→Political consciousness and freedom struggle (1885 - 1947): replaced older image with a better one |
Kensplanet (talk | contribs) m Reverted edits by Sanfy (talk) to last version by Kensplanet |
||
Line 262: | Line 262: | ||
The growth of political consciousness started after the establishment of the Bombay Presidency Association by [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] on 31 January 1885. The Bombay Millowners' Association was formed in February 1875 in order to protect interests threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British. The foundation of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885 was one of the most important political event in Bombay. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28-31 December 1885. In 1888, the Bombay Municipal Act was enacted which gave the British Government wide powers of interference in civic matters. The [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus|Victoria Terminus]] of the [[Great Indian Peninsular Railway]], one of the finest stations in the world, was also completed in 1888. On 11 August 1893, a very serious riot took place between the Hindus and Muslims in Bombay, which led to 1500 arrests and 80 were injured. In 1896, Bombay was hit by [[Mumbai plague epidemic|bubonic plague]] which killed thousands of citizens. In a single week in 1897, over 10,000 persons fled Bombay. On 9 March 1898 there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague. The riot led to a strike of dock and railway workers which paralysed the city for a few days. The significant results of the plague was the creation of the the Bombay City Improvement Trust in 1898 and the Haffkine Institute in 1899. The cotton mill industry was also adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague. The years 1904-05, however, witnessed a reversion of this state of affairs. |
The growth of political consciousness started after the establishment of the Bombay Presidency Association by [[Dadabhai Naoroji]] on 31 January 1885. The Bombay Millowners' Association was formed in February 1875 in order to protect interests threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British. The foundation of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885 was one of the most important political event in Bombay. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28-31 December 1885. In 1888, the Bombay Municipal Act was enacted which gave the British Government wide powers of interference in civic matters. The [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus|Victoria Terminus]] of the [[Great Indian Peninsular Railway]], one of the finest stations in the world, was also completed in 1888. On 11 August 1893, a very serious riot took place between the Hindus and Muslims in Bombay, which led to 1500 arrests and 80 were injured. In 1896, Bombay was hit by [[Mumbai plague epidemic|bubonic plague]] which killed thousands of citizens. In a single week in 1897, over 10,000 persons fled Bombay. On 9 March 1898 there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague. The riot led to a strike of dock and railway workers which paralysed the city for a few days. The significant results of the plague was the creation of the the Bombay City Improvement Trust in 1898 and the Haffkine Institute in 1899. The cotton mill industry was also adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague. The years 1904-05, however, witnessed a reversion of this state of affairs. |
||
[[Image: |
[[Image:Bal Gangadhar Tilak.gif|left|150px|thumb|[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Lokmanya Tilak]] was the most popular leader of the [[Indian Independence Movement]] in Bombay]] |
||
The [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|Partition of Bengal]] in 1905 initiated the [[Swadeshi movement]], which led to the boycotting of British goods, had a tremendous impact on Bombay. On 22 July 1908, [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Lokmanya Tilak]], the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay, was sentenced to six years imprisonment, which led to huge scale protests in the city. The ''[[Bombay Chronicle]]'' was started by [[Pherozeshah Mehta]], the leader of the [[Indian National Congress]], in April 1913, which played an important role in the national movement till India's Independence. The most important event in Bombay early in 1915 was the visit of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] to Bombay. The All India Home Rule League was inaugurated by [[Annie Besant]] at [[Madras]] in September 1916. Meanwhile, Tilak had already started his own Home Rule League at Bombay in May 1916 to bid for support of the mill workers in Bombay. [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|Lord Willingdon]] convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918, whose objective was to seek the co-operation of the people in the [[World War I]] measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency. The conference was followed by huge rallies across the city. The world-wide influenza epidemic raged through Bombay from September to December 1918, causing hundreds of deaths per day. The first important strike in the textile industry in Bombay began in January 1919. Bombay was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement started by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] from February — April 1919. The movement was started as a result of the [[Rowlatt Act]], which indefinitely extended emergency measures during the [[First World War]] in order to control public unrest. |
The [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|Partition of Bengal]] in 1905 initiated the [[Swadeshi movement]], which led to the boycotting of British goods, had a tremendous impact on Bombay. On 22 July 1908, [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Lokmanya Tilak]], the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay, was sentenced to six years imprisonment, which led to huge scale protests in the city. The ''[[Bombay Chronicle]]'' was started by [[Pherozeshah Mehta]], the leader of the [[Indian National Congress]], in April 1913, which played an important role in the national movement till India's Independence. The most important event in Bombay early in 1915 was the visit of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] to Bombay. The All India Home Rule League was inaugurated by [[Annie Besant]] at [[Madras]] in September 1916. Meanwhile, Tilak had already started his own Home Rule League at Bombay in May 1916 to bid for support of the mill workers in Bombay. [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|Lord Willingdon]] convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918, whose objective was to seek the co-operation of the people in the [[World War I]] measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency. The conference was followed by huge rallies across the city. The world-wide influenza epidemic raged through Bombay from September to December 1918, causing hundreds of deaths per day. The first important strike in the textile industry in Bombay began in January 1919. Bombay was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement started by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] from February — April 1919. The movement was started as a result of the [[Rowlatt Act]], which indefinitely extended emergency measures during the [[First World War]] in order to control public unrest. |
||
Revision as of 17:45, 10 November 2008
Part of a series on the |
History of Mumbai |
---|
Pre-historic period |
Kolis East Indians |
Ancient period |
Islamic period |
Portuguese period |
British period |
Independent India |
The History of Mumbai recounts the growth of a collection of seven islands on the western coast of India becoming the commercial capital of the nation and one of the most populous cities in the world. Although the islands were inhabited since the Stone Age, the Kolis, who were a fishing community, were known to be the earliest settlers of the islands. During the third century BCE, the islands became a centre for Hindu and Buddhist culture and religion under the patronage of the Maurya Empire under Emperor Ashoka of Magadha. The islands were ruled by several major powers, including the Satavahanas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas before falling to the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260.
In the late 13th century, the area came under the King Bhimdev who is supposed to have brought many settlers to the islands. The sovereignty of Hindu rulers over the islands ended when the islands fell to the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat in 1343. In 1534, the Treaty of Diu between Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate and the Portuguese, placed the islands into Portuguese possession. The Portuguese were involved in the spread of Christianity to the islands. In 1661, the islands were ceded to Charles II of England as the dowry of Catherine de Braganza, and he later leased them to the British East India Company in 1668. The city was named Bombay by the British, an attribution to the word Bom Bahia (Good Bay) by the Portuguese soldier Francisco de Almeida when his ship sailed in the archipelago in 1508. It served as the city's official name until 1995.
Under the British, the islands were constantly under threat from attacks by native powers till 1817. During the mid-18th century, the city emerged as an important centre of commerce and industry, with the first-ever Indian railway line beginning operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane on 16 April 1853. The Hornby Vellard project united the seven islands of Bombay into a single island. During the early 20th century, the city became a strong base of the Indian independence movement and was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 and Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946.
The city was incorporated into the dominion of the newly created Maharashtra state from the State of Bombay on 1 May 1960, following protests from the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. Intermittent incidents of xenophobic attacks on South Indians by the regional party Shiv Sena persisted during 1960s and 1970s. The city's secular fabric was torn apart in the riots of 1992–93, after large scale sectarian violence caused extensive loss of life and property. In 1995, the city was renamed Mumbai. During the 21st century, the city suffered several bombings and incidents of xenophobic attacks on North Indians in 2008.
Ancient period (200 BCE - 1348 CE)
Geologists believe that coast of western India came into being around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. Soon after its detachment, the peninsular region of the Indian plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot, a volcanic hotspot in the earth's lithosphere near the island of Réunion. An eruption here some 65 mya is thought to have laid down the Deccan Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers parts of central India. This volcanic activity resulted in the formation of basaltic outcrops, such as the Gilbert Hill, that are seen at various locations in Mumbai. Further tectonic activity in the region led to the formation of hilly islands separated by a shallow sea.[1] Pleistocene sediments found near Kandivali in northern Bombay by the British archaeologist Todd in 1939 posit the theory that these islands were inhabited since the Stone Age.[2] The port of Sopara (present-day Nala Sopara near Mumbai) was an important trading centre during ancient times.[3] In the 3rd century BCE, the islands were incorporated into the Maurya Empire under Emperor Ashoka of Magadha. The empire's patronage gradually made the islands a centre of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture.[4] Buddhist monks, scholars, and artists created the artwork, inscriptions, and sculpture of the Kanheri Caves in the mid 3rd century BCE[5] and Mahakali[6] caves. After the decline of the Maurya Empire around 185 BCE, these islands fell to the Satvahanas.[7]
The islands were known as Heptanesia (Ancient Greek: A Cluster of Seven Islands) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE.[8] The Kolis, who were a fishing community, were the earliest inhabitants of these islands.[9] After the end of the Satvahana rule in 250 CE, the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra and Vakatakas of Vidarbha held dominion over Bombay. The Abhiras ruled for 167 years, till around 417 CE. During the fifth century, Bombay was ruled by the Kalachuris of Central India. These islands were then acquired by the Mauryas, who were feudatories of Kalachuris.[7] The Jogeshwari Caves were constructed during the Mauryan regime between 520 to 525.[10] The Elephanta Caves also dates back to the 6th century.[11] The Mauryan presence ended when the Chalukyas of Badami under Pulakesi II invaded Bombay in 610. During 749-750, Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Karnataka conquered Bombay.[7] The Silhara dynasty of Konkan ruled the region between 810 and 1260.[12] The Banganga Tank (12th century)[13] and Walkeshwar Temple[14] were constructed under the patronage of the Silhara rulers. Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, and Ibn Batuta, an Arab explorer, had sailed through the islands of Bombay, but never landed here.[4] In the late 13th century, King Bhimdev founded a kingdom in Bombay with his capital in Mahikawati (present day Mahim).[15] He built the first Babulnath temple in Bombay and introduced many fruit-bearing trees, including coconut palms to the islands.[16] The Pathare Prabhus, one of the earliest settlers of Bombay, were brought to Mahim[17] from Patan[18] and other parts of Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign.[17] He is also supposed to have brought Palshis, Pachkalshis, Bhandaris, Vadvals, Bhois, Agris and Brahmins to these islands.[16] After his death in 1303, he was succeeded by his son Pratapbimba, who built his capital at Marol in Salsette, which he named Pratappur. The islands were wrested from Pratapbimba's control by Mubarak Khan, a self-proclaimed regent of the Khilji dynasty, who occupied Mahim and Salsette in 1318. It was later reconquered by Pratapbimba, which he ruled till 1331. Later, his brother-in-law Nagardev reigned for 17 years till 1348. In 1348, the islands came under the control of the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat, thus ending the sovereignty of Hindu rulers over the islands of Bombay.[7]
Islamic period (1348 - 1534)
From 1348 to 1391, the islands were under the Muzaffarid dynasty. During their rule, a group of Konkani Muslims called Naitias or Navayats from Bhatkal in Karnataka first appeared in these islands.[19] In 1391, after the establishment of the Gujarat Sultanate, Muzaffar Shah I was appointed viceroy of north Konkan.[20] For the administration of Bombay, he appointed a governor for Mahim. During the reign of Ahmad Shah I (1411 - 1443), Malik-us-Sharq was appointed governor of Mahim, and he improved the existing revenue system of the islands. During the early 14th century, the Bhandaris seized the island of Mahim from the Sultanate and ruled it for eight years. It was reconquered by Rai Qutb of the Gujarat Sultanate.[21] Firishta, a Persian historian, recorded that by 1429 the seat of government of the Gujarat Sultanate had transferred from Thane to Mahim (Bombay).[22] On Rai Qutb's death in 1429-1430, Ahmad Shah I Wali of the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan succeeded in capturing Salsette and Mahim.[21]
Ahmad Shah I retaliated by sending his son Jafar Khan to recapture the lost territory. Khan emerged victorious in the battle fought between him and Ahmad Shah I Wali. In 1431, Mahim was recaptured by the Sultanate of Gujarat. On the Gujarat commandant of Mahim Kutb Khan's death after a few years, Ahmad Shah I Wali again despatched a large army to capture Mahim. In response, Ahmad Shah I sent down a huge army and navy under Jafar Khan. The defeat of Ahmad Shah I Wali in the battle witnessed the freedom of Bombay from attacks by the Bahmani Sultanate.[21] The Gujarat Sultanate's patronage led to the construction of many Islamic mosques, prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah, built in honour the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431.[23] Later, the islands came under Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Gujarat Sultanate. During 1491–1494, Bombay was wrested from Gilani's control by the Bahamani general Mahmud Gavan.[21] In 1508, Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida's ship sailed into the deep natural harbour of the island and he called it Bom Bahia (Good Bay).[24] However, the Portuguese paid their first visit to Bombay on 21 January 1509, when they landed at Mahim after capturing a Gujarat barge in the Bandra creek.[8] After a series of attacks by the Gujarat Sultanate on Bombay, the islands were recaptured by Sultan Bahadur Shah from Mahmud Gavan.[21]
In 1526, the Portuguese established their factory at Bassein.[25] During 1528-29, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio seized the fort of Mahim from the Gujarat Sultanate, when the King was at war with Nizam-ul-mulk, the emperor of Cheul, a town south of Bombay.[26] Bahadur Shah had grown apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun and he was obliged to sign the Treaty of Diu with the Portuguese in 1534. According to the treaty, the islands of Bombay and Bassein were offered to the Portuguese.[27] Bassein and the seven islands were surrendered later by a treaty of peace and commerce between Bahadur Shah and Nuno da Cunha on 25 October 1535, ending the Islamic rule in Bombay.[26]
Portuguese period (1534 - 1661)
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their religious orders in Bombay. The islands were leased to Mestre Diogo in 1534. The St. Michael Church in Mahim built by the Portuguese in 1540 is one of the oldest churches in Bombay.[28] Parel, Wadala, Sion, and Worli were granted to Manuel Serrão between 1545 and 1548,[26] during the viceroyalty of João de Castro.[29] Salsette was granted for three years to João Rodrigues Dantas, Cosme Corres, and Manuel Corres.[29] Trombay and Chembur were granted to Dom Roque Tello de Menezes[26] and the Island of Pory (Elephanta Island) to João Pirez in 1548.[30] Garcia de Orta, a Portuguese physician and botanist, was granted the possession of Bombay in 1554[31] by viceroy Pedro Mascarenhas.[32]
The Portuguese encouraged intermarriage with the local population, and strongly supported the Roman Catholic Church. They started the Inquisition in India in the year 1560, which resulted in forcible conversions to Christianity of the local Koli population in Bombay, Mahim, Worli and Bassein.[33] On Garcia's death in Goa in 1570, the possession of the islands were passed on to his sons. During this time, Bombay's main trade was coconuts and coir. The island of Salsette also exported rice. Land in Bandra, Parel, Wadala, and Sion were given to the Portuguese Jesuits.[33] They built the St. Andrew Church at Bandra in 1570.[34] The Jesuits set up their base at Mazagaon, and claimed ownership of the land. King Sebastian of Portugal refused to handover the land to them, and in 1572 granted the islands in perpetuity to the Sousa e Lima family.[35]
The annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 opened the way for other European powers to follow the spice routes to Bombay. The Dutch arrived first, closely followed by the British.[33] On 10 November 1583, the first English merchants arrived in Bombay and travelled through Bassein, Thane, and Chaul.[36] By 1585, the Portuguese Franciscans had obtained practical control of Salsette and Mahim. Notable Franciscan churches built include Nossa Senhora de Bom Concelho at Sion and Nossa Senhora de Salvacao at Dadar.[26] In 1612, the British fought the Battle of Swally with the Portuguese at Surat for the possesion of Bombay.[37] The first Parsi, a trader called Dorabji Nanabhoy, settled in Bombay in 1640.[38] In 1652, the Surat Council of the British Empire urged the British East India Company to purchase Bombay from the Portuguese. By the middle of the seventeenth century the growing power of the Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India. The Directors of the Council of Surat reported in 1659 that every effort should be made to obtain Bombay from the King of Portugal.[26] On 8 May 1661, the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Portugal placed Bombay in the possession of the British Empire as a part of Catherine's dowry to Charles.[39]
British period (1661 - 1947)
Struggle with native powers (1661 - 1817)
On 18 January 1665, Charles II granted Humphrey Cooke the possession of Bombay.[40] However, Salsette, Mazagaon, Parel, Worli, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possesion.[41] Later, Cooke managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala for the English. On 21 September 1668, the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668, led to the transfer of Bombay from Charles II to the British East India Company for an annual rent of £10 (equivalent retail price index of £1,226 in 2007).[42] The Company immediately set about the task of opening up the islands by constructing a quay and warehouses. A customs house was also built. Fortifications were built around Bombay Castle. A Judge-Advocate was appointed for the purpose of civil administration.[43] George Oxenden became the first Governor of Bombay under the British East India Company[44] on 23 September 1668.[45] Gerald Aungier, who was appointed Governor of Bombay on July 1669, established the first mint in Bombay in 1670.[46] He offered various business incentives, which attracted Parsis, Armenians, Jews, Dawoodi Bohras, Gujarati Banias from Surat and Diu, and Brahmins from Salsette.[43] He also planned extensive fortifications in the city from Dongri in the north to Mendham's Point (near present day Lion Gate) in the south. The harbour was also developed during his governorship, with space for the berthing of 20 ships.[43] In 1670, the Parsi businessman Bhimjee Parikh imported the first printing press into Bombay.[47] Between 1661 and 1675 there was a six-fold increase in population from 10,000 to 60,000.[48] On 20 February 1673, Rickloffe van Goen, the Governor-General of Dutch India attacked Bombay, but the attack was resisted by Aungier.[49] The Treaty of Westminster (1674), concluded between England and the Netherlands, relieved the British settlements in Bombay of further apprehension from the Dutch.[50] In 1686, the Company shifted its main holdings from Surat to Bombay.[51]
Yakut Khan, the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, landed at Sewri on 14 February 1689,[52] and razed the Mazagon Fort in June 1690.[53] After a payment made by the British to Aurangzeb, the ruler of the Mughal Empire, Yakut evacuated Bombay on 8 June 1690.[54] The arrival of many Indian and British merchants led to the development of Bombay's trade. Soon it was trading in salt, rice, ivory, cloth, lead and sword blades with many Indian ports as well as with the Arabian ports of Mecca and Basra.[43] By the end of the seventeenth century, Bombay had developed into an important port.[55] By 1710, the construction of Bombay Castle was finished, which fortified the islands from sea attacks by European pirates and the Marathas.[56] By 26 December 1715, Charles Boone assumed the Governorship of Bombay. He implemented Aungier's plans for the fortification of the island, and had walls built from Dongri in the north to Mendham's point in the south.[55] He established a force of Marines[55] and constructed the St. Thomas Cathedral in 1718, which was the first Anglican Church in Bombay.[57] In 1728, a Mayor's court was established in Bombay and the first reclamation was started which was a temporary work in Mahalaxmi, on the creek separating Bombay from Worli.[58] The shipbuilding industry started in Bombay in 1735[59] and soon the Naval Dockyard was established in the same year.[60]
In 1737, Salsette was captured by Baji Rao I of the Maratha Empire from the Portuguese, and the Portuguese province of Bassein was ceded to the Marathas in 1739.[61] The Maratha victory forced the British to push settlements within the fort walls of the city. Under new building rules set up in 1748, many houses were demolished and the population was redistributed, partially on newly reclaimed land.[62] Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia, a member of the Wadia family of shipwrights and naval architects from Surat, built the Bombay Dock in 1750,[63] which was the first dry dock to be commissioned in Asia.[60] By the middle of the eighteenth century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town and soon Bhandaris from Chaul in Maharashtra, Vanjaris from the Western Ghat mountain ranges of Maharashtra, Africans from Madagascar, Bhatias from Rajasthan, Banias, Shenvi Brahmins, goldsmiths, ironsmiths and weavers from Gujarat migrated to the islands.[64] In 1769, Fort George was built on the site of the Dongri Fort[65] and in 1770, the Mazagaon docks were built.[66] The British occupied Salsette, Elephanta, Hog Island, and Karanja on 28 December 1774.[67] In 1777, Bombay's first English newspaper, the Bombay Courier, was printed by Rustomji Kashaspathi.[47] Salsette, Elephanta, Hog Island, and Karanja were formally ceded to the British East India Company by the Treaty of Salbai signed in 1782, while Bassein and its dependencies were restored to Raghunathrao of the Maratha Empire.[68] In 1782, William Hornby assumed the office of Governor of Bombay, and initiated the Hornby Vellard engineering project of uniting the seven islands into a single landmass. The purpose of this project was to block the Worli creek and prevent the low-lying areas of Bombay from being flooded at high tide.[69] However, the project was rejected by the British East India Company in 1783.[50] In 1784, the Hornby Vellard project was completed and soon reclamations at Worli and Mahalaxmi followed.[70] In 1795, the Maratha army defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad. Following this, many artisans and construction workers from Andhra Pradesh migrated to Bombay and settled into the flats which were constructed by the Hornby Vellard. These workers where called Kamathis, and their enclave was called Kamathipura.[71] By the end of the eighteenth century, a regular civic administration was set up in the city[70] and the construction of the Sion Causeway commenced in 1798.[72] Bombay and Mahim were united during by the Hornby Vellard the start of the nineteenth century.[73] In the same year, a fire raged through the town, razing many localities and the Sion Causeway was completed.[73] On May 1804, Bombay was hit by a severe famine, which led to a large scale emigration.[50] On 5 November 1817, the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone[74] defeated Bajirao II, the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, in the Battle of Kirkee which took place on the Deccan Plateau.[75] The success of the British campaign in the Deccan witnessed the freedom of Bombay from all attacks by native powers.[50]
City development (1817 - 1885)
The encouragement to Bombay's trade combined with the Company's military successes in the Deccan paved the way for educational and economic progress which characterized the city during the nineteenth century. The Hornby Vellard project gained momentum in 1817. One of the chief improvements to the north of Colaba was the construction of the Wellington Pier (Apollo Bunder) which was opened for passenger traffic in 1819. Bombay was hit by a water famine in 1824.[50] The construction of a good carriage road up the Bhor Ghat during the regimes of Mountstuart Elphinstone and Sir John Malcolm, opened the Bombay Island to the Deccan. This Ghat, opened on 10 November 1830, facilitated the trade of Bombay in a large measure.[76] By 1830, regular communication with England started by steamers navigating the Red and Mediterranean Sea.[50] In July 1832, the Parsi-Hindu riots took place in consequence of a of a Government order for the destruction of pariah dogs which infested the city.[50] In 1838, the islands of Colaba and Little Colaba was connected to Bombay by the Colaba Causeway.[77] In 1838, monthly communication between Bombay and London was established.[50] The Bank of Bombay was opened in 1840, which is the oldest bank in the city.[78] The Cotton Exchange was established in Colaba in 1844.[77] By 1845, all the seven islands had been connected to form a single island called Old Bombay having an area of 435 km2 (167.95 sq mi) by the Hornby Vellard project. In 1845, the Mahim Causeway, which connected Mahim to Bandra was completed. In 1845, the Grant Medical College and hospital, the third in the country, was founded by Governor Robert Grant. Riots broke out between Muslims and Parsis in October 1851, in consequence of an ill-advised article on Prophet Muhammad which appeared in the Gujarathi newspaper. On 16 April 1853 the first-ever Indian railway line began operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane, over a distance of 21 miles.
The first cotton mill in Bombay, the Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company was established on 7 July 1854. The foundation of the University of Bombay in 1857 made it the first modern institution of higher education in India, along with the University of Calcutta. The Great Indian Peninsular Railway and the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI) were started in 1860. The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West, and led to an enormous increase in cotton-trade. In 1866, the British Government established the Bombay Coast and River Steam Navigation Company for the maintenance of steam ferries between Bombay and nearby islands; while the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 completely revolutionized the marine trade of Bombay. In 1870 the docks were consolidated under the Bombay Port Trust, and the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872, providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly-growing city. Tramway communication was also instituted in 1872. Public gardens such as the Victoria Gardens and Northbrook Gardens were opened in 1873 and 1874 respectively. Violent Parsi-Muslim riots again broke out in February 1874, which were caused by an attack upon Prophet Muhammad published by a Parsi resident. The Bombay Gymkhana was formed in 1875 and soon organizations such as Bombay Quadrangular followed. Bombay became one of the few cities in the world to include a large national park within its limits, and the Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883. The Princess Dock was built in the year 1885 as part of a scheme for improving the whole foreshore of the Bombay harbour.
Political consciousness and freedom struggle (1885 - 1947)
The growth of political consciousness started after the establishment of the Bombay Presidency Association by Dadabhai Naoroji on 31 January 1885. The Bombay Millowners' Association was formed in February 1875 in order to protect interests threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British. The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was one of the most important political event in Bombay. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28-31 December 1885. In 1888, the Bombay Municipal Act was enacted which gave the British Government wide powers of interference in civic matters. The Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway, one of the finest stations in the world, was also completed in 1888. On 11 August 1893, a very serious riot took place between the Hindus and Muslims in Bombay, which led to 1500 arrests and 80 were injured. In 1896, Bombay was hit by bubonic plague which killed thousands of citizens. In a single week in 1897, over 10,000 persons fled Bombay. On 9 March 1898 there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague. The riot led to a strike of dock and railway workers which paralysed the city for a few days. The significant results of the plague was the creation of the the Bombay City Improvement Trust in 1898 and the Haffkine Institute in 1899. The cotton mill industry was also adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague. The years 1904-05, however, witnessed a reversion of this state of affairs.
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 initiated the Swadeshi movement, which led to the boycotting of British goods, had a tremendous impact on Bombay. On 22 July 1908, Lokmanya Tilak, the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay, was sentenced to six years imprisonment, which led to huge scale protests in the city. The Bombay Chronicle was started by Pherozeshah Mehta, the leader of the Indian National Congress, in April 1913, which played an important role in the national movement till India's Independence. The most important event in Bombay early in 1915 was the visit of Mahatma Gandhi to Bombay. The All India Home Rule League was inaugurated by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. Meanwhile, Tilak had already started his own Home Rule League at Bombay in May 1916 to bid for support of the mill workers in Bombay. Lord Willingdon convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918, whose objective was to seek the co-operation of the people in the World War I measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency. The conference was followed by huge rallies across the city. The world-wide influenza epidemic raged through Bombay from September to December 1918, causing hundreds of deaths per day. The first important strike in the textile industry in Bombay began in January 1919. Bombay was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement started by Mahatma Gandhi from February — April 1919. The movement was started as a result of the Rowlatt Act, which indefinitely extended emergency measures during the First World War in order to control public unrest.
Following World War I, which saw large movement of India troops, supplies, arms and industrial goods to and from Bombay, the city life was shut down many times during the Non-cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922.[79] In 1926, the Back Bay scandal occurred, when the Bombay Development Department under the British reclaimed the Back Bay area in Bombay after the financial crisis incidental to the post-war slump in the city.[80] In 1927, the first electric locomotives were put into service up to Poona and Igatpuri and later electric multiple rake commuter trains ran up to Virar on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway railway. In the late 1920's, many Persians migrated to Bombay from Yazd to escape the drought in Iran.[81] In the early 1930's, the nationwide Civil disobedience movement against the British Salt tax spread to Bombay. Vile Parle was the was the headquarters of the movement in Bombay under Jamnalal Bajaj.[82][83] On 15 October 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. Tata pioneered civil aviation in Bombay by flying a plane from Karachi to Bombay. Bombay was affected by the Great Depression of 1929, which saw a stagnation of mill industry and economy from 1933 to 1939.[84] With World War II, the movements of thousands of troops, military and industrial goods and the fleet of the Royal Indian Navy made Bombay an important military base for the battles being fought in West Asia and South East Asia.[85] The climatic Quit India rebellion was promulgated on 7 August 1942 by the Congress in a public meeting at Gowalia Tank.[86] The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 18 February 1946 in Bombay marked the first and most serious revolt by the Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy against British rule.[87] On 15 August 1947, finally India was declared independent. The last British troops to leave India, the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry, passed through the arcade of the Gateway of India in Bombay on 28 February 1948.[88] The 282 year long period of the British period in Bombay ended after India's Independence in 1947.
Post-independence and modern period (1947 - 2000)
In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City. It spanned an area of 235.1 km2 (90.77 sq mi) and inhabited 23.39 lakhs of people in 1951. The Municipal Corporation limits were extended upto Jogeshwari along the Western Railway and Bhandup along the Central Railway. This limit was further extended in February 1957 upto Dahisar along the Western Railway and Mulund on the Central Railway.[89] The Borivali National Park was expanded and large areas of wetlands were issued protection. The long-standing fishing villages dating back to the Koli peoples were given special status and their habitat was protected.
After 1955, when the State of Bombay was being re-organised along linguistic lines into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, there was a demand that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state. Bombay Citizens' commitee, an advocacy group comprising of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay's independent status. However, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed this, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra. Following protests in which 105 people were killed by police firing, Maharashtra State was formed with Bombay as its capital on 1 May 1960.
Intermittent incidents of religious and political violence occurred throughout the 1960s, and large-scale industrial strikes were frequently organized by militant trade unions. In the 1960s and 1970s, tensions between the local Marathi communities and migrant communities from southern and northern India provoked hostility from political parties such as the Shiv Sena and led to incidents of violence. Modern educational institutions such as the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay were established and the University of Bombay was expanded to provide greater opportunities to young Indians. Mumbai's school system includes a large number of private institutions, considered of high national and international quality. The city attracts a large number of tourists from different parts of India and across the world, attracted to its vibrant cultural and commercial life, islands, beaches and seashores. Although smuggling was reduced considerably by the 1990s, city life was characterized by criminal networks engaging in rampant extortion, arms, drugs and human trafficking, kidnapping and homicides. The Mumbai police under commissioner Julio Ribero launched intensive operations to crush organized crime, but was also criticized for using controversial tactics such as extra-judicial killings. The volatile and often-bloody events marking underworld activities have entered into popular culture, being the subject of successful films, documentaries and literature. Police and local government officials and politicians are frequently assailed for entrenched corruption. Large and mostly illegal slum settlements, illicit constructions and property disputes are common and serious problems faced by the city. Mumbai's prominent status and importance to national life has made it a target of extremists and terorists. In December 1992, hundreds of people were killed and the city paralyzed by religious violence caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. In 1993, serial bomb blasts killed more than 250 people and damaged the Bombay Stock Exchange; these were believed to be orchestrated by mafia don Dawood Ibrahim in retaliation for the mosque demolition.
In 1995, the newly-elected Shiv Sena-led government would rename the city Mumbai. The Victoria Terminus was renamed the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, after the legendary Marathi king and hero. The airport was named the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, and the VJTI was renamed after Shivaji's mother Jijabai, also a popular historical figure and heroine, as the Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute. However some of the journalists and political observers viewed these renaming as exploitation of nationalist sentiments. Since independence, Mumbai has seen an exponential growth and diversification of service industries, from tourism, hoteling, cuisine and catering to information technology, telecommunications, finance, banking and commercial trading sectors. India's two largest stock markets, the BSE and the National Stock Exchange play a central role in the city's economic life, employing thousands of brokers, analysts and investors and attracting aspiring entrepreneurs and large corporations across the nation and the world. Mumbai has especially benefited from the liberalisation of the economy in the early 1990s, which resulted in a feverish growth for banking, finance, trading and investment sectors.
Mumbai's burgeoning population growth has made real estate and construction the fastest-growing and intensely competitive industries in the city. Mills and factories that characterized Mumbai's industrial economy were gradually relocated from the city owing to rising costs, unproductivity, militant trade unionist activities and concerns of pollution. In the 1990s, a sister township of Navi Mumbai was founded across Thane to help ease the overpopulation of Mumbai and relocate many of the city industries, and the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust was built in Nhava Sheva to ease the increasing loads of the Mumbai harbour and docks. At the same time, the presence of scientific and high technology industries has increased manifold. The Hindi film industry, popularly nicknamed "Bollywood", expanded exponentially in popularity and productivity after independence. Tens of thousands of aspiring artists flood into the city, hoping to work in film and television productions. Most Indian film actors, filmmakers, singers, musicians, celebrities and most of the technical staff of the industry are based in the city, along with most of the studios and production companies. Infe has over the years attracted increasing numbers of performing artists from foreign countries.
21st century
On 6 December 2002, a bomb placed under a seat of an empty BEST bus exploded near the busy Ghatkopar station in Mumbai. Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured.[90] On 27 January 2003, a bomb placed on a bicycle exploded near the busy Vile Parle station in Mumbai. The bomb killed 1 and injured 25.[91] On 13 March 2003, a bomb exploded as a train pulled into Mulund station in Mumbai. 10 people were killed and 70 were injured.[92] On 28 July 2003, a bomb placed under a seat of a BEST bus exploded in Ghatkopar. The bomb killed 4 people and injured 32.[93] On 25 August 2003, two blasts in South Mumbai - one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi occurred. At least 48 people were killed and 150 injured.[94] Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 26 July-27 July 2005, during which the city received 37 inches (940 millimeters) of rain in 24 hours — the most any Indian city has ever received in one day. Around 83 people were killed.[95] On 11 July 2006, a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai. 209 people were killed and over 700 were injured.[96] In 2008, the city experienced xenophobic attacks by the activists of the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) on the North Indian migrants in Mumbai.[97] Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles.[98]
See also
Notes
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Geology
- ^ Ghosh 1990, p. 25
- ^ Thana — Places of Interest 2000, Sopara
- ^ a b "History of Mumbai". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- ^ "Kanheri Caves". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- ^ Abhilash Gaur (2004-01-24). "Pay dirt: Treasure amidst Mumbai's trash". The Tribune. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ a b c d Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Ancient Period
- ^ a b Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Geography
- ^ Shubhangi Khapre (2008-05-19). "Of age-old beliefs and practices". Daily News & Analysis. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "The Slum and the Sacred Cave" (PDF). Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (Columbia University). pp. p. 5. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
{{cite web}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help) - ^ "World Heritage Sites — Elephanta Caves". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ "The Ninth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Preeti Gupta (2008-01-22). "Alarm bells for aquatic life of Banganga". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "The Walkeshwar Temple". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- ^ "The Thirteenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- ^ a b "Raja Bhimdev". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ a b Singh et al. 2004, p. 1703
- ^ "The Pathare Prabhus". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ "The Konkanis". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Prinsep, Thomas & Henry 1858, p. 315
- ^ a b c d e Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Muhammedan Period
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Mediaeval Period
- ^ "Haji ali set to go, and rise again". Mumbai Mirror. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
{{cite news}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "The West turns East". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
- ^ Maharashtra State Gazetteer 1977, p. 153
- ^ a b c d e f Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Portuguese Period
- ^ Firishtah, Muhammad & Briggs 1829, p. 515
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Churches
- ^ a b Da Cunha 1993, p. 96
- ^ Asiatic Society of Bombay & Literary Society of Bombay 1819, p. 269
- ^ Rajesh Kochhar. "The truth behind the legend: European doctors in pre-colonial India". Indian Institute of Astrophysics (Bangalore). Retrieved 2008-08-17.
- ^ Da Cunha 1993, p. 100
- ^ a b c "The Sixteenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, St. Andrews Church
- ^ "Mazagaon". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ "The First Englishmen in Bombay". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- ^ Mill 1820, p. 26
- ^ Jahnavi Phalkey. "The Tale of Two Cities: Technological profiles of Bangalore and Bombay as Growth Regions" (DOC, 137 KB). Georgia Institute of Technology: p. 3. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
{{cite journal}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help); Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Catherine of Bragança (1638 - 1705)". BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
- ^ Malabari 1910, p. 98
- ^ Malabari 1910, p. 99
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 55
- ^ a b c d "The Seventeenth Century". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Elwood 1830, p. 88
- ^ Elwood 1830, p. 87
- ^ "Gerald Aungier". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ a b "History of Newspapers in Mumbai". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ "Population". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ Colin C.Ganley (2007). "Security, the central component of an early modern institutional matrix; 17th century Bombay's Economic Growth" (PDF, 113 KB). International Society for New Institutional Economics (ISNIE): p. 13. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
{{cite journal}}
:|pages=
has extra text (help); Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, British Period
- ^ R. K. Kochhar (1994-06-25). "Shipbuilding at Bombay" (PDF, 297 KB). Current Science. 12. 66. Indian Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 115
- ^ Nandgaonkar, Satish (2003-03-22). "Mazgaon fort was blown to pieces – 313 years ago". Indian Express. Express Group. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ Anderson 1854, p. 116
- ^ a b c "Territorial Disputes (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ "Bombay Castle". The Raj Bhavan, Maharashtra. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, St. Thomas Cathedral
- ^ "Local Government (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ Mehta 1940, p. 16
- ^ a b "Historical Perspective". Indian Navy. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1986, The Marathas
- ^ "Consolidation of British Power (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The Wadias of India: Then and Now". Vohuman. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The Ship-building Industry (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "Fortifying colonial legacy". Indian Express Newspapers (Bombay) Ltd. 1997-06-15. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "The Ship-building Industry (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Calcutta Magazine and Monthly Register 1832, p. 596
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1986, Acquisition, Changes, and Staff (Acquisition, 1774-1817
- ^ "The Hornby Vellard". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-09.
- ^ a b "City-planning Begins (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "The First Maratha War (The Eighteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Thana District Gazetteer 1984, Roads (Causeways)
- ^ a b "ThThe Great Fire (The Nineteenth Century)". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ "Battle of Khadki". Centre for Modeling and Simulation (University of Pune). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Shona Adhikari (2000-02-20). "A mute testimony to a colourful age". The Tribune. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Growth of Bombay
- ^ a b "Colaba and Cuffe Parade". Department of Theoretical Physics (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research). Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- ^ Kanakalatha Mukund (2007-04-03). "Insight into the progress of banking". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Non Co-operation Movement
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Back Bay Scandal
- ^ Taran N Khan (2008-05-31). "A slice of Persia in Dongri". Daily News & Analysis. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Businessmen and Civil Disobedience
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Congress Session (of 1934)
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Economic Conditions (1933-1939)
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Outbreak of the War
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Quit India Movement
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Naval Mutiny
- ^ Greater Bombay District Gazetteer 1986, Dawn of Independance
- ^ "Administration". Mumbai Suburban District. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ "Bomb blast on Bombay bus". BBC. 2002-12-02. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ "1 killed, 25 hurt in Vile Parle blast". The Times of India. 2003-01-28. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Fear after Bombay train blast". BBC. 2003-03-14. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Vijay Singh, Syed Firdaus Ashra (2003-07-29). "Blast in Ghatkopar in Mumbai, 4 killed and 32 injured". rediff.com India Limited. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ "2003: Bombay rocked by twin car bombs". BBC. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- ^ "Maharashtra monsoon 'kills 200'". BBC. 2005-07-25. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ "Tuesday terror: Six blasts rock Mumbai railway stations". The Times of India. 2006-07-11. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Thackeray continues tirade against North Indians". Daily News & Analysis. 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - ^ "Mumbai taxis go on flash strike after attack on union office". Mid-day. 2008-02-07. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
{{cite news}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help)
Primary sources
- Greater Bombay District Gazetteer. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. Vol. I. Government of Maharashtra. 1986. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
- "Bombay: History of a City". The British Library. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
- "The Mumbai Project". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
{{cite web}}
: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=
(help) - "History of Mumbai". Macalester College. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
References
- Anderson, Philip (1854). The English in Western India. Smith and Taylor. ISBN 9780766186958. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
- Asiatic Society of Bombay (1819). Transactions of the Literary society of Bombay. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Calcutta Magazine and Monthly Register. Vol. 33–36. S. Smith & Co. 1832. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
- Da Cunha, J.Gerson (1993). Origin of Bombay. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120608151. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
- Elwood, Anne Katharine Curteis (1830). Narrative of a Journey Overland from England, by the Continent of Europe, Egypt, and the Red Sea, to India. Vol. 2. H. Colburn and R. Bentley. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- Firishtah, Astarā-bādī (1829). History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|vol=
ignored (|volume=
suggested) (help) - Ghosh, Amalananda (1990). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. BRILL. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- Greater Bombay District Gazetteer. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. Vol. III. Government of Maharashtra. 1986. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Kolaba District Gazetteer. Maharashtra State Gazetteers. Government of Maharashtra. 1964. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- Malabari, Phiroze B.M. (1910). Bombay in the making : Being mainly a history of the origin and growth of judicial institutions in the Western Presidency, 1661-1726 (PDF, 73 MB). London: T. Fisher Unwin. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- Mehta, Ashok (1940). Indian Shipping: A Case Study of the Working of Imperialism (PDF, 4.6 MB). N.t.Shroff Company Limited. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- Mill, James (1820). The History of British India. Vol. 1. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
- "Portuguese Settlements on the Western Coast". Maharashtra State Gazetteer. Government of Maharashtra. 1977.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help);|format=
requires|url=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help) - Prinsep, James (1858). Essays on Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, and Palæographic, of the Late James Prinsep. Vol. 2. J. Murray. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Singh, K. S. (2004). Maharashtra. Vol. XXX. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 9788179911020. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Thana District Gazetteer. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIII. Government of Maharashtra. 1984 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
- Thana District Gazetteer. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIII. Government of Maharashtra. 1986 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- Thana — Places of Interest. Gazetteers of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. XIV. Government of Maharashtra. 2000 [1882]. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
Further reading
- David, M. D. (1973). History of Bombay, 1661-1708: 1661-1708. University of Bombay.
- Dwivedi, Sharada (2001). Bombay: The Cities Within. Eminence Designs.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth (1992). The Rise of Bombay: A Retrospect. Times of India Press.
- MacLean, James Mackenzie (1876). A Guide to Bombay. Bombay Gazette steam Press.
- Tindall, Gillian (1992). City of Gold. Penguin Books, Limited. ISBN 0-14-009500-4.
- Mehta, Suketu (2004). Maximum City: Bombay Lost and Found. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780375403729.
- Patel, Sujata (1995). Bombay, Metaphor for Modern India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-563688-0.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Arun, Katiyar (1996). Bombay, A Contemporary Account. Harper Collins. ISBN 81-7223-216-0.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Contractor, Behram (1998). From Bombay to Mumbai. Oriana Books.
- Pinki, Virani (1999). Once was Bombay. Viking. ISBN 0-670-88869-9.
- Jagdish, Agarwal (1998). Bombay — Mumbai: A Picture Book. Wilco Publishing House. ISBN 81-87288-35-3.
- Cox, Edmund Charles (1887). Short History of Bombay Presidency. Thacker & Co.
- Chaudhari, K.K (1987). History of Bombay. Modern Period Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of Maharashtra.
External links
- Portuguese India History: The Northern Province: Bassein, Bombay-Mumbai, Damao, Chaul from Dutch Portuguese Colonial History
- Century City Time Line - Bombay from Tate
- A City emerges from Hindustan Times
- A New Bombay, A new India from Hindustan Times
- A City emerges from Hindustan Times
- To the Present from Hindustan Times