguese province of Bassein was ceded to the Marathas in 1739.[63] The Maratha victory forced the British to push settlements within the fort walls of the city. Under new building rules set up in 1748, many houses were demolished and the population was redistributed, partially on newly reclaimed land.[64] Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia, a member of the Wadia family of shipwrights and naval architects from Surat, built the Bombay Dock in 1750,[65] which was the first dry dock to be commissioned in Asia.[62] By the middle of the eighteenth century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town and soon Bhandaris from Chaul in Maharashtra, Vanjaris from the Western Ghat mountain ranges of Maharashtra, Africans from Madagascar, Bhatias from Rajasthan, Banias, Shenvi Brahmins, goldsmiths, ironsmiths and weavers from Gujarat migrated to the islands.[66] In 1769, Fort George was built on the site of the Dongri Fort[67] and in 1770, the Mazagaon docks were built.[68] The British occupied Salsette, Elephanta, Hog Island, and Karanja on 28 December 1774.[69] In 1777, Bombay's first English newspaper, the Bombay Courier, was printed by Rustomji Kashaspathi.[49] Salsette, Elephanta, Hog Island, and Karanja were formally ceded to the British East India Company by the Treaty of Salbai signed in 1782, while Bassein and its dependencies were restored to Raghunathrao of the Maratha Empire.[70] In 1782, William Hornby assumed the office of Governor of Bombay, and initiated the Hornby Vellard engineering project of uniting the seven islands into a single landmass. The purpose of this project was to block the Worli creek and prevent the low-lying areas of Bombay from being flooded at high tide.[71] However, the project was rejected by the British East India Company in 1783.[52] In 1784, the Hornby Vellard project was completed and soon reclamations at Worli and Mahalaxmi followed.[72] In 1795, the Maratha army defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. Following this, many artisans and construction workers from Andhra Pradesh migrated to Bombay and settled into the flats which were constructed by the Hornby Vellard. These workers where called Kamathis, and their enclave was called Kamathipura.[73] By the end of the eighteenth century, a regular civic administration was set up in the city[72] and the construction of the Sion Causeway commenced in 1798.[74] Bombay and Mahim were united during by the Hornby Vellard the start of the nineteenth century.[75] In the same year, a fire raged through the town, razing many localities and the Sion Causeway was completed.[75] On May 1804, Bombay was hit by a severe famine, which led to a large scale emigration.[52] On 5 November 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone[76] defeated Bajirao II, the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, in the Battle of Kirkee which took place on the Deccan Plateau.[77] The success of the British campaign in the Deccan witnessed the freedom of Bombay from all attacks by native powers.[52]
City development (1817 - 1885)
The educational and economic progress of the city began with the Company's military successes in the Deccan. The Wellington Pier (Apollo Bunder) in the north of Colaba was opened for passenger traffic in 1819. The Elphinstone High School was built in 1822. Bombay was hit by a water famine in 1824. The construction of the new mint commenced in 1825.[52] The construction of a good carriage road up the Bhor Ghat during the regimes of Mountstuart Elphinstone and Sir John Malcolm, opened the Bombay Island to the Deccan. This Ghat, opened on 10 November 1830, facilitated the trade of Bombay in a large measure.[78] By 1830, regular communication with England started by steamers navigating the Red and Mediterranean Sea.[52] In July 1832, the Parsi-Hindu riots took place in consequence of a of a Government order for the destruction of pariah dogs which infested the city. The Town Hall was completed in 1833.[52] The Elphinstone College was built in 1835.[79] In 1836, the Chamber of Commerce was established.[52] In 1838, the islands of Colaba and Little Colaba was connected to Bombay by the Colaba Causeway.[80] In 1838, monthly communication between Bombay and London was established.[52] The Bank of Bombay was opened in 1840, which is the oldest bank in the city.[81] The Bank of Western India was established in 1842.[82]
The Cotton Exchange was established in Colaba in 1844.[80] Avabai Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy funded the construction of the Mahim Causeway,[83] which connected Mahim to Bandra. The work was completed in 1845.[84] The Commercial Bank of India established in 1845 in Bombay issued exotic notes with an interblend of Western and Eastern Motifs.[82] On 3 November 1845, the Grant Medical College and hospital, the third in the country, was founded by Governor Robert Grant.[85] The Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated in the city in 1849.[86] The earliest riots occurred at Mahim in 1850, in consequence of a dispute between two rival factions of Khojas. Riots broke out between Muslims and Parsis in October 1851, in consequence of an ill-advised article on Prophet Muhammad which appeared in the Chitra Gnyan Darpan newspaper.[87] The first political organization of the Bombay Presidency, the Bombay Association, was started on 26 August 1852, vent public grievances.[88] The first-ever Indian railway line began operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane over a distance of 21 miles on 16 April 1853.[89] The Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company was the first cotton mill to be established in the city on 7 July 1854 at Tardeo.[90] The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI) was incorporated in 1855.[86]
The University of Bombay was the first modern institution of higher education to be established in India in 1857.[91] The Commercial Bank, the Chartered Mercantile, the Agra and United Service, the Chartered and the Central Bank of Western India were established in Bombay which attracted a considerable industrial population.[92] The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West, and led to an enormous increase in cotton-trade.[93] The Victoria Gardens was opened to the public in 1862.[94] The Bombay Shipping and Iron Shipping Companies were started in 1863 to make Bombay merchants independent of the English.[52] The Bombay Coast and River Steam Navigation Company was established in 1866 for the maintenance of steam ferries between Bombay and the nearby islands;[52] while the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revolutionized the marine trade of Bombay.[78] The Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872, providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly-growing city.[95] The Bombay Port Trust was promulgated in 1870 for the for the development and administration of the port.[96] Tramway communication was instituted in 1872.[86] Violent Parsi-Muslim riots again broke out in February 1874, which were caused by an attack upon Prophet Muhammad published by a Parsi resident.[87] The Bombay Gymkhana was formed in 1875.[97] The Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883.[98] The Princess Dock was built in 1885 as part of a scheme for improving the whole foreshore of the Bombay harbour.[99]
Political consciousness and freedom struggle (1885 - 1948)
The growth of political consciousness started after the establishment of the Bombay Presidency Association on 31 January 1885.[100] The Bombay Millowners' Association was formed in February 1875 by Dinshaw Maneckji Petit in order to protect interests of workers threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British.[101] The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28-31 December 1885.[102] The Bombay Municipal Act was enacted in 1888 which gave the British Government wide powers of interference in civic matters.[103] The Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, one of the finest stations in the world, was also completed in 1888.[104] On 11 August 1893, a serious comunal riot took place between the Hindus and Muslims, when a Shiva temple was attacked by Muslims in Bombay. 75 people were killed and 350 were injured.[105] In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week. Many fled Bombay during this time.[106] On 9 March 1898, there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague. The riot led to a strike of dock and railway workers which paralysed the city for a few days.[107] The significant results of the plague was the creation of the the Bombay City Improvement Trust on 9 December 1898[108] and the Haffkine Institute on 10 January 1899 by Waldemar Haffkine.[109] The cotton mill industry was adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague.[110]
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 initiated the Swadeshi movement, which led to the boycotting of British goods in India.[111] On 22 July 1908, Lokmanya Tilak, the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay, was sentenced to six years rigorous imprisonment, on the charge of writing inflammatory articles against the Government in his newspaer Kesari. The arrest led to huge scale protests across the city.[112] The Bombay Chronicle started by Pherozeshah Mehta, the leader of the Indian National Congress, in 1910, played an important role in the national movement till India's Independence.[113] An important event in Bombay was the visit of Mahatma Gandhi to the city on 9 January 1915.[114] Mohammad Ali Jinnah was elected president of the Bombay branch of the Indian Home Rule League at its formation in 1916.[115] Lord Willingdon convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918, whose objective was to seek the co-operation of the people in the World War I measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency. The conference was followed by huge rallies across the city. The world-wide influenza epidemic raged through Bombay from September to December 1918, causing hundreds of deaths per day. The Lord Willingdon Memorial incident of December 1918 saw the handicap of Home Rulers in Bombay. The first important strike in the textile industry in Bombay began in January 1919.[116] Bombay was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement started by Mahatma Gandhi from February — April 1919. The movement was started as a result of the Rowlatt Act, which indefinitely extended emergency measures during the First World War in order to control public unrest.[117]
Following World War I, which saw large movement of India troops, supplies, arms and industrial goods to and from Bombay, the city life was shut down many times during the Non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922.[118] In 1926, the Back Bay scandal occurred, when the Bombay Development Department under the British reclaimed the Back Bay area in Bombay after the financial crisis incidental to the post-war slump in the city.[119] The first electric locomotives in India were put into service from Victoria Terminus to Kurla in 1925.[120] In the late 1920's, many Persians migrated to Bombay from Yazd to escape the drought in Iran.[121] In the early 1930's, the nationwide Civil disobedience movement against the British Salt tax spread to Bombay. Vile Parle was the was the headquarters of the movement[122] in Bombay under Jamnalal Bajaj.[123] On 15 October 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. Tata pioneered civil aviation in Bombay by flying a plane from Karachi to Bombay.[124] Bombay was affected by the Great Depression of 1929, which saw a stagnation of mill industry and economy from 1933 to 1939.[125] With World War II, the movements of thousands of troops, military and industrial goods and the fleet of the Royal Indian Navy made Bombay an important military base for the battles being fought in West Asia and South East Asia.[126] The climatic Quit India rebellion was promulgated on 7 August 1942 by the Congress in a public meeting at Gowalia Tank.[127] The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 18 February 1946 in Bombay marked the first and most serious revolt by the Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy against British rule.[128] On 15 August 1947, finally India was declared independent. The last British troops to leave India, the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry, passed through the arcade of the Gateway of India in Bombay on 28 February 1948,[129] ending the 282 year long period of the British in Bombay .[130]
Post-independence and modern period (1948 - 2000)
After the Partition of India on 15 August 1947, over 100,000 Sindhi refugees from the newly created Pakistan were relocated in the military camps five kilometres from Kalyan in the Bombay metropolitan region. It was converted into a township in 1949, and named Ulhasnagar by the then Governor-General of India, C. Rajagopalachari.[131] In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City. It spanned an area of 235.1 km2 (90.77 sq mi) and inhabited 23.39 lakhs of people in 1951. The Municipal Corporation limits were extended upto Jogeshwari along the Western Railway and Bhandup along the Central Railway. This limit was further extended in February 1957 upto Dahisar along the Western Railway and Mulund on the Central Railway.[132] In the 1957 elections, when the State of Bombay was being re-organised along linguistic lines into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, there was a demand from the Congress, that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.[133] But the States Re-organisation Committee recommended a bi-lingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat, with Bombay as its capital However, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed this, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra.[134] The Indian Institute of Technology Bombay wae established in 1958 at Powai, a northern suburb of Bombay.[135] Following protests by the Samyukta Maharashtra movement in which 105 people were killed by police firing, Maharashtra State was formed with Bombay as its capital on 1 May 1960.[136]
In the early 1960s, the Gujarati and Marwari communities owned majority of the industry and trade enterprises in the city, while the white-collar jobs were mainly seeked by the South Indian migrants to the city. The Shiv Sena party was established on 19 June 1966 by Bombay cartoonist Bal Thackeray, out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginilization of the native Marathi people in their own state Maharashtra. In the 1960s and 1970s, Shiv Sena cadres became involved in various attacks against the South Indian communities, vandalising South Indian restaurants and pressuring employers to hire Marathis.[137] In the late 1960s, Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed.[138] During the 1970 Bombay-Bhiwandi riots, many Muslim places of worship were attacked by Shiv sena activists.[139] During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and south western coast of India, after introduction of ships by the London based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Goan and Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay.[140] The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) was set up on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co-ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region.[141] In August 1979, a sister township of New Bombay was founded by City and Industrial Development Corporation (CIDCO) across Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay's population.[142] On 17 May 1984, riots broke out in Bombay, Thane, and Bhiwandi after a saffron flag was placed at the top of a mosque. The Shiv Sena was accused of involvement. 278 were killed and 1,118 were wounded.[143] The Jawaharlal Nehru Port was commissioned on 26 May 1989 at Nhava Sheva with a view to de-congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city.[144] In December 1992 - January 193, over 1,000 people were killed and the city paralyzed by communal riots between the Hindus and the Muslims caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.[145] A series of 13 co-ordinated bomb explosions took place in Bombay on 12 March 1993, which which resulted in 257 deaths and 700 injuries.[146] The attacks were believed to be orchestrated by mafia don Dawood Ibrahim in retaliation for the Babri Mosque demolition.[147] In 1995, the newly-elected Shiv Sena-led government renamed the city of Bombay to Mumbai, after the Koli Goddess Mumbadevi.[148] Soon colonial British names were shed to reassert local names,[149] like the Victoria Terminus was renamed the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus on 4 March 1996, after the legendary 17th century Marathi King Shivaji.[104]
21st century
During the 21st century, the city suffered several bombings. On 6 December 2002, a bomb placed under a seat of an empty BEST (Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport) bus exploded near Ghatkopar station in Mumbai. Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured.[150] The bombing occured on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.[151] On 27 January 2003, a bomb placed on a bicycle exploded near the Vile Parle station in Mumbai. The bomb killed 1 and injured 25. The blast occured a day ahead of the visit of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the then Prime Minister of India to the city.[152] On 13 March 2003, a bomb exploded in a train compartment, as the train was entering the Mulund station in Mumbai. 10 people were killed and 70 were injured. The blast occured a day after the tenth anniversary of the 1993 Bombay bombings.[153] On 28 July 2003, a bomb placed under a seat of a BEST bus exploded in Ghatkopar. The bomb killed 4 people and injured 32.[154] On 25 August 2003, two blasts in South Mumbai - one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi occurred. At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured. No group claimed responsibility for the attack, but it had been hinted that the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Toiba was behind the attacks.[155]
Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 26 July-27 July 2005, during which the city was brought to a complete standstill. The city received 37 inches (940 millimeters) of rain in 24 hours — the most any Indian city has ever received in a single day. Around 83 people were killed.[156] On 11 July 2006, a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai at Khar, Mahim, Matunga, Jogeshwari, Borivali, and one between Khar and Santacruz.[157] 209 people were killed[158] and over 700 were injured.[159] According to Mumbai Police, the bombings were carried out by Lashkar-e-Toiba and Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI).[160] In 2008, the city experienced xenophobic attacks by the activists of the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) under Raj Thackeray on the North Indian migrants in Mumbai.[161] Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles.[162]
See also
Notes
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Geology
- ^ Ghosh 1990, p. 25
- ^ Thana — Places of Interest 2000, Sopara
- ^ a b "History of Mumbai". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- ^ "Kanheri Caves". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- ^ Abhilash Gaur (2004-01-24). "Pay dirt: Treasure amidst Mumbai's trash". The Tribune. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
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(help) - ^ a b c d Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Ancient Period
- ^ a b Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Geography
- ^ Shubhangi Khapre (2008-05-19). "Of age-old beliefs and practices". Daily News & Analysis. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
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(help) - ^ "The Slum and the Sacred Cave" (PDF). Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (Columbia University). pp. p. 5. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
{{cite web}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help) - ^ "World Heritage Sites — Elephanta Caves". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ Lhendup Gyatso Bhutia (2008-09-14). "Message in a bottle". DNA. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
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(help) - ^ "The Ninth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Preeti Gupta (2008-01-22). "Alarm bells for aquatic life of Banganga". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
{{cite news}}
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(help) - ^ "The Walkeshwar Temple". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- ^ "The Thirteenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ a b "Raja Bhimdev". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ a b Singh et al. 2004, p. 1703
- ^ "The Pathare Prabhus". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ "The Konkanis". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Prinsep, Thomas & Henry 1858, p. 315
- ^ a b c d e Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Muhammedan Period
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Mediaeval Period
- ^ "Haji ali set to go, and rise again". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
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(help) - ^ "The West turns East". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
- ^ Maharashtra State Gazetteer 1977, p. 153
- ^ a b c d e f Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Portuguese Period
- ^ Firishtah, Muhammad & Briggs 1829, p. 515
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Churches
- ^ a b Da Cunha 1993, p. 96
- ^ Asiatic Society of Bombay & Literary Society of Bombay 1819, p. 269
- ^ Rajesh Kochhar. "The truth behind the legend: European doctors in pre-colonial India". Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bangalore). Retrieved 2008-08-17.
- ^ Da Cunha 1993, p. 100
- ^ a b c "The Sixteenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ "The East Indians" (PDF, 52 KB). Department of Physics University of Delaware. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, St. Andrews Church
- ^ "Mazagaon". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ "The First Englishmen in Bombay". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Mill 1820, p. 26
- ^ Jahnavi Phalkey. "The Tale of Two Cities: Technological profiles of Bangalore and Bombay as Growth Regions" (DOC, 137 KB). Georgia Institute of Technology: p. 3. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
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(help) - ^ "Catherine of Bragança (1638 - 1705)". BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
- ^ Malabari 1910, p. 98
- ^ Malabari 1910, p. 99
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 55
- ^ a b c d "The Seventeenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Elwood 1830, p. 88
- ^ Elwood 1830, p. 87
- ^ "Gerald Aungier". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ a b "History of Newspapers in Mumbai". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ "Population". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ Colin C.Ganley (2007). "Security, the central component of an early modern institutional matrix; 17th century Bombay's Economic Growth" (PDF, 113 KB). International Society for New Institutional Economics (ISNIE): p. 13. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
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(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, British Period
- ^ R. K. Kochhar (1994-06-25). "Shipbuilding at Bombay" (PDF, 297 KB). Current Science. 12. 66. Indian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 115
- ^ Nandgaonkar, Satish (2003-03-22). "Mazgaon fort was blown to pieces – 313 years ago". Indian Express. Express Group. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 116
- ^ a b c "Territorial Disputes (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ "Bombay Castle". The Raj Bhavan, Maharashtra. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, St. Thomas Cathedral
- ^ "Local Government (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Mehta 1940, p. 16
- ^ a b "Historical Perspective". Indian Navy. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1986, The Marathas
- ^ "Consolidation of British Power (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The Wadias of India: Then and Now". Vohuman. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The Ship-building Industry (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "Fortifying colonial legacy". Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd. 1997-06-15. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
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(help) - ^ "The Ship-building Industry (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Calcutta Magazine and Monthly Register 1832, p. 596
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1986, Acquisition, Changes, and Staff (Acquisition, 1774-1817
- ^ "The Hornby Vellard". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ a b "City-planning Begins (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The First Maratha War (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1984, Roads (Causeways)
- ^ a b "ThThe Great Fire (The Nineteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "Battle of Khadki". Centre for Modeling and Simulation (University of Pune). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Shona Adhikari (2000-02-20). "A mute testimony to a colourful age". The Tribune. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
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(help) - ^ a b Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Growth of Bombay
- ^ "History". Elphinstone College. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ a b "Colaba and Cuffe Parade". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Kanakalatha Mukund (2007-04-03). "Insight into the progress of banking". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
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(help) - ^ a b "Early Issues". Reserve Bank of India. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ "Avabai, Lady Jamsetjee". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ "BMC allots Rs 14 cr to upgrade Mahim Causeway". The Times of India. 2008-10-25. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "History". Grant Medical College and Sir J.J. Gr.of Hospitals. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ a b c "History of Urban Transport". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ a b Palsetia 2001, p. 189
- ^ Kidambi 2007, p. 163
- ^ "The South's first station". The Hindu. 2003-02-26. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "A City emerges". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "About University". University of Mumbai. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Banking
- ^ "The Taming of the Sea (The Nineteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Jijamata Udyan
- ^ "BrihanMumbai Municipal Corporation". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ "Mumbai Port Trust is 125". Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd. 1997-06-26. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "History". Bombay Gymkhana. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ "The Society". Bombay Natural History Society. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ Eugene D’Souza (2008-08-05). "The Harbour That Gave the Name 'Bombay' to Mumbai". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ Banerjee 2006, p. 82
- ^ "Sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit, first Baronet, 1823-1901". Vohuman. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ "Congress foundation day celebrated". The Hindu. 2006-12-29. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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(help) - ^ "Mumbai Municipal Corporation Act, 1888" (PDF, 215 KB). Government of Maharashtra. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ a b "Mumbai Chhatrapati Sivaji Terminus (Formerly: The Victoria Terminus)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Dinesh Thite. "From Distrust to Reconciliation (The Making of the Ganesh Utsav in Maharashtra)" (PDF, 124 KB). 139. Manushi: 20. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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(help) - ^ "The plague Epidemics of 1890's". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Kidambi 2007, p. 118
- ^ "The Bombay City Improvement Trust". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ "History". Haffkine Institute. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Bagchi 2000, p. 233
- ^ D.D. Pattanaik. "The Swadeshi Movement : Culmination of Cultural Nationalism" (PDF, 163 KB). Orissa Review (August 2005). Government of Orissa. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Agrawal & Bhatnagar 2005, p. 124
- ^ "Sir Pherozeshah Mehta". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ "Return To India". mkgandhi.org. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ "Mohammed Ali Jinnah". Barcelona, Spain: Centre Mediterrani D'Investigacions Marines I Ambientals (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Home Rule Movement
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Dawn of Gandhian Era
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Non Co-operation Movement
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Back Bay Scandal
- ^ Lalitha Sridhar (2001-04-21). "On the right track". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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(help) - ^ Taran N Khan (2008-05-31). "A slice of Persia in Dongri". Daily News & Analysis. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
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(help) - ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Congress Session (of 1934)
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Businessmen and Civil Disobedience
- ^ "The legend who imparted flying colours to India" (Press release). TATA. 2004-07-29. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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(help) - ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Economic Conditions (1933-1939)
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Outbreak of the War
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Quit India Movement
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Naval Mutiny
- ^ "A New Bombay, A new India". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
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- ^ "Ulhasnagar". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-13.
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(help) - ^ "Sena fate: From roar to meow". The Times of India. 2005-11-29. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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- ^ Naunidhi Kaur (July 05 - 18, 2003). "Mumbai: A decade after riots". Frontline. 20 (14). The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
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(help) - ^ "1993: Bombay hit by devastating bombs". BBC. 1993-03-12. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ Monica Chadha (2006-09-12). "Victims await Mumbai 1993 blasts justice". BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
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(help) - ^ William Safire (2006-07-06). "Mumbai Not Bombay". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
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(help) - ^ "Blast outside Ghatkopar station in Mumbai, 2 killed". rediff.com India Limited. 2002-12-06. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
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(help) - ^ "1992: Mob rips apart mosque in Ayodhya". BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- ^ "1 killed, 25 hurt in Vile Parle blast". The Times of India. 2003-01-28. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
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(help) - ^ "Fear after Bombay train blast". BBC. 2003-03-14. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
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(help) - ^ Vijay Singh, Syed Firdaus Ashra (2003-07-29). "Blast in Ghatkopar in Mumbai, 4 killed and 32 injured". rediff.com India Limited. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
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(help) - ^ "2003: Bombay rocked by twin car bombs". BBC. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- ^ "Maharashtra monsoon 'kills 200'". BBC. 2005-07-25. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
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(help) - ^ "Mumbai bombs: 'Pencil timers found'". CNN. 2006-07-12. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "India: A major terror target". The Times of India. 2008-10-30. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "'Rs 50, 000 not enough for injured'". Indian Express Newspapers (Mumbai) Ltd. 2006-07-21. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "India police: Pakistan spy agency behind Mumbai bombings". CNN. 2006-10-01. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
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(help) - ^ "Thackeray continues tirade against North Indians". Daily News & Analysis. 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
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- Greater Bombay District Gazetteer. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. Vol. I. Government of Maharashtra. 1986. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
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- Greater Bombay District Gazetteer. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. Vol. III. Government of Maharashtra. 1986. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Hansen, Thomas Blom (2001). Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691088402. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
- Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture (1983). Indica. Vol. 20. St. Xavier's College (Bombay).
- Kidambi, Prashant (2007). The Making of an Indian Metropolis: Colonial Governance and Public Culture in Bombay, 1890-1920. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9780754656128. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- Malabari, Phiroze B.M. (1910). Bombay in the making : Being mainly a history of the origin and growth of judicial institutions in the Western Presidency, 1661-1726 (PDF, 73 MB). London: T. Fisher Unwin. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- Mehta, Ashok (1940). Indian Shipping: A Case Study of the Working of Imperialism (PDF, 4.6 MB). N.t.Shroff Company Limited. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- Mill, James (1820). The History of British India. Vol. 1. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
- "Portuguese Settlements on the Western Coast". Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Government of Maharashtra. 1977.
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suggested) (help) - Palsetia, Jesse S. (2001). The Parsis of India: Preservation of Identity in Bombay City. Brill. ISBN 9789004121140. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
- Prinsep, James (1858). Essays on Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, and Palæographic, of the Late James Prinsep. Vol. 2. J. Murray. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
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suggested) (help) - Thana District Gazetteer. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIII. Government of Maharashtra. 1984 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- Thana District Gazetteer. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIII. Government of Maharashtra. 1986 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Thana — Places of Interest. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIV. Government of Maharashtra. 2000 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
Further reading
- Agarwal, Jagdish (1998). Bombay — Mumbai: A Picture Book. Wilco Publishing House. ISBN 81-87288-35-3.
- Chaudhari, K.K (1987). History of Bombay. Modern Period Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of Maharashtra.
- Contractor, Behram (1998). From Bombay to Mumbai. Oriana Books.
- Cox, Edmund Charles (1887). Short History of Bombay Presidency. Thacker & Co.
- David, M. D. (1973). History of Bombay, 1661-1708: 1661-1708. University of Bombay.
- Dwivedi, Sharada (2001). Bombay: The Cities Within. Eminence Designs.
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suggested) (help) - Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth (1992). The Rise of Bombay: A Retrospect. Times of India Press.
- Katiyar, Arun (1996). Bombay, A Contemporary Account. Harper Collins. ISBN 81-7223-216-0.
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - MacLean, James Mackenzie (1876). A Guide to Bombay. Bombay Gazette steam Press.
- Mehta, Suketu (2004). Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780375403729.
- Patel, Sujata (1995). Bombay, Metaphor for Modern India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-563688-0.
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Pinki, Virani (1999). Once was Bombay. Viking. ISBN 0-670-88869-9.
- Tindall, Gillian (1992). City of Gold. Penguin Books, Limited. ISBN 0-14-009500-4.
External links
- Portuguese India History: The Northern Province: Bassein, Bombay-Mumbai, Damao, Chaul from Dutch Portuguese Colonial History
- Century City Time Line - Bombay from Tate