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{{History of Mongolia}} |
{{History of Mongolia}} |
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The area of what is now [[Mongolia]] has been ruled by various [[nomadic empire]]s, including the [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu state]], the [[Xianbei state]], the [[Rouran Khaganate]], the [[Turkic Khaganate]] and others. |
The area of what is now [[Mongolia]] has been ruled by various [[nomadic empire]]s, including the [[Xiongnu|Xiongnu state]], the [[Xianbei state]], the [[Rouran Khaganate]], the [[Turkic Khaganate]] and others. |
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== Prehistory == |
== Prehistory == |
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{{Main|Prehistoric Mongolia|Proto-Mongols}} |
{{Main|Prehistoric Mongolia|Proto-Mongols}} |
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Mongolia has been inhabited for over 850,000 years.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.mas.ac.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56&Itemid=64 Хүрээлэнгийн эрдэм шинжилгээний ажлын ололт амжилт, Institute of Mongolian Archaeology] (Mongolian)</ref> Important prehistoric sites are the [[Paleolithicum|paleolithic]] [[Cave painting|cave drawings]] of the ''Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui'' (''Northern Cave of Blue'') in [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] province,<ref name="Novgorodova">Eleanora Novgorodova, Archäologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in ''Mongolen (catalogue)'', pp. 14-20</ref> and the ''Tsagaan Agui'' (White Cave) in [[Bayankhongor Province|Bayankhongor]] province.<ref>Davaadorzhiĭn Ganbold, Da Haliun |
Mongolia has been inhabited for over 850,000 years.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.mas.ac.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56&Itemid=64 Хүрээлэнгийн эрдэм шинжилгээний ажлын ололт амжилт, Institute of Mongolian Archaeology] (Mongolian)</ref> Important prehistoric sites are the [[Paleolithicum|paleolithic]] [[Cave painting|cave drawings]] of the ''Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui'' (''Northern Cave of Blue'') in [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] province,<ref name="Novgorodova">Eleanora Novgorodova, Archäologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in ''Mongolen (catalogue)'', pp. 14-20</ref> and the ''Tsagaan Agui'' (White Cave) in [[Bayankhongor Province|Bayankhongor]] province.<ref>Davaadorzhiĭn Ganbold, Da Haliun – Facts about Mongolia, p.34</ref> A [[neolithic]] farming settlement has been found in [[Dornod Province|Dornod]] province. Contemporary findings from western Mongolia include only temporary encampments of hunters and fishers. The population during the [[Copper Age]] has been described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europid in the west.<ref name="Novgorodova" /> |
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[[Slab Grave Culture]] is a [[Mongolic]] archaeological culture of the Late [[Bronze Age]] and Early [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Tumen">Tumen D., " |
[[Slab Grave Culture]] is a [[Mongolic]] archaeological culture of the Late [[Bronze Age]] and Early [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Tumen">Tumen D., "[http://user.dankook.ac.kr/~oriental/Journal/pdf_new/49/11.pdf Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia]" (PDF) pages 25, 27</ref> This culture is the main archaeological find of the Bronze Age Mongolia. |
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[[File:Slab Grave culture areal.png|thumb|The geographic area the Slab Grave culture covered]] |
[[File:Slab Grave culture areal.png|thumb|The geographic area the Slab Grave culture covered]] |
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[[Inner Mongolia]], [[Northwest China]] ([[Xinjiang region]], [[Qilian Mountains]] etc.), [[Manchuria]], [[Lesser Khingan]], [[Buryatia]], [[Irkutsk Oblast]] and [[Zabaykalsky Krai]]. |
[[Inner Mongolia]], [[Northwest China]] ([[Xinjiang region]], [[Qilian Mountains]] etc.), [[Manchuria]], [[Lesser Khingan]], [[Buryatia]], [[Irkutsk Oblast]] and [[Zabaykalsky Krai]]. |
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In the 2nd millennium B.C, during the [[bronze age]], western Mongolia was under the influence of the [[Karasuk culture]]. [[Deer stone]]s and the omnipresent kheregsüürs (small [[kurgan]]s) probably are from this era; other theories date the deer stones as 7th or 8th centuries BC. A vast [[Iron Age]] burial complex from the 5th-3rd century, later also used by the Xiongnu, has been unearthed near [[Ulaangom]].<ref name="Novgorodova"/> |
In the 2nd millennium B.C, during the [[bronze age]], western Mongolia was under the influence of the [[Karasuk culture]]. [[Deer stone]]s and the omnipresent kheregsüürs (small [[kurgan]]s) probably are from this era; other theories date the deer stones as 7th or 8th centuries BC. A vast [[Iron Age]] burial complex from the 5th-3rd century, later also used by the Xiongnu, has been unearthed near [[Ulaangom]].<ref name="Novgorodova" /> |
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Before the 20th century, some scholars assumed that the [[Scythians]] descended from the Mongolic people.<ref> |
Before the 20th century, some scholars assumed that the [[Scythians]] descended from the Mongolic people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beyondtoday.tv/booklets/US/scythians.asp|title=The Mysterious Scythians Burst Into History|work=United Church of God}}</ref> The Scythian community inhabited western Mongolia in the 5-6th century. In 2006 the mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old was a 30-to-40 year-old man with blond hair, and was found in [[Altai Mountains|the Altai]], Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,433600,00.html|title=Archeological Sensation: Ancient Mummy Found in Mongolia|author=SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg, Germany|date=25 August 2006|work=SPIEGEL ONLINE}}</ref> |
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In historical times the [[Altaic peoples]] were concentrated on the steppe lands of [[Central Asia]].<ref name="britannica"> |
In historical times the [[Altaic peoples]] were concentrated on the steppe lands of [[Central Asia]].<ref name="britannica">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17472/Altaic-languages|title=Altaic languages|work=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Furthermore, it is assumed that the [[Turkic peoples]] have always inhabited the western, the Mongols the central, and the [[Tungusic peoples]] the eastern portions of the Altaic region.<ref name="britannica" /> |
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By the eighth century B.C., the inhabitants of Mongolian western part evidently were nomadic Indo-European speakers, either [[Scythians]] |
By the eighth century B.C., the inhabitants of Mongolian western part evidently were nomadic Indo-European speakers, either [[Scythians]] |
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<ref name="studies"> |
<ref name="studies">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/mongolia/4.htm|title=Mongolia - Early Development, ca. 220 B.C.-A.D. 1206|publisher=}}</ref> or [[Yuezhi]]. In central and eastern parts of Mongolia were many other tribes that were primarily Mongol in their ethnologic characteristics.<ref name="studies" /> |
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==Ancient period== |
== Ancient period == |
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{{refimprovesection|date=January 2015}} |
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The area of modern Mongolia |
The area of modern Mongolia has been inhabited by Mongolian people since ancient times. The ancient population had a nomadic and hunter lifestyle and lived a fairly closed life.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spectacular photographs shed light on the ancient nomadic lifestyle of Mongolia|url=http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/spectacular-photographs-shed-light-ancient-nomadic-lifestyle-mongolia-001431|publisher=Ancient Origins|accessdate=12 January 2015}}</ref> While most of [[Central Asia]] had a fairly similar nomadic lifestyle where moving in and around national boundaries and mixing with different settlements was common, the situation in the Mongolian steppes was unique because migration was limited by natural barriers such as the Altai Mountains in the west, the Gobi Desert in the south and the freezing wastelands of Siberia in the north, all unsuitable for nomadic-based living. These greatly limited migration, although they also kept out invaders. The clans in Mongolia only allied with other Mongolian clans, with which they shared the same language, religion and way of life. This would later be a huge advantage in uniting the people in Mongolia against the threat of the expanding Chinese empires. There were repeated conflicts with the Chinese dynasties of Shang and especially Zhou, which had begun conquering and enslaving the Mongolic people in an expansive drift. By the time of the Warring States Period in China, the northern Dynasties of Zhao, Yan, and Qin had begun to encroach and conquer into Southern Mongolia. By the time the Qin Dynasty had united all of China's kingdoms into one empire, the Sahun Kingdom (Xiongnu) had been formed in the Mongolian plains, transforming all of the independent clans into one single state and reassured the safety and independence from an expanding Qin. |
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=== Xiongnu state (209 BC – 93 AD)=== |
=== Xiongnu state (209 BC – 93 AD) === |
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[[File:Hunnu.png|thumb|left|Xiongnu]] |
[[File:Hunnu.png|thumb|left|Xiongnu]] |
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The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and some scholars, including [[Paul Pelliot]] and [[Byambyn Rinchen]],<ref>Ts. Baasansuren "The scholar who showed the true Mongolia to the world", Summer 2010 vol. 6 (14) ''Mongolica'', pp. 40</ref> insisted on a [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] origin. |
The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and some scholars, including [[Paul Pelliot]] and [[Byambyn Rinchen]],<ref>Ts. Baasansuren "The scholar who showed the true Mongolia to the world", Summer 2010 vol. 6 (14) ''Mongolica'', pp. 40</ref> insisted on a [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] origin. |
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The founder of the Xiongnu empire was [[Toumen]]. He was succeeded violently by his son [[Modu Shanyu]]. Then he conquered and unified various tribes. |
The founder of the Xiongnu empire was [[Toumen]]. He was succeeded violently by his son [[Modu Shanyu]]. Then he conquered and unified various tribes. At the peak of its power, the Xiongnu confederacy stretched from [[Lake Baikal]] in the north to the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] in the south and from the [[Tian Shan]] mountains in the west to the [[Greater Khingan]] ranges in the east. |
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In 200 BC, the [[Han Dynasty]] of China launched a military campaign into the territory, attempting to subjugate the Xiongnu. However the Xiongnu forces ambushed and encircled the Han [[Liu Bang|Emperor Gao]] at [[Baideng]] for seven days. |
In 200 BC, the [[Han Dynasty]] of China launched a military campaign into the territory, attempting to subjugate the Xiongnu. However the Xiongnu forces ambushed and encircled the Han [[Liu Bang|Emperor Gao]] at [[Baideng]] for seven days. Emperor Gao was forced to submit to the Xiongnu, and a treaty was signed in 198 BC recognising all the territories to the north from the Great Wall should belong to the Xiongnu, while the territory to the south of the Great Wall should belong to the Han. In addition, China was obliged to marry princesses and pay annual tribute to the Xiongnu. This "[[heqin|marriage alliance]]" was far from peaceful, as Xiongnu raids into the fertile southern land never ceased. During the period of [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]], Xiongnu raids advanced into [[China Proper]], ravaged and even besieged near its capital [[Chang'an]]. This continued for 70 years until the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]], whose [[Han–Xiongnu War|massive counteroffensives devastated the Xiongnu]] and sent them towards the road of decline. |
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By 176 BC, domain of the Xiongnu was {{convert|4,030,000|km2|abbr=on}} in size.<ref>Claudio Cioffi-Revilla, J. Daniel Rogers, Steven P. Wilcox, & Jai Alterman, "Computing the Steppes: Data Analysis for Agent-Based Modeling of Polities in Inner Asia", Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the Amer. Pol. Sci. Assoc., Boston, Massachusetts, p. 8 August 28–31, (2008)</ref> Xiongnu capital (''Luut; Dragon'') located on the beach [[Orkhon River]], Central Mongolia.<ref>G.Sukhbaatar "An ancestor of the Mongols"</ref> |
By 176 BC, domain of the Xiongnu was {{convert|4,030,000|km2|abbr=on}} in size.<ref>Claudio Cioffi-Revilla, J. Daniel Rogers, Steven P. Wilcox, & Jai Alterman, "Computing the Steppes: Data Analysis for Agent-Based Modeling of Polities in Inner Asia", Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the Amer. Pol. Sci. Assoc., Boston, Massachusetts, p. 8 August 28–31, (2008)</ref> Xiongnu capital (''Luut; Dragon'') located on the beach [[Orkhon River]], Central Mongolia.<ref>G.Sukhbaatar "An ancestor of the Mongols"</ref> |
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The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and some scholars, including A.Luvsandendev, [[:ru:Bernát Munkácsy|Bernát Munkácsy]], [[Henry Hoyle Howorth|Henry Howorth]], [[Bolor Erike|Rashpuntsag]],<ref name="crystal">Rashpunstag (1776) "''[[Bolor Erike|The Crystal Beads]]''"</ref> [[Alexey Okladnikov]], [[Peter Simon Pallas|Peter Pallas]], [[Isaac Jacob Schmidt|Isaak Schmidt]], [[Hyacinth (Bichurin)|Nikita Bichurin]] and [[Byambyn Rinchen]],<ref>Ts. Baasansuren "The scholar who showed the true Mongolia to the world", Summer 2010 vol.6 (14) ''Mongolica'', pp.40</ref> insisted on a [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] origin. |
The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and some scholars, including A.Luvsandendev, [[:ru:Bernát Munkácsy|Bernát Munkácsy]], [[Henry Hoyle Howorth|Henry Howorth]], [[Bolor Erike|Rashpuntsag]],<ref name="crystal">Rashpunstag (1776) "''[[Bolor Erike|The Crystal Beads]]''"</ref> [[Alexey Okladnikov]], [[Peter Simon Pallas|Peter Pallas]], [[Isaac Jacob Schmidt|Isaak Schmidt]], [[Hyacinth (Bichurin)|Nikita Bichurin]] and [[Byambyn Rinchen]],<ref>Ts. Baasansuren "The scholar who showed the true Mongolia to the world", Summer 2010 vol.6 (14) ''Mongolica'', pp.40</ref> insisted on a [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] origin. |
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There are many cultural similarities between the Xiongnu and Mongols such as [[ |
There are many cultural similarities between the Xiongnu and Mongols such as [[Architecture of Mongolia#Yurts|yurt on cart]], [[Composite bow#By mounted archers|composite bow]], [[board game]], horn bow and [[long song]].<ref>Н.Сэр-Оджав, Монголын эртний түүх. 1977</ref> Mongolian long song is believed to date back at least 2,000 years.<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/25apa_uk.htm Mongolian traditional folk song UNESCO.org]</ref> Mythical origin of the long song mentioned in "[[Book of Wei]] (Volume 113). |
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In 48 AD, the Xiongnu empire was weakened as it was divided into the southern and northern Xiongnu. The northern Xiongnu migrated to the west. They established [[Üeban]] state (160–490) in modern [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Hunnic Empire]] (420–469) in Europe. The [[Xianbei]] that were under the Xiongnu rebelled in 93 BC, ending the Xiongnu domination in Mongolia. |
In 48 AD, the Xiongnu empire was weakened as it was divided into the southern and northern Xiongnu. The northern Xiongnu migrated to the west. They established [[Üeban]] state (160–490) in modern [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Hunnic Empire]] (420–469) in Europe. The [[Xianbei]] that were under the Xiongnu rebelled in 93 BC, ending the Xiongnu domination in Mongolia. |
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Recent excavations of Xiongnu graves at the site Gol Mod in the [[Khairkhan]] of Arkhangai province, discovered bronze decorations with images of a creature resembling the [[unicorn]] and images of deities resembling the Greco-Roman deities. These discoveries lead to a hypothesis that the Xiongnu had relations with the Greco-Roman world 2000 years ago.<ref>Ch. Yerool-Erdene. "Hyposthesis about relations of the Hunnu with the Greco-Roman world". Newspaper 'Daily News'. 16 November 2007</ref> |
Recent excavations of Xiongnu graves at the site Gol Mod in the [[Khairkhan]] of Arkhangai province, discovered bronze decorations with images of a creature resembling the [[unicorn]] and images of deities resembling the Greco-Roman deities. These discoveries lead to a hypothesis that the Xiongnu had relations with the Greco-Roman world 2000 years ago.<ref>Ch. Yerool-Erdene. "Hyposthesis about relations of the Hunnu with the Greco-Roman world". Newspaper 'Daily News'. 16 November 2007</ref> |
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=== Xianbei state (93 – 234)=== |
=== Xianbei state (93 – 234) === |
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{{Main|Xianbei state}} |
{{Main|Xianbei state}} |
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[[File:Xianbei state.png|thumb|[[Xianbei state]]]] |
[[File:Xianbei state.png|thumb|[[Xianbei state]]]] |
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The [[Xianbei state|Xianbei]] gained strength beginning from the 1st century AD and were consolidated into a state under [[Tanshihuai]] in 147. He expelled the Xiongnu from [[Jungaria]], and pushed the [[Dingling]] to the north of the [[Sayan Mountains|Sayans]], thus securing domination of the Mongolic elements in what is now [[Khalkha]] and [[Chahar Mongols| |
The [[Xianbei state|Xianbei]] gained strength beginning from the 1st century AD and were consolidated into a state under [[Tanshihuai]] in 147. He expelled the Xiongnu from [[Jungaria]], and pushed the [[Dingling]] to the north of the [[Sayan Mountains|Sayans]], thus securing domination of the Mongolic elements in what is now [[Khalkha]] and [[Chahar Mongols|Chaharia]].<ref>{{cite web |
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| title = Л.Н. Гумилев. История Народа Хунну |
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| url = http://china.kulichki.com/history/Gumilev/HistoryOfHunnu/Part15.shtml |
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}} (Russian)</ref> The Xianbei successfully repelled an invasion of the Han Dynasty in 167 and conquered areas of northern China in 180. |
}} (Russian)</ref> The Xianbei successfully repelled an invasion of the Han Dynasty in 167 and conquered areas of northern China in 180. |
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There are various hypotheses about the language and ethnic links of the Xianbei and most widely accepted version suggests that the Xianbei were a Mongolic ethnic group and their branches are the ancestors of many Mongolic peoples such as the Nirun, Khitan and Menggu Xibei, who are suggested to be the proto-Mongols.<ref name="Ts. Gantulga et al.">{{cite book |
There are various hypotheses about the language and ethnic links of the Xianbei and most widely accepted version suggests that the Xianbei were a Mongolic ethnic group and their branches are the ancestors of many Mongolic peoples such as the Nirun, Khitan and Menggu Xibei, who are suggested to be the proto-Mongols.<ref name="Ts. Gantulga et al.">{{cite book |
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| last = Dr., Prof. Ts. Gantulga, Dr. T. Jambaldorj, Dr., Prof. S. Tsolmon, Dr., Prof. J. Zaanhuu, T. Altanceceg, S. Sodnam |
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The ruler of the Xianbei state was elected by a congress of the nobility. The Xianbei used woodcut tallies called ''Kemu'' as a form of non-verbal communication. Besides extensive livestock husbandry, the Xianbei were also engaged on a limited scale in farming and handicraft. The Xianbei fractured in the 3rd century. |
The ruler of the Xianbei state was elected by a congress of the nobility. The Xianbei used woodcut tallies called ''Kemu'' as a form of non-verbal communication. Besides extensive livestock husbandry, the Xianbei were also engaged on a limited scale in farming and handicraft. The Xianbei fractured in the 3rd century. |
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[[Tuoba]], a faction of the Xianbei, established the [[Northern Wei|Toba Wei]] empire beyond Mongolia proper in northern China in 386. Toba Wei existed until 581. |
[[Tuoba]], a faction of the Xianbei, established the [[Northern Wei|Toba Wei]] empire beyond Mongolia proper in northern China in 386. Toba Wei existed until 581. |
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=== Rouran state (330 – 555)=== |
=== Rouran state (330 – 555) === |
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{{Main|Nirun Khaganate}} |
{{Main|Nirun Khaganate}} |
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[[File:Nirun Khaganate.png|thumb|left|Nirun Khaganate]] |
[[File:Nirun Khaganate.png|thumb|left|Nirun Khaganate]] |
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[[File:Asia 400ad.jpg|thumb|Asia in 400 AD, showing the [[Nirun Khaganate]] (Rouran), [[Tuoba]]'s [[Northern Wei]], [[Xianbei]]'s [[Tuyuhun Kingdom]], [[Southern Liang]], [[Later Yan]] and [[Xiongnu]]'s [[Üeban]] and [[Northern Liang]] states]] |
[[File:Asia 400ad.jpg|thumb|Asia in 400 AD, showing the [[Nirun Khaganate]] (Rouran), [[Tuoba]]'s [[Northern Wei]], [[Xianbei]]'s [[Tuyuhun Kingdom]], [[Southern Liang]], [[Later Yan]] and [[Xiongnu]]'s [[Üeban]] and [[Northern Liang]] states]] |
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[[File:Rouran500.png|thumb|Rouran Khaganate circa 500 AD]] |
[[File:Rouran500.png|thumb|Rouran Khaganate circa 500 AD]] |
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A branch of the Xianbei, the [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]] (also known as Nirun) were consolidated under Mugulyu. The Nirun ruled Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, part of [[Gansu]], northern Xinjiang, [[Inner Mongolia]], parts of [[Northeastern China]] and southern [[Siberia]]. [[Hephthalite Empire]] was a vassal state to the Nirun for 100 years.<ref>Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref> Shelun assumed the title of ''Khagan'' in 402 landmarking the establishment of the state of the Rouran Khaganate. The Toba waged long wars against the Rouran Khaganate. The [[Gokturks|Altai Turkics]] that were subjects of the Rouran revolted in 552 establishing the [[Turkic Khaganate]]. The Rouran Khaganate was finally defeated by the |
A branch of the Xianbei, the [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]] (also known as Nirun) were consolidated under Mugulyu. The Nirun ruled Mongolia, eastern Kazakhstan, part of [[Gansu]], northern Xinjiang, [[Inner Mongolia]], parts of [[Northeastern China]] and southern [[Siberia]]. [[Hephthalite Empire]] was a vassal state to the Nirun for 100 years.<ref>Grousset (1970), p. 67.</ref> Shelun assumed the title of ''Khagan'' in 402 landmarking the establishment of the state of the Rouran Khaganate. The Toba waged long wars against the Rouran Khaganate. The [[Gokturks|Altai Turkics]] that were subjects of the Rouran revolted in 552 establishing the [[Turkic Khaganate]]. The Rouran Khaganate was finally defeated by the [[Turkic peoples|Turkics]] in 555. Part of the Rouran left the present territory of Mongolia. A number of historians maintain that they established the [[Eurasian Avars|Avarian]] Kaganate between the river Danube and the Carpathian Mountains.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web | title = Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27420/Mongolia#394579.hook | work = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | accessdate = 2007-07-22}}</ref> The Niruns that stayed in Mongolia became the ancestors of the [[Tatar confederation|Tatar]] tribes.<ref name="Ts. Gantulga et al." /> The Tatars and other Mongol tribes lived in the eastern part Mongolia during the Turkic period. Other Mongols that migrated east returned in the 8th century. |
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=== Turkic Period (555–840)=== |
=== Turkic Period (555–840) === |
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====Turkic Khaganate (552–744)==== |
==== Turkic Khaganate (552–744) ==== |
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{{Main|Turkic Khaganate}} |
{{Main|Turkic Khaganate}} |
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[[File:GökturksAD551-572.png|thumb|Gökturk Khaganate, 551–572 AD]] |
[[File:GökturksAD551-572.png|thumb|Gökturk Khaganate, 551–572 AD]] |
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The Altai Turkics (Orkhon Turkics, [[Göktürks]]), whose language belonged to the Oguz subgroup of the Turkic languages, were subjects to the Nirun and served as blacksmiths for them. Therefore, the revolt of the Turkics of 552 is often called the "Blacksmiths' rebellion". The uprising was headed by Buman, who became the founder of the [[Göktürk Khaganate]]. The Chinese dynasties Qi and Zhou surrendered in 570 and began paying tribute to the Göktürks. However, the Turkic Khaganate was partitioned in 590 into an Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates. The [[Sui Dynasty]] of China invaded the Turkic Khaganate in 615, but Shibi kagan repelled the invasion and captured the Sui Emperor. The internal struggle between the Turkic nobles lead to their defeat by the Tang Dynasty of China in 630. The Göktürks continuously struggled against the subjugation by the Tang Dynasty. An uprising of 680 under the leadership of Kutuluk and Tonyukuk led to restoration of the Turkic Khaganate. In the early 8th century, an invading army of 450,000 soldiers headed by Tang Dynasty's Empress Wu Zetian was defeated and chased back by Mojo khagan.<ref name="Ts. Gantulga et al."/> |
The Altai Turkics (Orkhon Turkics, [[Göktürks]]), whose language belonged to the Oguz subgroup of the Turkic languages, were subjects to the Nirun and served as blacksmiths for them. Therefore, the revolt of the Turkics of 552 is often called the "Blacksmiths' rebellion". The uprising was headed by Buman, who became the founder of the [[Göktürk Khaganate]]. The Chinese dynasties Qi and Zhou surrendered in 570 and began paying tribute to the Göktürks. However, the Turkic Khaganate was partitioned in 590 into an Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates. The [[Sui Dynasty]] of China invaded the Turkic Khaganate in 615, but Shibi kagan repelled the invasion and captured the Sui Emperor. The internal struggle between the Turkic nobles lead to their defeat by the Tang Dynasty of China in 630. The Göktürks continuously struggled against the subjugation by the Tang Dynasty. An uprising of 680 under the leadership of Kutuluk and Tonyukuk led to restoration of the Turkic Khaganate. In the early 8th century, an invading army of 450,000 soldiers headed by Tang Dynasty's Empress Wu Zetian was defeated and chased back by Mojo khagan.<ref name="Ts. Gantulga et al." /> |
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==== Uyghur state (744–840)==== |
==== Uyghur state (744–840) ==== |
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{{Main|Uyghur Khaganate}} |
{{Main|Uyghur Khaganate}} |
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[[File:Old World 820.png|thumb|left|The World during the Uyghur Khaganate]] |
[[File:Old World 820.png|thumb|left|The World during the Uyghur Khaganate]] |
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The [[Uyghurs]], who were subjects to the Göktürks, revolted in 745 and founded the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] which replaced the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The Uyghur kagan Bayanchur established [[Ordu-Baliq]] City on the [[Orkhon River|Orkhon]] river in 751. The Tang Empire invited the Uyghurs to subdue a [[peasant]] rebellion in 755. Successful campaigns of the Uyghur Khaganate led to a peace with the Tang Dynasty of China which paid tribute in [[silk]] and [[grain]] for 12 years after 766.<ref>{{cite web |
The [[Uyghurs]], who were subjects to the Göktürks, revolted in 745 and founded the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] which replaced the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The Uyghur kagan Bayanchur established [[Ordu-Baliq]] City on the [[Orkhon River|Orkhon]] river in 751. The Tang Empire invited the Uyghurs to subdue a [[peasant]] rebellion in 755. Successful campaigns of the Uyghur Khaganate led to a peace with the Tang Dynasty of China which paid tribute in [[silk]] and [[grain]] for 12 years after 766.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title = Chronological table of history of Siberia and Mongolia |
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| url = http://www.kyrgyz.ru/?page=106 |
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| publisher = Historical Server of Central Asia |
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| accessdate = 2007-10-09 |
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}}</ref> |
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Though a faction of the Uyghurs were [[Buddhist]]s, the [[Manichaeism]] became the official religion of the Khaganate in the 8th century. Nevertheless, the majority of the Uyghurs remained [[shaman]]ists. The culture and economy of the Uyghur Kaganate were more advanced than those of its predecessors. The Uyghurs used a 12-month calendar and calculated the dates of [[solar eclipse|solar]] and [[lunar eclipse]]s. The Uyghurs developed their own writing system based on the [[Sogdian script]]. The Uyghur Khaganate fell under an invasion of the [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] in 840. |
Though a faction of the Uyghurs were [[Buddhist]]s, the [[Manichaeism]] became the official religion of the Khaganate in the 8th century. Nevertheless, the majority of the Uyghurs remained [[shaman]]ists. The culture and economy of the Uyghur Kaganate were more advanced than those of its predecessors. The Uyghurs used a 12-month calendar and calculated the dates of [[solar eclipse|solar]] and [[lunar eclipse]]s. The Uyghurs developed their own writing system based on the [[Sogdian script]]. The Uyghur Khaganate fell under an invasion of the [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] in 840. |
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The destruction of [[Uyghur Khaganate]] by [[Kyrgyz people|Kirghiz]] resulted in the end of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirhgiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps and they didn't live in today's Mongolia. The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] state was centered on [[Khakassia]] and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. |
The destruction of [[Uyghur Khaganate]] by [[Kyrgyz people|Kirghiz]] resulted in the end of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirhgiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps and they didn't live in today's Mongolia. The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] state was centered on [[Khakassia]] and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. |
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=== Khitan state (906–1125)=== |
=== Khitan state (906–1125) === |
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{{Main|Liao Dynasty}} |
{{Main|Liao Dynasty}} |
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[[File:Khitans.png|thumb|left|Khitan Empire]] |
[[File:Khitans.png|thumb|left|Khitan Empire]] |
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[[File:Bars Hota Mongolia.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Stupa in the Khitan city Bars-Hot in [[Dornod Province|Dornod]], [[Mongolia]]]] |
[[File:Bars Hota Mongolia.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Stupa in the Khitan city Bars-Hot in [[Dornod Province|Dornod]], [[Mongolia]]]] |
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== Medieval period == |
== Medieval period == |
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=== Confederations and |
=== Confederations and khanates in the 12th century === |
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{{Main|Ergenekon|List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans}} |
{{Main|Ergenekon|List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans}} |
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[[File:Mongolian Tribe Camp.jpg|thumb|left|A camp of a Mongolian tribe]] |
[[File:Mongolian Tribe Camp.jpg|thumb|left|A camp of a Mongolian tribe]] |
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[[File:Chingghis statue at Dadal sum.JPG|thumb|Statue of Temujin in [[Dadal, Khentii|Dadal sum]], [[Khentii Province|Khentii]] the region of his birth]] |
[[File:Chingghis statue at Dadal sum.JPG|thumb|Statue of Temujin in [[Dadal, Khentii|Dadal sum]], [[Khentii Province|Khentii]] the region of his birth]] |
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12th century Mongolia |
12th century Mongolia was characterized by rivalry between many [[tribe]]s and [[confederation]]s (khanligs or [[khanate]]). |
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A confederation of tribes under the name |
A confederation of tribes under the name Mongol was known from the 8th century. The confederations of core Mongol tribes were transforming into a statehood in the early 12th century and came to be known as the [[Khamag Mongol]] confederacy. They occupied one of the most fertile areas of the country—the basins of the rivers [[Onon River|Onon]], [[Kerulen|Kherlen]] and [[Tuul]] in the [[Khentii mountains]]. The first known [[Khan (title)|khan]] of Khamag Mongol is [[Khabul Khan]] from [[Borjigin|Khiyad]] tribe. Khabul Khan successfully repelled the invasions of Jin Dynasty. He was succeeded by [[Ambaghai]] Khan from [[Taichuud]] tribe. Ambagai was captured by the Tatars while he came to deliver his daughter as a bride to the Tatar confederacy and was given to the [[Jurchens]] of Jin Dynasty who cruelly executed him, nailing to a "wooden donkey". Ambagai was succeeded by [[Hotula Khan]], son of Khabul Khan. Hotula Khan engaged in 13 battles with the Tatars endeavouring to avenge Ambagai Khan. Khamag Mongol was unable to elect a khan after Hotula died. However, Khabul's grandson [[Yesugei|Yesukhei]] [[baghatur]] was a major [[Tribal chief|chief]] of Khamag Mongol. |
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Yesukhei was poisoned by the Tatars in 1171 when his eldest son [[Temujin]] was 9 years old. Shortly after Yesukhei died, [[Targudai Kiriltug|Targudai]] of Taichuud moved away with the subjects of Yesukhei, leaving young Temujin |
Yesukhei was poisoned by the Tatars in 1171 when his eldest son [[Temujin]] was 9 years old. Shortly after Yesukhei died, [[Targudai Kiriltug|Targudai]] of Taichuud moved away with the subjects of Yesukhei, leaving young Temujin, his mother and his younger siblings without support. Hence, Khamag Mongol remained in political crisis until 1189. |
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In the 12th century the [[Khamag Mongol|Khamag Mongol Khanate]], [[Tatar confederation]], [[Khereid |Khereid Khanate]], [[Merkit|Merkit confederation]], [[Naimans|Naiman Khanate]] were five major [[Mongolic]] tribal confederations and [[khanates]] in the [[Mongolian plateau]]. |
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⚫ | The |
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⚫ | The [[Tatar confederation|Tatar]] confederacy first appeared in recorded history in 732. The Tatars became subjects of the Khitan in the 10th century. After the fall of the Khitan empire, the Tatars experienced pressure from the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] and were urged to fight against the other Mongol tribes. The Tatars lived on the fertile pastures around the lakes [[Hulun Lake|Hulun]] and [[Buir Lake|Buir]] and occupied a trade route to China. |
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⚫ | The |
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⚫ | The [[Khereid]] confederacy was located between the mountain ranges of [[Khangai Mountains|Khangai]] and Khentii and centered on the site of today's city [[Ulaanbaatar]] in the willow groves of the [[Tuul]] river. [[Markus Buyruk Khan|Markus]] was khan of the Khereid in the 12th century. Markus was succeeded by [[Wang Khan|Tooril]] khan. In his feud with his brothers for the Khereid throne, he was repeatedly aided by Yesukhei Bagatur of Khamag Mongol. |
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The '''[[Merkit|Mergid]]''' confederacy was located in the basin of the river [[Selenge River|Selenge]]. The Hori [[Tümed]]s and [[Buryats]] lived around the [[lake Baikal]]. |
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The |
The [[Merkit|Mergid]] confederacy was located in the basin of the river [[Selenge River|Selenge]]. The Hori [[Tümed]]s and [[Buryats]] lived around the [[lake Baikal]]. |
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The [[Naimans|Naiman]] confederacy was situated between the mountain ranges of [[Altai Mountains|Altai]] and Khangai. The [[Ongut]] tribes lived at the north of [[Gobi]]. Other tribes were [[Olkhunut]], [[Bayads|Bayud]], [[Khongirad]], [[Oirats]] and so forth. While most of the Mongolian tribes were [[Shamanism|Shamanists]], [[Nestorian Christianity]] was practiced in a number of confederations such as Khereid and [[Ongut]]. |
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=== Consolidation of the Mongol state === |
=== Consolidation of the Mongol state === |
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[[File:Chinggis Khan hillside portrait.JPG|thumb| [[Geoglyph]] portrait of Chinggis Khaan on Mt. Bogd Khan]] |
[[File:Chinggis Khan hillside portrait.JPG|thumb| [[Geoglyph]] portrait of Chinggis Khaan on Mt. Bogd Khan]] |
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Temujin (1162–1227) defeated and subjugated the "[[Merkits|Three Mergids]]" in 1189 with the support of Tooril Khan of Kereit, the blood brother of his father. Another ally who helped Temujin in this venture was his own blood brother [[Jamuqa|Jamukha]] of [[Jadaran]] clan. The Mergids had attacked the home of Temujin and captured his wife [[Börte]] of [[Hongirad]] tribe revenging for a much earlier event in which Temujin's father Yesukhei deprived a Mergid chief [[Chiledu]] his bride [[Hoelun]] of [[Olkhunut]] tribe, who became the mother of Temujin. The striving of Temujin to free his wife became a reason for the campaign against the Mergids. After the defeat of the Mergid, the reputation of Temujin rose rapidly and the leading members of the Khamag Mongol aristocracy enthroned him with title |
Temujin (1162–1227) defeated and subjugated the "[[Merkits|Three Mergids]]" in 1189 with the support of Tooril Khan of Kereit, the blood brother of his father. Another ally who helped Temujin in this venture was his own blood brother [[Jamuqa|Jamukha]] of [[Jadaran]] clan. The Mergids had attacked the home of Temujin and captured his wife [[Börte]] of [[Hongirad]] tribe revenging for a much earlier event in which Temujin's father Yesukhei deprived a Mergid chief [[Chiledu]] his bride [[Hoelun]] of [[Olkhunut]] tribe, who became the mother of Temujin. The striving of Temujin to free his wife became a reason for the campaign against the Mergids. After the defeat of the Mergid, the reputation of Temujin rose rapidly and the leading members of the Khamag Mongol aristocracy enthroned him with title Chinggis Khan ([[Genghis Khan]]), as the ruler of Khamag Mongol. It is speculated to be an ancient form of the word "''Tenggis''"—ocean, sea. |
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A conflict of the Tatars with the Jin Dynasty became a favorable opportunity for Temujin and Tooril Khan to defeat them in alliance with the [[Jurchens]]. At this point, Tooril Khan was granted the title Wang (王, Chinese for "[[monarch|king]]") by the Jin court and since then became known as [[Wang Khan]]. By the year 1201, the [[Taichuud]] and [[Jurkhin]] tribes were defeated and subjugated. Influential aristocrats of many other tribes and confederations were joining Temujin. |
A conflict of the Tatars with the Jin Dynasty became a favorable opportunity for Temujin and Tooril Khan to defeat them in alliance with the [[Jurchens]]. At this point, Tooril Khan was granted the title Wang (王, Chinese for "[[monarch|king]]") by the Jin court and since then became known as [[Wang Khan]]. By the year 1201, the [[Taichuud]] and [[Jurkhin]] tribes were defeated and subjugated. Influential aristocrats of many other tribes and confederations were joining Temujin. |
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As the Khanlyk of Naiman was conquered, [[Khasar]], brother of Temujin, found a dignitary named [[Tatar-Tonga|Tata Tunga]], who spread the Uigur alphabet among the Mongols. This alphabet became the basis of the Classical [[Mongol script]]. |
As the Khanlyk of Naiman was conquered, [[Khasar]], brother of Temujin, found a dignitary named [[Tatar-Tonga|Tata Tunga]], who spread the Uigur alphabet among the Mongols. This alphabet became the basis of the Classical [[Mongol script]]. |
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By 1206, all the tribes and confederations of Mongolian steppe had come under the leadership of Temujin. The success of Temujin in consolidation of the [[Mongols]] was due to his flexibility, his cherishing of his friends and his elaborated tactics. A congress of the Mongol aristocrats on the river [[Onon River|Onon]] in 1206 enthroned Temujin as '' |
By 1206, all the tribes and confederations of Mongolian steppe had come under the leadership of Temujin. The success of Temujin in consolidation of the [[Mongols]] was due to his flexibility, his cherishing of his friends and his elaborated tactics. A congress of the Mongol aristocrats on the river [[Onon River|Onon]] in 1206 enthroned Temujin as ''Chingis Khaan'' (''Genghis Khan'') as Emperor of all Mongolia. |
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=== Formation of the Mongol Empire === |
=== Formation of the Mongol Empire === |
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Genghis Khaan intended to develop friendly relations with the [[Khwarezm]] Empire, which was on a junction of the [[trade route]]s connecting the East and the West and dominated [[Central Asia]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. Genghis Khaan considered himself a supreme ruler of the East and Khwarezm [[Shah]] a supreme ruler of the West. Khwarezm Shah had an opposite view that there should be only one ruler on earth as there is only one sun in the sky. |
Genghis Khaan intended to develop friendly relations with the [[Khwarezm]] Empire, which was on a junction of the [[trade route]]s connecting the East and the West and dominated [[Central Asia]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. Genghis Khaan considered himself a supreme ruler of the East and Khwarezm [[Shah]] a supreme ruler of the West. Khwarezm Shah had an opposite view that there should be only one ruler on earth as there is only one sun in the sky. |
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The execution of 450 envoys and tradesmen of Chinggis Khaan by Khwarezm Shah 1218 was an announcement of war. The Mongol troops invaded Khwarezm Empire in 1219. Although Khwarezm Shah possessed an army outnumbering the Mongol troops dozen of times, he lacked the courage and initiatives to unite his forces and fight back.{{Citation needed|date=August 2014}} The Mongol troops sacked cities [[Otrar]], [[Bukhara|Buhara]], [[Merv]] and [[Samarkand]]. Shah's warlord [[Temur-Melik]] led a daring resistance when the Mongol troops besieged city of [[Khujand]]. Shah's son [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] courageously battled with the Mongol army in 1221, but was defeated and escaped to the river |
The execution of 450 envoys and tradesmen of Chinggis Khaan by Khwarezm Shah 1218 was an announcement of war. The Mongol troops invaded Khwarezm Empire in 1219. Although Khwarezm Shah possessed an army outnumbering the Mongol troops dozen of times, he lacked the courage and initiatives to unite his forces and fight back.{{Citation needed|date=August 2014}} The Mongol troops sacked cities [[Otrar]], [[Bukhara|Buhara]], [[Merv]] and [[Samarkand]]. Shah's warlord [[Temur-Melik]] led a daring resistance when the Mongol troops besieged city of [[Khujand]]. Shah's son [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] courageously battled with the Mongol army in 1221, but was defeated and escaped to the [[river Ind]]. |
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Pursuing Khwarezm Shah in 1220, the scout groups of warlords Jebe and [[Subedei]] bagathur of [[Uriankhai]] clan conquered northern Iran. They invaded [[Iraq]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1221 and entered the territories of the [[Kipchak people|Kipchak]] Khanate in [[Crimea]] and grasslands of the northern [[Black Sea]]. The Kipchaks allied with the troops of the principalities of [[Kievan Rus'|Rus]] gave battle to the 30,000 cavalrymen of Jebe and Subedei on the river [[Kalka]] in May 1223, but were defeated and were chased up to the river [[Dnieper]]. |
Pursuing Khwarezm Shah in 1220, the scout groups of warlords Jebe and [[Subedei]] bagathur of [[Uriankhai]] clan conquered northern Iran. They invaded [[Iraq]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1221 and entered the territories of the [[Kipchak people|Kipchak]] Khanate in [[Crimea]] and grasslands of the northern [[Black Sea]]. The Kipchaks allied with the troops of the principalities of [[Kievan Rus'|Rus]] gave battle to the 30,000 cavalrymen of Jebe and Subedei on the river [[Kalka]] in May 1223, but were defeated and were chased up to the river [[Dnieper]]. |
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An Ihe [[Kurultai]] Congress of nobility of 1228 enthroned [[Ogedei Khan|Ogedei]], who had been nominated by Genghis Khan. Ogedei Khan made [[Karakorum]] on the river [[Orkhon River|Orkhon]] the capital of the Mongol Empire. Karakorum had been a military garrison of Genghis Khan since 1220. The existence of 12 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[temple]]s, 2 [[Islam|Muslim]] [[mosque]]s and 1 [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Church (building)|church]] in city Karakorum indicates the tolerance of the Mongols to all [[religion]]s. The construction of the city was supervised by [[Temüge|Otchigin]], the youngest brother of Genghis Khaan. Ogedei Khaan established an effective postal [[Yam (route)|yam]] system with well-organized posts (‘’örtege’’). The system connected the various regions of the whole Empire. Ogedei Khaan settled down the rebellions in the countries conquered during his father and led an army himself to put down a revolt in [[Korea]]. |
An Ihe [[Kurultai]] Congress of nobility of 1228 enthroned [[Ogedei Khan|Ogedei]], who had been nominated by Genghis Khan. Ogedei Khan made [[Karakorum]] on the river [[Orkhon River|Orkhon]] the capital of the Mongol Empire. Karakorum had been a military garrison of Genghis Khan since 1220. The existence of 12 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[temple]]s, 2 [[Islam|Muslim]] [[mosque]]s and 1 [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Church (building)|church]] in city Karakorum indicates the tolerance of the Mongols to all [[religion]]s. The construction of the city was supervised by [[Temüge|Otchigin]], the youngest brother of Genghis Khaan. Ogedei Khaan established an effective postal [[Yam (route)|yam]] system with well-organized posts (‘’örtege’’). The system connected the various regions of the whole Empire. Ogedei Khaan settled down the rebellions in the countries conquered during his father and led an army himself to put down a revolt in [[Korea]]. |
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Ogedei Khaan completed the conquest of the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] in |
Ogedei Khaan completed the conquest of the [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] in 1231–1234. He sent princes headed by [[Batu Khan|Batu]], son of [[Jochi|Zuchi]], to the west, and they conquered the [[Bulgars|Bulgar]] kingdom on the [[Volga]] river and 14 principalities of Rus in 1236–1240, invaded the principalities of Poland, the kingdom of Kingdom of Hungary, [[Moravia]] (then part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]), and the area of [[Moldavia]] in 1241–1242 and approached the [[Adriatic]] sea. |
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After his 16-year reign, Ogedei Khaan died in 1241 under suspicious circumstances. A rivalry for the throne began between the faction of the houses of Zuchi and [[Tului]] on one side and the faction of the houses of [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]] and Ogedei on the other side. Ihe Kuriltai of 1246 elected [[Güyük Khan|Guyug]], son of Ogedei, as Great Khaan. Guyug Khaan died in 1248. |
After his 16-year reign, Ogedei Khaan died in 1241 under suspicious circumstances. A rivalry for the throne began between the faction of the houses of Zuchi and [[Tului]] on one side and the faction of the houses of [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]] and Ogedei on the other side. Ihe Kuriltai of 1246 elected [[Güyük Khan|Guyug]], son of Ogedei, as Great Khaan. Guyug Khaan died in 1248. |
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The traveller from Italy [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]] arrived in 1246 and later he wrote the book ''Historia Mongolorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus''. The faction of Zuchi-Tului houses won the Ihe Kuriltai of 1251 electing [[Möngke Khan|Mönghe]], son of Tului, as Great Khaan. Mönghe Khaan sent his cousin [[Hulagu]] to conquer Iran. Hulagu completed the conquest of Iran in 1256 and conquered [[Baghdad]], [[Caucasus]] and [[Syria]] in |
The traveller from Italy [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]] arrived in 1246 and later he wrote the book ''Historia Mongolorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus''. The faction of Zuchi-Tului houses won the Ihe Kuriltai of 1251 electing [[Möngke Khan|Mönghe]], son of Tului, as Great Khaan. Mönghe Khaan sent his cousin [[Hulagu]] to conquer Iran. Hulagu completed the conquest of Iran in 1256 and conquered [[Baghdad]], [[Caucasus]] and [[Syria]] in 1257–1259. [[Willem van Ruysbroeck]] of [[Flanders]] arrived in 1254 and later wrote his account ''Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratia 1253 ad partes Orientales''. |
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Mönghe Khaan died in 1259, without leaving behind a son. Ihe Kuriltai of 1260 elected [[Ariq Böke]], a younger brother of Mönghe Khaan, as Great Khaan. The same year, Ariq Böke's elder brother [[Kublai]], who was warring in China to conquer the Song Dynasty, elevated himself into Khaan of Mongolia in city [[Shangdu]] (or known as Kaiping). The [[Toluid Civil War]] was fought between the two brothers from 1261 to 1264 until Ariq Böke surrendered. |
Mönghe Khaan died in 1259, without leaving behind a son. Ihe Kuriltai of 1260 elected [[Ariq Böke]], a younger brother of Mönghe Khaan, as Great Khaan. The same year, Ariq Böke's elder brother [[Kublai]], who was warring in China to conquer the Song Dynasty, elevated himself into Khaan of Mongolia in city [[Shangdu]] (or known as Kaiping). The [[Toluid Civil War]] was fought between the two brothers from 1261 to 1264 until Ariq Böke surrendered. |
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==== Yuan Dynasty ==== |
==== Yuan Dynasty ==== |
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{{Main|Yuan Dynasty}} |
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The transition of the capital of the Mongol Empire to [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] (modern-day [[Beijing]]) by Kublai Khaan in 1264 was opposed by many Mongols. Thus, Ariq Böke's struggle was for keeping the center of the Empire in Mongolia proper. After Ariq Böke's death, the struggle was continued by [[Kaidu]], a grandson of Ogedei Khaan and lord [[Nayan]] until 1294. |
The transition of the capital of the Mongol Empire to [[Khanbaliq|Dadu]] (modern-day [[Beijing]]) by Kublai Khaan in 1264 was opposed by many Mongols. Thus, Ariq Böke's struggle was for keeping the center of the Empire in Mongolia proper. After Ariq Böke's death, the struggle was continued by [[Kaidu]], a grandson of Ogedei Khaan and lord [[Nayan]] until 1294. |
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Kublai invited [[lama]] [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]] of [[Sakya]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to spread Buddhism among the Mongols (the second introduction of Buddhism). Buddhism became the official religion of the Mongol state. In 1269, Kublai Khaan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual Mongol Empire. The [[Phagspa script]] also known as Дөрвөлжин бичиг (Quadratic script) based on the [[Tibetan script]] and written vertically from top was designed to write in [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Uighur language|Uighur]] and [[Sanskrit language]]s and served as the official script of the [[empire]]. |
Kublai invited [[lama]] [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]] of [[Sakya]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to spread Buddhism among the Mongols (the second introduction of Buddhism). Buddhism became the official religion of the Mongol state. In 1269, Kublai Khaan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual Mongol Empire. The [[Phagspa script]] also known as Дөрвөлжин бичиг (Quadratic script) based on the [[Tibetan script]] and written vertically from top was designed to write in [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Uighur language|Uighur]] and [[Sanskrit language]]s and served as the official script of the [[empire]]. |
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[[File:MongolEmpireDivisions1300.png|thumb|200px| The Mongol Empire circa 1300 AD, showing its subdivisions of the Golden Horde (yellow), the Chagatai Khanate (gray), Great Yuan (green) and the Ilkhanate (purple).]] |
[[File:MongolEmpireDivisions1300.png|thumb|200px| The Mongol Empire circa 1300 AD, showing its subdivisions of the Golden Horde (yellow), the Chagatai Khanate (gray), Great Yuan (green) and the Ilkhanate (purple).]] |
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Kublai Khaan announced the establishment of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] in 1271. The Yuan Dynasty included [[Mongolia]] proper, the territories of the former [[Jin Dynasty ( |
Kublai Khaan announced the establishment of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] in 1271. The Yuan Dynasty included [[Mongolia]] proper, the territories of the former [[Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasties and some adjacent territories such as a major part of Southern [[Siberia]]. The Yuan government also set up a top-level institution called [[Xuanzheng Yuan]] to govern [[Tibet]]. Korea was its [[tributary]] kingdom. Kublai established a government with institutions resembling the ones in earlier Chinese dynasties, yet at the same time introduced a hierarchy of reliability by dividing the subjects of the Yuan Dynasty into 4 ranks. The highest rank included the Mongols, the second rank included the peoples to the west of Mongolia, the third rank included the subjects of the former Jin Dynasty such as Northern Chinese, the Kidans and Jurchens, and the lowest rank comprised the subjects of the former Song Dynasty such as the Han ethnic group in South China. |
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By eliminating the [[Song Dynasty]], Kublai Khaan completed the conquest of China. The fleets of the Yuan Dynasty attempted to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281, but their ships were destroyed in sea storms on both occasions. During the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolia proper was administered by the [[jinong]], prince royal nominated as successor to the throne, who resided in Karakorum. |
By eliminating the [[Song Dynasty]], Kublai Khaan completed the conquest of China. The fleets of the Yuan Dynasty attempted to invade Japan in 1274 and 1281, but their ships were destroyed in sea storms on both occasions. During the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolia proper was administered by the [[jinong]], prince royal nominated as successor to the throne, who resided in Karakorum. |
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==== Golden Horde ==== |
==== Golden Horde ==== |
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{{Main|Golden Horde}} |
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The [[Golden Horde]] (Altan Ord) was founded by [[Batu Khan|Batu]], son of Jochi, in 1243. The Golden Horde included the Volga region, mountains of [[Ural Mountains|Ural]], the steppes of the northern Black Sea, [[Fore-Caucasus]], Western [[Siberia]], [[Aral Sea]] and [[Irtysh]] bassin, and held principalities of Rus in tributary relations. |
The [[Golden Horde]] (Altan Ord) was founded by [[Batu Khan|Batu]], son of Jochi, in 1243. The Golden Horde included the Volga region, mountains of [[Ural Mountains|Ural]], the steppes of the northern Black Sea, [[Fore-Caucasus]], Western [[Siberia]], [[Aral Sea]] and [[Irtysh]] bassin, and held principalities of Rus in tributary relations. |
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The capital was initially [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Batu]] and later [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Berke]]. This extensive empire weakened under rivalry of the descendants of Batu and split into [[Khanate of Kazan]], [[Astrakhan Khanate]], [[Crimean Khanate]], [[Siberia Khanate]], [[Great Horde]], [[Nogai Horde]] and [[White Horde]]. A unified Rus conquered Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, Siberia Khanate in 1582, and the [[Russian Empire]] conquered Crimean Khanate in 1783. |
The capital was initially [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Batu]] and later [[Sarai (city)|Sarai Berke]]. This extensive empire weakened under rivalry of the descendants of Batu and split into [[Khanate of Kazan]], [[Astrakhan Khanate]], [[Crimean Khanate]], [[Siberia Khanate]], [[Great Horde]], [[Nogai Horde]] and [[White Horde]]. A unified Rus conquered Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Astrakhan Khanate in 1556, Siberia Khanate in 1582, and the [[Russian Empire]] conquered Crimean Khanate in 1783. |
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==== Chagatai Khanate ==== |
==== Chagatai Khanate ==== |
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{{Main|Chagatai Khanate}} |
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The [[Chagatai Khanate]] or Chagatai Ulus separated in 1266 and covered Central Asia, [[Lake Balkhash]], [[Kashgaria]], Afghanistan and [[Zhetysu]]. It was split between settled [[Transoxania]] (Ma Wara'un-Nahr) in the west and nomadic [[Moghulistan]] in the east. It is claimed that parts of them still spoke Mongolian until the late 16th century. |
The [[Chagatai Khanate]] or Chagatai Ulus separated in 1266 and covered Central Asia, [[Lake Balkhash]], [[Kashgaria]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Zhetysu]]. It was split between settled [[Transoxania]] (Ma Wara'un-Nahr) in the west and nomadic [[Moghulistan]] in the east. It is claimed that parts of them still spoke Mongolian until the late 16th century. |
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[[File:Samarkand observatoire ulugh beg.jpg|thumb|||[[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] in [[Samarkand]]]] |
[[File:Samarkand observatoire ulugh beg.jpg|thumb|||[[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] in [[Samarkand]]]] |
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Moghulistan gained strength during [[Timur]] (1395–1405), a |
Moghulistan gained strength during [[Timur]] (1395–1405), a warlord from [[Barlas]] clan. Timur defeated [[Tokhtamysh]] Khan of Golden Horde in 1395 and deprived him of Fore-Caucasus. He destroyed the army of the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[sultan]] near [[Ankara|Angora]], the event which delayed a Turkish conquest of the [[Byzantine Empire]] for half a century. Timur's empire fragmented shortly after he died. |
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Timur's grandson [[Ulugh Beg]] (1409–1449) ruled [[Transoxania]] and during his rule trade and economy of Transoxania achieved significant development. Ulugh Beg built an [[astronomy|astronomical]] [[observatory]] near [[Samarkand]] in 1429 and wrote his work [[Zij-i-Sultani]], which comprises the theories of astronomy and a catalogue of over 1000 stars with their precise positions on the [[celestial sphere]]. |
Timur's grandson [[Ulugh Beg]] (1409–1449) ruled [[Transoxania]] and during his rule trade and economy of Transoxania achieved significant development. Ulugh Beg built an [[astronomy|astronomical]] [[observatory]] near [[Samarkand]] in 1429 and wrote his work [[Zij-i-Sultani]], which comprises the theories of astronomy and a catalogue of over 1000 stars with their precise positions on the [[celestial sphere]]. |
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==== Ilkhanate ==== |
==== Ilkhanate ==== |
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{{Main|Ilkhanate}} |
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[[File:Soltaniyeh interiors.jpg|thumb|Interiors of Soltaniyeh Dome, Mausoleum of Ilkhan [[Öljeitü]] in Iran]] |
[[File:Soltaniyeh interiors.jpg|thumb|Interiors of Soltaniyeh Dome, Mausoleum of Ilkhan [[Öljeitü]] in Iran]] |
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[[File:Soltaaniyeh-Dome-01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mausoleum of Öljeitü]]]] |
[[File:Soltaaniyeh-Dome-01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mausoleum of Öljeitü]]]] |
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=== Mongolian Khaganate and Four Oirat === |
=== Mongolian Khaganate and Four Oirat === |
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{{Main|Mongolian Khaganate|Four Oirat}} |
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By 1368 the Mongols who established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] a century ago had been expelled from [[China]] to Mongolia. The [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonans]], [[Yugur]] and [[Monguor people]] came under rule of Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]]. The Mongol regime after this time until the 17th century is often referred to as the Northern Yuan Dynasty, or the Forty and the Four (Дөчин дөрвөн хоёр), meaning the forty [[Tumen (unit)|Tumens]] of the Mongols and the four [[Tumen (unit)|Tumens]] of the [[Oirad|Oirats]]. |
By 1368 the Mongols who established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] a century ago had been expelled from [[China]] to Mongolia. The [[Dongxiangs]], [[Bonans]], [[Yugur]] and [[Monguor people]] came under rule of Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]]. The Mongol regime after this time until the 17th century is often referred to as the Northern Yuan Dynasty, or the Forty and the Four (Дөчин дөрвөн хоёр), meaning the forty [[Tumen (unit)|Tumens]] of the Mongols and the four [[Tumen (unit)|Tumens]] of the [[Oirad|Oirats]]. |
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Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 14th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength. |
Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 14th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength. |
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In 1434, Eastern Mongolian [[Taisun Khan|Taisun Khagan]]'s ( |
In 1434, Eastern Mongolian [[Taisun Khan|Taisun Khagan]]'s (1433–1452) prime minister Western Mongolian Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongolian another king Adai ([[Khorchin]]). Togoon died in 1439 and his son [[Esen Taish]] became prime minister. |
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Togoon Taishi of Oirat eventually increased his power in the Mongol court and these achievements were tightened under his successor [[Esen Tayisi|Esen Taishi]]. Mongolia was effectively unified under the power of the Oirat Taishi. Esen Taishi led active diplomatic exchanges with Ming China to achieve favorable trading conditions. When diplomacy failed to reach the goal, he led a military campaign in 1449, in which a 500,000 Ming army was defeated by a 20,000 Oirat army, the Ming Emperor was captured and Beijing was besieged. Shortly after this event Esen Taishi defeated the nominal Khaan [[Tayisung Khan, Emperor Taizong of Northern Yuan|Togtobuh]] in their conflict and became a self-declared Khaan. During his retreat, Togtobuh was caught and assassinated by his ex-father-in-law for an earlier humiliation of his daughter as she was divorced and returned to her parents. The reign of Esen Taishi was short, less than a year—his rivals rebelled and overthrew him in 1454. |
Togoon Taishi of Oirat eventually increased his power in the Mongol court and these achievements were tightened under his successor [[Esen Tayisi|Esen Taishi]]. Mongolia was effectively unified under the power of the Oirat Taishi. Esen Taishi led active diplomatic exchanges with Ming China to achieve favorable trading conditions. When diplomacy failed to reach the goal, he led a military campaign in 1449, in which a 500,000 Ming army was defeated by a 20,000 Oirat army, the Ming Emperor was captured and Beijing was besieged. Shortly after this event Esen Taishi defeated the nominal Khaan [[Tayisung Khan, Emperor Taizong of Northern Yuan|Togtobuh]] in their conflict and became a self-declared Khaan. During his retreat, Togtobuh was caught and assassinated by his ex-father-in-law for an earlier humiliation of his daughter as she was divorced and returned to her parents. The reign of Esen Taishi was short, less than a year—his rivals rebelled and overthrew him in 1454. |
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[[File:Mongolia XVI.png|thumb|Mongol states, XIV-XVII : 1. [[Mongolian Khaganate]] 2. [[Four Oirat]] 3. [[Moghulistan]] 4. [[Kara Del]]]] |
[[File:Mongolia XVI.png|thumb|Mongol states, XIV-XVII : 1. [[Mongolian Khaganate]] 2. [[Four Oirat]] 3. [[Moghulistan]] 4. [[Kara Del]]]] |
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[[File:Mongolia XVII.png|thumb|Mongol states, XIV-XVIII : 1. [[Mongolian Khaganate]] 2. [[Zunghar Khanate]] 3. [[Khoshut Khanate]]. 4. [[Khotogoid Khanate]] 5. [[Kalmyk Khanate]] 6.[[Moghulistan]]]] |
[[File:Mongolia XVII.png|thumb|Mongol states, XIV-XVIII : 1. [[Mongolian Khaganate]] 2. [[Zunghar Khanate]] 3. [[Khoshut Khanate]]. 4. [[Khotogoid Khanate]] 5. [[Kalmyk Khanate]] 6.[[Moghulistan]]]] |
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The Mongols voluntarly reunified during Eastern Mongolian [[Tümen Zasagt Khan|Tümen Zasagt Khagan]] rule ( |
The Mongols voluntarly reunified during Eastern Mongolian [[Tümen Zasagt Khan|Tümen Zasagt Khagan]] rule (1558–1592) for last time and the Xiongnu and Mongol Empires united all Mongols before the Mongol Khaganate. During the reign of [[Darayisung Gödeng Khan|Darayisung Gödeng Khaan]] and his successor [[Tümen Jasagtu Khan|Tümen Jasagtu Khaan]], the right wings rose in the 16th century under a local lord [[Altan Khan|Altan]] (son of Bars Bolad Jinong) who assumed the title of Khan. In order to maintain the unity of the country by peaceful means, Tümen Jasagtu Khaan initiated a Representative government with equal participation of the representatives of the left and right wings. The right wings rivalled with the Oirats for possession of [[Upper Mongolia]] ([[Qinghai]]) and Altan Khan, who appointed his son as a ruler of Upper Mongolia (Kukunor), defeated the Oirats in 1552. Altan Khan attacked Ming China, but he stopped the raids in 1571, and signed a peace treaty with the Ming court. To achieve favorable conditions in the peace treaty with the Ming Dynasty, Altan Khan occasionally threatened that he may ally with Tümen Khaan to attack China. Altan Khan established the city of [[Hohhot]] in 1557. Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji of Ordos defeated the [[Torghut]]s at the river [[Irtysh]] around the 1560s. |
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Abtai, the ruler of Khalkha, conquered the Oirats in the 1570s, but the latter rebelled in 1588. The Oirats, in turn, were busy in struggle with [[Moghulistan]] for trade routes. |
Abtai, the ruler of Khalkha, conquered the Oirats in the 1570s, but the latter rebelled in 1588. The Oirats, in turn, were busy in struggle with [[Moghulistan]] for trade routes. |
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The striving of the Mongols to improve their life led naturally to an increase in the number of their livestock. In the [[Extensive farming|extensive livestock husbandry]], on which the medieval Mongolian economy was based, an excess number of livestock required either expansion of the [[pasture]]s, which may imply conquest of new territories, or exchange of the excess animals and livestock products for products of settled civilizations unavailable in the unsophisticated Mongolian economy. For example, they would be able to wear clothes made of hides and wool in cold seasons, but would certainly need clothes from silk or light fabric in summer. However, the ban on trade with the Mongols by the Ming administration was a reason for armed conflicts. Moreover, there were frequent attempts to offer low prices for the livestock products or to supply low quality reject goods to the Mongols. Thus in protest, there were cases that Mongol traders burned their reject Chinese purchases in front of the Ming officials during the rule of [[Esen Tayisi|Esen]]. Also the Ming administration often issued extremely low [[import quota]]s for trade. They banned selling metal products to the Mongols in suspicion that metal would be remoulded into weapons; however, metal products such as [[kettle]]s were vitally important in the every day life of the herders. |
The striving of the Mongols to improve their life led naturally to an increase in the number of their livestock. In the [[Extensive farming|extensive livestock husbandry]], on which the medieval Mongolian economy was based, an excess number of livestock required either expansion of the [[pasture]]s, which may imply conquest of new territories, or exchange of the excess animals and livestock products for products of settled civilizations unavailable in the unsophisticated Mongolian economy. For example, they would be able to wear clothes made of hides and wool in cold seasons, but would certainly need clothes from silk or light fabric in summer. However, the ban on trade with the Mongols by the Ming administration was a reason for armed conflicts. Moreover, there were frequent attempts to offer low prices for the livestock products or to supply low quality reject goods to the Mongols. Thus in protest, there were cases that Mongol traders burned their reject Chinese purchases in front of the Ming officials during the rule of [[Esen Tayisi|Esen]]. Also the Ming administration often issued extremely low [[import quota]]s for trade. They banned selling metal products to the Mongols in suspicion that metal would be remoulded into weapons; however, metal products such as [[kettle]]s were vitally important in the every day life of the herders. |
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Cities in Mongolia were completely destroyed during Chinese raids in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongolia in the 14-16th centuries, however, the Ming Empire was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongolian armies.<ref name="Dayan"/> Thus there was no division of labor between urban and rural economies that was characteristic in other cultures. Some attempts of diversification of the economy were undertaken in the 16th and 17th centuries in peripheral Mongol domains but not in Northern Khalkha. Thus Altan Khan made Chinese grow [[grain]] around the city of [[Hohhot]]. [[Erdeni Batur]] Hongtaiji attempted to develop [[cereal]] and [[horticulture]] production in Dzungaria using imported [[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Taranchi]]s.<ref>Millward, James A. ''Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press. pp. 92-93.</ref> However, these initiatives mainly or exclusively served the ruling classes and the mass of the Mongol commoners received little or no benefit from them. |
Cities in Mongolia were completely destroyed during Chinese raids in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongolia in the 14-16th centuries, however, the Ming Empire was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongolian armies.<ref name="Dayan" /> Thus there was no division of labor between urban and rural economies that was characteristic in other cultures. Some attempts of diversification of the economy were undertaken in the 16th and 17th centuries in peripheral Mongol domains but not in Northern Khalkha. Thus Altan Khan made Chinese grow [[grain]] around the city of [[Hohhot]]. [[Erdeni Batur]] Hongtaiji attempted to develop [[cereal]] and [[horticulture]] production in Dzungaria using imported [[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Taranchi]]s.<ref>Millward, James A. ''Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press. pp. 92-93.</ref> However, these initiatives mainly or exclusively served the ruling classes and the mass of the Mongol commoners received little or no benefit from them. |
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By the end of the 16th century, several Khanlig dynasties developed in Khalkha. As Dayan Khaan divided Mongolia to his 11 sons, Northern Khalkha (approximately the territory of modern Mongolia) was given to his youngest son Gersenz Hongtaiji and Southern Khalkha was given to Alchibolad. Northern Khalkha was further divided to Gersenz's 7 sons. The most powerful of Gersenz's grandchildren Abtai received the title of Khan from the [[Dalai Lama]], and his son Eriyehii Mergen Khan founded the dynasty of the Tushiyetu Khans, who ruled the central heartland of Northern Khalkha. Greatgrandson of Gersenz Sholoi solicited the title of Khan from Dalai Lama during his visit to Tibet and initiated the dynasty of Secen Khans in the east of Khalkha. Another great-grandson of Gersenz Laihur assumed the title of Khan and his son Sumbadai founded the dynasty of the Zasagtu Khans ruling the west of Northern Khalkha. Laihur's cousin [[Ubasi Khong Tayiji|Ubashi Hongtaiji]] separated from the Zasagtu Khan and initiated the dynasty of [[Altan Khan of the Khalkha|Altan Khans]] of [[Khotgoid]]. The title Altan Khan was given to him by the Russian authorities. |
By the end of the 16th century, several Khanlig dynasties developed in Khalkha. As Dayan Khaan divided Mongolia to his 11 sons, Northern Khalkha (approximately the territory of modern Mongolia) was given to his youngest son Gersenz Hongtaiji and Southern Khalkha was given to Alchibolad. Northern Khalkha was further divided to Gersenz's 7 sons. The most powerful of Gersenz's grandchildren Abtai received the title of Khan from the [[Dalai Lama]], and his son Eriyehii Mergen Khan founded the dynasty of the Tushiyetu Khans, who ruled the central heartland of Northern Khalkha. Greatgrandson of Gersenz Sholoi solicited the title of Khan from Dalai Lama during his visit to Tibet and initiated the dynasty of Secen Khans in the east of Khalkha. Another great-grandson of Gersenz Laihur assumed the title of Khan and his son Sumbadai founded the dynasty of the Zasagtu Khans ruling the west of Northern Khalkha. Laihur's cousin [[Ubasi Khong Tayiji|Ubashi Hongtaiji]] separated from the Zasagtu Khan and initiated the dynasty of [[Altan Khan of the Khalkha|Altan Khans]] of [[Khotgoid]]. The title Altan Khan was given to him by the Russian authorities. |
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Following the advice of his nephew Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji, Altan Khan of Tumet invited the head of Gelug school [[Sonam Gyatso]] to his domain. Upon their meeting in 1577, Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso lama a reincarnation of [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa|Phagpa]] lama. Sonam Gyatso, in turn, recognized Altan a reincarnation of Kublai Khaan.<ref>Lobzangdanzan, Altan Tobchi</ref> Thus, Altan had the title "khan" he had assumed recognized by Sonam Gyatso while the latter received support of his supremacy over the Tibetan sangha. Since this meeting, the heads of the Gelugpa school became known as [[Dalai Lama]]. Altan Khan also bestowed title Ochirdara (Очирдар, from Sanskr. Vajradhara) to Sonam Gyatso. |
Following the advice of his nephew Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji, Altan Khan of Tumet invited the head of Gelug school [[Sonam Gyatso]] to his domain. Upon their meeting in 1577, Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso lama a reincarnation of [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa|Phagpa]] lama. Sonam Gyatso, in turn, recognized Altan a reincarnation of Kublai Khaan.<ref>Lobzangdanzan, Altan Tobchi</ref> Thus, Altan had the title "khan" he had assumed recognized by Sonam Gyatso while the latter received support of his supremacy over the Tibetan sangha. Since this meeting, the heads of the Gelugpa school became known as [[Dalai Lama]]. Altan Khan also bestowed title Ochirdara (Очирдар, from Sanskr. Vajradhara) to Sonam Gyatso. |
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At the same time ruler of [[Khalkha]] [[Abtai Khan|Abtai]] rushed to Tumet to meet the Dalai Lama. He requested title Khan from Dalai Lama. Although he had already recognized Altan as a Khan besides the Mongolian Khaan Tumen Jasaghtu, Dalai Lama in this case rejected the request under an excuse that "there cannot be two Khans at the same time". After some hesitation however, he did bestow Abtai the title Khan. |
At the same time ruler of [[Khalkha]] [[Abtai Khan|Abtai]] rushed to Tumet to meet the Dalai Lama. He requested title Khan from Dalai Lama. Although he had already recognized Altan as a Khan besides the Mongolian Khaan Tumen Jasaghtu, Dalai Lama in this case rejected the request under an excuse that "there cannot be two Khans at the same time". After some hesitation however, he did bestow Abtai the title Khan. Abtai Khan established [[Erdene Zuu monastery]] in 1585 at the site of the former city Karakorum.<ref>Matsukawa Takashi</ref> Thus, eventually most of the Mongolian rulers became [[Buddhist]]s. |
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==== Cultural renaissance ==== |
==== Cultural renaissance ==== |
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[[Zanabazar]] (1635–1723), head of Buddhism in [[Khalkha]], was a great master of the Buddhist art. Along with the sculptures of the Twenty One Taras, he created the famous sculptures of [[White Tara|Sita Tara]] and [[Green Tara|Siyama Tara]], inspired by lively images of beautiful Mongolian women. The lotus flower over the left shoulder of Sita Tara is about to blossom and Sita Tara herself is in her mid-teens. The lotus flowers over the shoulders of Siyama Tara have already blossomed and Siyama Tara herself is a woman in the bloom of her beauty. She is aware and proud of her perfect beauty. She has awakened from her meditation, put down her right leg in the moment of standing up to descend from her lotus seat to breastfeed her child; and her children are the sentient beings. Many temples and monasteries were built under Zanabazar's projects. He designed the [[Soyombo script]] for the Mongolian, Tibetan and Sanskrit languages in 1686. |
[[Zanabazar]] (1635–1723), head of Buddhism in [[Khalkha]], was a great master of the Buddhist art. Along with the sculptures of the Twenty One Taras, he created the famous sculptures of [[White Tara|Sita Tara]] and [[Green Tara|Siyama Tara]], inspired by lively images of beautiful Mongolian women. The lotus flower over the left shoulder of Sita Tara is about to blossom and Sita Tara herself is in her mid-teens. The lotus flowers over the shoulders of Siyama Tara have already blossomed and Siyama Tara herself is a woman in the bloom of her beauty. She is aware and proud of her perfect beauty. She has awakened from her meditation, put down her right leg in the moment of standing up to descend from her lotus seat to breastfeed her child; and her children are the sentient beings. Many temples and monasteries were built under Zanabazar's projects. He designed the [[Soyombo script]] for the Mongolian, Tibetan and Sanskrit languages in 1686. |
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[[Mathematician]] and [[astronomer]] Minggatu of Sharaid discovered 9 [[trigonometric]] equations and wrote 42 volumes of "The Roots of Regularites" (Зvй тогтлын бvрэн эх сурвалж), 5 volumes in linguistics (дуун ухаан), and 53 volumes of work on mathematics.<ref>[http://www.mclibrary.edu.mn/yaruusetgegch/articles/eortbah_2.htm Library & Information Technology Association |
[[Mathematician]] and [[astronomer]] Minggatu of Sharaid discovered 9 [[trigonometric]] equations and wrote 42 volumes of "The Roots of Regularites" (Зvй тогтлын бvрэн эх сурвалж), 5 volumes in linguistics (дуун ухаан), and 53 volumes of work on mathematics.<ref>[http://www.mclibrary.edu.mn/yaruusetgegch/articles/eortbah_2.htm Library & Information Technology Association – Yaruu setgegch sonin<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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In the area historiography and literature, Shira Tuuji was written in the 16th century, [[Altan Tobchi]] of Lubsandanzan was written in the first half of the 17th century and [[Erdeniin Tobchi]] of Sagan Secen Hongtaiji, a descendant of Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji, was written in 1662. In the 1620s, [[Choghtu Khong Tayiji|Tsogtu Hongtaiji]] of Khalkha wrote his famous philosophic poems and Legdan Hutuhtu Khaan had the 108 volumes of [[Kangyur]] and 225 volumes of [[Tengyur]] translated into the [[Mongolian language]]. A translation theory work "The Source of Wisdom" (Мэргэд гарахын орон) was written under leadership of Rolbiidorji, Janjaa Hutuhtu II. |
In the area historiography and literature, Shira Tuuji was written in the 16th century, [[Altan Tobchi]] of Lubsandanzan was written in the first half of the 17th century and [[Erdeniin Tobchi]] of Sagan Secen Hongtaiji, a descendant of Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji, was written in 1662. In the 1620s, [[Choghtu Khong Tayiji|Tsogtu Hongtaiji]] of Khalkha wrote his famous philosophic poems and Legdan Hutuhtu Khaan had the 108 volumes of [[Kangyur]] and 225 volumes of [[Tengyur]] translated into the [[Mongolian language]]. A translation theory work "The Source of Wisdom" (Мэргэд гарахын орон) was written under leadership of Rolbiidorji, Janjaa Hutuhtu II. |
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By the 1620s, only the [[Chahars]] remained under Ligden's rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Southern Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligden's faulty tactics. |
By the 1620s, only the [[Chahars]] remained under Ligden's rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Southern Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligden's faulty tactics. |
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Ligden Khaan occupied Tumet and Ordos in 1623 to forestall their absorption by the Manchu and advanced into the [[Manchuria]]n lands in 1631. Nevertheless, [[Manchu]] ruler [[Hong Taiji]], successor of [[Nurhaci]], allied with the Inner Mongolian ''taiji''s defeated him again in 1634 and sacked Hohhot. The Manchus secured control over Southern Mongolia in 1632 and Ligden's army moved to fight Tibetan [[Gelugpa]] sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while |
Ligden Khaan occupied Tumet and Ordos in 1623 to forestall their absorption by the Manchu and advanced into the [[Manchuria]]n lands in 1631. Nevertheless, [[Manchu]] ruler [[Hong Taiji]], successor of [[Nurhaci]], allied with the Inner Mongolian ''taiji''s defeated him again in 1634 and sacked Hohhot. The Manchus secured control over Southern Mongolia in 1632 and Ligden's army moved to fight Tibetan [[Gelugpa]] sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligden supported the [[Kagyu]] sect (Red Hat sect) of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. Ligden Khagan died in 1634 on his way to [[Tibet]] when his troops were swept by an epidemic. |
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Abahai assumed the title of Khan of Mongolia in 1636, marking the conquest of Southern Mongolia. The Manchus, supported by the troops of the Inner Mongolian ''taiji''s, conquered Ming China in 1644 and founded the [[Qing dynasty]]. |
Abahai assumed the title of Khan of Mongolia in 1636, marking the conquest of Southern Mongolia. The Manchus, supported by the troops of the Inner Mongolian ''taiji''s, conquered Ming China in 1644 and founded the [[Qing dynasty]]. |
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The head of the Khalkha Buddhism Boghda Zanabazar, the Khalkha khans and nobles with thousands of their subjects moved in panic to [[Southern Mongolia]], which had been integrated into the Qing dynasty. A few Khalkhas fled to Northern Mongolia where Russia threatened to exterminate them if they failed to submit, but many submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. The Khalkha leaders sought Manchu aid in their feud with Galdan Boshugtu Khaan while the Qing [[Kangxi]] emperor cunningly demanded that they become his vassals as a condition for his support. Galdan demanded that Kangxi cede him Önder Gegeen Zanagazar and Tushiyetu Khan Chahundorji. The Qing emperor refused and decisive battle took place near UlaanBudan where Galdan was defeated and fled back deeper into Khalkha territory. |
The head of the Khalkha Buddhism Boghda Zanabazar, the Khalkha khans and nobles with thousands of their subjects moved in panic to [[Southern Mongolia]], which had been integrated into the Qing dynasty. A few Khalkhas fled to Northern Mongolia where Russia threatened to exterminate them if they failed to submit, but many submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. The Khalkha leaders sought Manchu aid in their feud with Galdan Boshugtu Khaan while the Qing [[Kangxi]] emperor cunningly demanded that they become his vassals as a condition for his support. Galdan demanded that Kangxi cede him Önder Gegeen Zanagazar and Tushiyetu Khan Chahundorji. The Qing emperor refused and decisive battle took place near UlaanBudan where Galdan was defeated and fled back deeper into Khalkha territory. |
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The Dzungar throne was then seized by Galdan's brother, [[Tsewang Rabtan]] in 1689 while the latter was engaged in the war in Khalkha and this event made it impossible for Galdan to fight the Manchu Empire. Galdan sent his army to liberate Southern Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha army |
The Dzungar throne was then seized by Galdan's brother, [[Tsewang Rabtan]] in 1689 while the latter was engaged in the war in Khalkha and this event made it impossible for Galdan to fight the Manchu Empire. Galdan sent his army to liberate Southern Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha army and called Southern Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Southern Mongolian nobles, [[Tibetans]], [[Kumul Khanate]] and some [[Moghulistan]]'s nobles supported his war against the Manchu, however, Southern Mongolian nobles did not join the battle against the Manchus. |
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Kangxi organized a congress of the rulers of Khalkha and Inner Mongolia in [[Dolon Nor|Dolnuur]] in 1691 at which the Khalkha feudatories (the Khalkha Khanate or Eastern Mongolia) by Zanabazar's decision formally declared allegiance to the Qing Emperor. However, Khalkha de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan. Chakhundorj fought against the Russian invasion of Northern Mongolia until 1688. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Kangxi invaded Khalkha in 1696 and the Oirats were defeated by the outnumbering enemy in a battle at Zuun Mod at the river [[Gorkhi-Terelj National Park|Terelj]]. Galdan Boshugtu Khaan died in 1697 in the region of [[Khovd (city)|Kovd]]. |
Kangxi organized a congress of the rulers of Khalkha and Inner Mongolia in [[Dolon Nor|Dolnuur]] in 1691 at which the Khalkha feudatories (the Khalkha Khanate or Eastern Mongolia) by Zanabazar's decision formally declared allegiance to the Qing Emperor. However, Khalkha de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan. Chakhundorj fought against the Russian invasion of Northern Mongolia until 1688. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Kangxi invaded Khalkha in 1696 and the Oirats were defeated by the outnumbering enemy in a battle at Zuun Mod at the river [[Gorkhi-Terelj National Park|Terelj]]. Galdan Boshugtu Khaan died in 1697 in the region of [[Khovd (city)|Kovd]]. |
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There were three khans in Khalkha of which Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. The Mongols who fled to Northern and Southern Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. Tsewang Rabtan continued the war against the Manchus to liberate Eastern, [[Upper Mongolia|Upper]] and Southern Mongolia after Galdan Boshugtu, however, his action against Galdan made Northern Mongolians fight against Russia without the help of other Mongols. The Russian and Manchu Empires supported his actions because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength.<ref>S.Tsolmon, Galdan Boshigt Khaan, 1995</ref> |
There were three khans in Khalkha of which Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. The Mongols who fled to Northern and Southern Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. Tsewang Rabtan continued the war against the Manchus to liberate Eastern, [[Upper Mongolia|Upper]] and Southern Mongolia after Galdan Boshugtu, however, his action against Galdan made Northern Mongolians fight against Russia without the help of other Mongols. The Russian and Manchu Empires supported his actions because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength.<ref>S.Tsolmon, Galdan Boshigt Khaan, 1995</ref> |
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Mongolia encountered Russian expansion on her northern border in the 17th century. The Buryats had fought against Russian [[Russian conquest of Siberia|invasion]] since the [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|1620s]]. The well-armed Russian [[Cossaks]] cruelly subdued the resistance of the Buryats and conquered the Baikal region in 1640-1650s. The uprisings of the Buryats were brutally crushed in 1658 and 1696. The Russians attempted to build [[Ostrog (fortress)| |
Mongolia encountered Russian expansion on her northern border in the 17th century. The Buryats had fought against Russian [[Russian conquest of Siberia|invasion]] since the [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|1620s]]. The well-armed Russian [[Cossaks]] cruelly subdued the resistance of the Buryats and conquered the Baikal region in 1640-1650s. The uprisings of the Buryats were brutally crushed in 1658 and 1696. The Russians attempted to build [[Ostrog (fortress)|ostrogs]] in [[Lake Khövsgöl|Khövsgöl]] area, but they were quickly destroyed by the local population. [[Northern Mongolia]] were formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of [[Lake Baikal]] were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] established the northern border of [[Manchuria]] north of the present line. The Russians retained [[Trans-Baikal]]ia between Lake Baikal and the [[Argun River (Asia)|Argun River]] north of Mongolia. The [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)|Treaty of Kyakhta]] (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between [[Imperial Russia]] and the Qing Empire until the mid nineteenth century. It established the [[Mongolia-Russia border|northern border]] of Mongolia. [[Oka River (Siberia)|Oka]] Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered Northern Mongolia in the late 18th century.<ref>[http://books.google.mn/books/about/%D0%92%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D1%81.html?id=5GxO-oyzE28C&redir_esc=y Присоединение Бурятии к России: история, право, политика] '''(Russian)'''</ref> |
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Teswang Rabtan stopped the eastern expansion of the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] khans, and also sent his general [[Ihe Tserendondov]] to conquer Tibet in 1716. His force was driven out by Qing troops in 1720, who then occupied Tibet. However, several attempts by the Qing dynasty to subjugate the Dzungar Khanate failed in the early 18th century. In 1723, the Qing troops subdued the uprising of [[Luvsandanzan taiji]] in Kukunor. Tsewang Rabtan was succeeded by his son [[Galdan Tseren]] in 1727. |
Teswang Rabtan stopped the eastern expansion of the [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] khans, and also sent his general [[Ihe Tserendondov]] to conquer Tibet in 1716. His force was driven out by Qing troops in 1720, who then occupied Tibet. However, several attempts by the Qing dynasty to subjugate the Dzungar Khanate failed in the early 18th century. In 1723, the Qing troops subdued the uprising of [[Luvsandanzan taiji]] in Kukunor. Tsewang Rabtan was succeeded by his son [[Galdan Tseren]] in 1727. |
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Galdant Seren took a series of actions to develop of crop production, gardening, and cannon manufacture in Dzungaria. He successfully repelled the aggression of the Qing dynasty in |
Galdant Seren took a series of actions to develop of crop production, gardening, and cannon manufacture in Dzungaria. He successfully repelled the aggression of the Qing dynasty in 1729–31. Moreover, his general [[Baga Tserendondov]] advanced into Khalkha and reached the River Kerulen in 1732, but had to retreat after battles with Khalkha and Qing troops. Galdan Tseren died in 1745 and a crisis arose among his heirs. After a series of bloody clashes among them, [[Dawachi]], supported by [[Khoi]]-Oirat prince [[Amursana]] became the new Dzungar Khaan in 1753. The feud was a sign to the Qing dynasty to prepare for the invasion of the Dzungar Khanate]]. |
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As soon as he became Khan, Dawachi deprived his friend Amursana of his wife and then defeated him in a battle in 1754. Amursana sought an alliance with the Qing Dynasty, hoping to defeat Dawachi and elevate himself to the position of Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. The Qing administration mobilized horses and other livestock of the Khalkha population for the Dzungar invasion. A 200,000 strong army consisting of Khalkha, Inner Mongolian, Manchu and Chinese troops invaded Dzungaria in 1755. The vanguard of the Qing army was led by Amursana, [[Mongolian nobility#Nobility titles 3|king]] [[Chingünjav]] and King Renchindorji of the Khalkhas. The Dzungar Khanate was conquered by the Manchus in |
As soon as he became Khan, Dawachi deprived his friend Amursana of his wife and then defeated him in a battle in 1754. Amursana sought an alliance with the Qing Dynasty, hoping to defeat Dawachi and elevate himself to the position of Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. The Qing administration mobilized horses and other livestock of the Khalkha population for the Dzungar invasion. A 200,000 strong army consisting of Khalkha, Inner Mongolian, Manchu and Chinese troops invaded Dzungaria in 1755. The vanguard of the Qing army was led by Amursana, [[Mongolian nobility#Nobility titles 3|king]] [[Chingünjav]] and King Renchindorji of the Khalkhas. The Dzungar Khanate was conquered by the Manchus in 1755–1758 due to conflicts between their leaders and military commanders . |
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While this horde entered the Ili River Basin, Amursana captured Davaachi and handed him to the Manchu. This event marked the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, which had impeded Qing expansion into Central Asia for over a century. The Qing [[Qianlong Emperor]] demobilized the army and envisaged a congress of Dzungar and other Mongol aristocrats to celebrate the incorporation of Dzungaria into the Qing Empire. |
While this horde entered the Ili River Basin, Amursana captured Davaachi and handed him to the Manchu. This event marked the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, which had impeded Qing expansion into Central Asia for over a century. The Qing [[Qianlong Emperor]] demobilized the army and envisaged a congress of Dzungar and other Mongol aristocrats to celebrate the incorporation of Dzungaria into the Qing Empire. |
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Chingünjav rose against Qing rule in 1756 abandoning his post and appealed to the other nobles of Khalkha to rise for independence. Around the same period, an uprising of Sevdenbaljir in Inner Mongolia was subdued. Sevdenbaljir was arrested before this uprising to prevent the Southern Mongols uniting their force. He planned to organize a congress of the Khalkha nobility to elect a future Khaan of Mongolia. Chingunjav was supported by Boghda Gegeen II, the Khans of the four Khalkha [[aimag]]s and other members of the nobility. However, the Qing court was able to capture Chingunjav before the uprising took its full swing. Chingunjav and his whole family were cruelly executed in 1757, and the Qing court decided that future Jebtsundamba Khutughtus would be only found in Tibet, not in Mongolia. Renchindorj Wang who allowed Amursanaa to abandon his post in the Qing army was cruelly executed in [[Beijing]]. |
Chingünjav rose against Qing rule in 1756 abandoning his post and appealed to the other nobles of Khalkha to rise for independence. Around the same period, an uprising of Sevdenbaljir in Inner Mongolia was subdued. Sevdenbaljir was arrested before this uprising to prevent the Southern Mongols uniting their force. He planned to organize a congress of the Khalkha nobility to elect a future Khaan of Mongolia. Chingunjav was supported by Boghda Gegeen II, the Khans of the four Khalkha [[aimag]]s and other members of the nobility. However, the Qing court was able to capture Chingunjav before the uprising took its full swing. Chingunjav and his whole family were cruelly executed in 1757, and the Qing court decided that future Jebtsundamba Khutughtus would be only found in Tibet, not in Mongolia. Renchindorj Wang who allowed Amursanaa to abandon his post in the Qing army was cruelly executed in [[Beijing]]. |
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Amursanaa returned to Dzungaria with his 500 warriors as he was deceived in his hope to take the Dzungar throne with the support of the Qing. A faction of the Oirat aristocrats elevated him as Khan of the Oirats in 1756. However, Amursana's followers lacked unity. The decisive battle took place at Sharbal in 1757 when 3,000 Oirat troops fought against a four times outnumbering enemy. After the 17-day battle, Amursana was defeated and fled to [[Tobolsk]] in Russia where he died but the Dzungars continued their war against Manchu invasion until 1758. Brutally revenging the Oirat people for their love for freedom, the Qing army carried out the [[Dzungar genocide]], killing every Oirat they met on their way in the territory of the Dzungar Khanate. Of the 600,000 Dzungar population, only 30 thousand survived.<ref name="Златкин"/> Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5wQnNChmw|date =2011-02-11}}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene], [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History]''". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN |
Amursanaa returned to Dzungaria with his 500 warriors as he was deceived in his hope to take the Dzungar throne with the support of the Qing. A faction of the Oirat aristocrats elevated him as Khan of the Oirats in 1756. However, Amursana's followers lacked unity. The decisive battle took place at Sharbal in 1757 when 3,000 Oirat troops fought against a four times outnumbering enemy. After the 17-day battle, Amursana was defeated and fled to [[Tobolsk]] in Russia where he died but the Dzungars continued their war against Manchu invasion until 1758. Brutally revenging the Oirat people for their love for freedom, the Qing army carried out the [[Dzungar genocide]], killing every Oirat they met on their way in the territory of the Dzungar Khanate. Of the 600,000 Dzungar population, only 30 thousand survived.<ref name="Златкин" /> Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.<ref>[http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5wQnNChmw|date =2011-02-11}}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene], [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 2009-02-09.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History]''". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN 1-84545-452-9</ref> The territory of the Dzungar Khanate was then incorporated into the Qing Empire as the province of [[Xinjiang]]. |
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=== Mongolia during the Manchu Qing rule === |
=== Mongolia during the Manchu Qing rule === |
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[[File:Mongolia during the Manchu rule.png|thumb]] |
[[File:Mongolia during the Manchu rule.png|thumb]] |
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[[File:Qing Dynasty 1820.png|thumb|left|Manchu Dynasty in 1820, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange.]] |
[[File:Qing Dynasty 1820.png|thumb|left|Manchu Dynasty in 1820, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange.]] |
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{{Expand section|date=June 2008}} |
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After seizing control of Mongolia, the Qing government grouped Khalkha khoshuns into 4 [[aimag]]s (province): Tusiyetu Khan aimag, Zasaghtu Khan aimag, Secen Khan aimag and Sain Noyan Khan aimag. In addition, the territories populated by Oirats in the Kobdo region were grouped into Togs Huleg Dalai Khan aimag and Unen Zorigtu Khan aimag. Aimags were governed by aimag congress chigulgan comprising the lords of the khoshuns. The chigulgan daruga ({{ |
After seizing control of Mongolia, the Qing government grouped Khalkha khoshuns into 4 [[aimag]]s (province): Tusiyetu Khan aimag, Zasaghtu Khan aimag, Secen Khan aimag and Sain Noyan Khan aimag. In addition, the territories populated by Oirats in the Kobdo region were grouped into Togs Huleg Dalai Khan aimag and Unen Zorigtu Khan aimag. Aimags were governed by aimag congress chigulgan comprising the lords of the khoshuns. The chigulgan daruga ({{lang|mn|чуулган дарга}} - official presiding the congress) was appointed from the khoshun lords by the Qing government. |
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As vassals of Qing Emperors, the Mongolian nobles—rulers of the khoshuns were expected to carry out military services commanding their troops in warfare, to personally attend the Emperor in his hunting processions,<ref name="Нарантуяа">Хойд Дашнямын Нарантуяа, Халхын Засагт хан аймгийн засаг ноёд, National University of Mongolia, Institute of Historical Studies. Ulaanbaatar 2005</ref> mobilize resources from the khoshun population and subdue local riots. Their services were generously awarded by the Emperor, and those who performed exceptionally outstanding feats before the Qing Emperor would occasionally be honoured to marry a princess. Disobedience or failure to provide adequate service was severely punished.<ref name="Нарантуяа"/> |
As vassals of Qing Emperors, the Mongolian nobles—rulers of the khoshuns were expected to carry out military services commanding their troops in warfare, to personally attend the Emperor in his hunting processions,<ref name="Нарантуяа">Хойд Дашнямын Нарантуяа, Халхын Засагт хан аймгийн засаг ноёд, National University of Mongolia, Institute of Historical Studies. Ulaanbaatar 2005</ref> mobilize resources from the khoshun population and subdue local riots. Their services were generously awarded by the Emperor, and those who performed exceptionally outstanding feats before the Qing Emperor would occasionally be honoured to marry a princess. Disobedience or failure to provide adequate service was severely punished.<ref name="Нарантуяа" /> |
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The most heavy burden of the foreign exploitation was laid on the spine of the ordinary Mongolian laborers. They were impoverished during mobilization of horses and livestock products during preparation of the military campaign against the [[Zunghar Khanate]] besides they had to serve as warriors themselves. Although the military feudal system of Mongolia of the pre-Qing epoch is considered to have been a class society in which an ordinary Mongol was expected to obey his feudal lord as a soldier obeys a commander,<ref name="Златкин">И. Я. Златкин, История Джунгарского ханства. М 1983</ref> it was during the rule of Qing Dynasty when serfdom was effectively introduced to the Mongolian society for the first time. There were 3 forms of serfdom: albatu—state serfs, khamjilga—personal serfs of khoshun rulers and of taijis, and shabi—serfs of Khutuhtus, supreme clergy. To prevent assimilation of the Mongols, the Qing government tried to restrict travels of Han Chinese to Khalkha and to forbid cross-ethnic marriages between the Mongols and Han Chinese. In the 19th century their policy changed and Mongols faced danger of complete extinction because of Manchu's |
The most heavy burden of the foreign exploitation was laid on the spine of the ordinary Mongolian laborers. They were impoverished during mobilization of horses and livestock products during preparation of the military campaign against the [[Zunghar Khanate]] besides they had to serve as warriors themselves. Although the military feudal system of Mongolia of the pre-Qing epoch is considered to have been a class society in which an ordinary Mongol was expected to obey his feudal lord as a soldier obeys a commander,<ref name="Златкин">И. Я. Златкин, История Джунгарского ханства. М 1983</ref> it was during the rule of Qing Dynasty when serfdom was effectively introduced to the Mongolian society for the first time. There were 3 forms of serfdom: albatu—state serfs, khamjilga—personal serfs of khoshun rulers and of taijis, and shabi—serfs of Khutuhtus, supreme clergy. To prevent assimilation of the Mongols, the Qing government tried to restrict travels of Han Chinese to Khalkha and to forbid cross-ethnic marriages between the Mongols and Han Chinese. In the 19th century their policy changed and Mongols faced danger of complete extinction because of Manchu's policy. |
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== Modern Period == |
== Modern Period == |
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===Bogd Khaanate ( |
=== Bogd Khaanate (1911–1924) === |
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{{Main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Mongolia (1911–21)|Occupation of Mongolia|Mongolian Revolution of 1921}} |
{{Main|Mongolian Revolution of 1911|Mongolia (1911–21)|Occupation of Mongolia|Mongolian Revolution of 1921}} |
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Mongolian army liberated [[Eastern Mongolia]] (Khalkha) and Khovd region (modern [[Uvs Province|Uvs]], [[Khovd Province|Khovd]], [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii provinces]]) but Northern [[Xinjiang]] (Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), [[Upper Mongolia]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and Southern Mongolia came under control of the newly formed [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan). On February 2, 1913 the [[Mongolia (1911–21)|Bogd Khanate]] sent Mongolian cavalrymen to liberate [[Southern Mongolia]] from China. [[Russia]] refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate and Russian king [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] called it as "Mongolian [[imperialism]]".<ref name="Jamsran">L.Jamsran, Mongolian revolution of 1911. 1996</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence because it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence then [[Central Asia]]ns will revolt". |
Mongolian army liberated [[Eastern Mongolia]] (Khalkha) and Khovd region (modern [[Uvs Province|Uvs]], [[Khovd Province|Khovd]], [[Bayan-Ölgii Province|Bayan-Ölgii provinces]]) but Northern [[Xinjiang]] (Altai and Ili regions of the Qing Empire), [[Upper Mongolia]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]] and Southern Mongolia came under control of the newly formed [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan). On February 2, 1913 the [[Mongolia (1911–21)|Bogd Khanate]] sent Mongolian cavalrymen to liberate [[Southern Mongolia]] from China. [[Russia]] refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate and Russian king [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] called it as "Mongolian [[imperialism]]".<ref name="Jamsran">L.Jamsran, Mongolian revolution of 1911. 1996</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence because it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence then [[Central Asia]]ns will revolt". |
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<ref name="Jamsran"/> [[:mn:Таван замын байлдаан|10,000]] Mongolian and Southern Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Southern Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and liberated almost whole Southern Mongolia, however, Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapon in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. |
<ref name="Jamsran" /> [[:mn:Таван замын байлдаан|10,000]] Mongolian and Southern Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Southern Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and liberated almost whole Southern Mongolia, however, Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapon in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. |
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The [[Barga Mongols]] fought against Chinese forces in August 1912, captured the city of [[Hailar District|Hailar]], and announced their willingness to unify with the [[Bogd Khaanate Mongolia|Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia]]. |
The [[Barga Mongols]] fought against Chinese forces in August 1912, captured the city of [[Hailar District|Hailar]], and announced their willingness to unify with the [[Bogd Khaanate Mongolia|Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia]]. |
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In its historical significance, the establishment of the [[Bogd Khaanate Mongolia|Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia]] is comparable with the foundation of the unified [[Mongol Empire]] in 1206. With national independence, Mongolia entered the path of modernization. A parliamentary structure consisting of two chambers, the Upper Hural and the Lower Hural, was formed in 1914. A legal code, "Jarlig yar togtughaghsan Mongol Ulus un hauli zuil-un bichig" (Zarligaar togtooson Mongol Ulsyn khuuli zuiliin bichig), was adopted in 1915. |
In its historical significance, the establishment of the [[Bogd Khaanate Mongolia|Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia]] is comparable with the foundation of the unified [[Mongol Empire]] in 1206. With national independence, Mongolia entered the path of modernization. A parliamentary structure consisting of two chambers, the Upper Hural and the Lower Hural, was formed in 1914. A legal code, "Jarlig yar togtughaghsan Mongol Ulus un hauli zuil-un bichig" (Zarligaar togtooson Mongol Ulsyn khuuli zuiliin bichig), was adopted in 1915. |
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On 3 November 1912, Russian Empire and Mongolia signed a bilateral treaty without participation of China. This treaty meant recognition of Mongolia, its name as the "State of Mongolia" ("Mongol Uls") and its state system as Bogd Khaan monarchy by Russia. Nevertheless, under a strong pressure of Russian and Chinese government,<ref name="Jamsran"/> the [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)|Kyakhta agreement]] of 1915 between the Russian empire, Mongolia and the Republic of China "downgraded" the independence of Outer Mongolia to autonomy within China. The government of Mongolia maintained a position of preserving Mongolia's independence including Khalkha Mongolia, Khovd region, Western Mongolia, Tuva, Southern Mongolia, Barga and [[Upper Mongolia]]. The position of Republic of China was to consider all of Mongolia as territories of China. The position of Russia was to reduce Mongolian independence to an autonomy limited to Outer Mongolia only. Negotiations continued for eight months as the Mongolian representatives firmly defended the independence of the country, but finally the government of Mongolia had to accept Russia's position. However, the Outer Mongolia remained effectively outside Chinese control. Mongolia lost [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Dzungaria]], [[Tuva]], [[Upper Mongolia]] and Southern Mongolia in 1915. |
On 3 November 1912, Russian Empire and Mongolia signed a bilateral treaty without participation of China. This treaty meant recognition of Mongolia, its name as the "State of Mongolia" ("Mongol Uls") and its state system as Bogd Khaan monarchy by Russia. Nevertheless, under a strong pressure of Russian and Chinese government,<ref name="Jamsran" /> the [[Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)|Kyakhta agreement]] of 1915 between the Russian empire, Mongolia and the Republic of China "downgraded" the independence of Outer Mongolia to autonomy within China. The government of Mongolia maintained a position of preserving Mongolia's independence including Khalkha Mongolia, Khovd region, Western Mongolia, Tuva, Southern Mongolia, Barga and [[Upper Mongolia]]. The position of Republic of China was to consider all of Mongolia as territories of China. The position of Russia was to reduce Mongolian independence to an autonomy limited to Outer Mongolia only. Negotiations continued for eight months as the Mongolian representatives firmly defended the independence of the country, but finally the government of Mongolia had to accept Russia's position. However, the Outer Mongolia remained effectively outside Chinese control. Mongolia lost [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Dzungaria]], [[Tuva]], [[Upper Mongolia]] and Southern Mongolia in 1915. |
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On February 2, 1913 the [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet]] was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan (he was a Tibetan) disrupted Soviet secret operations in [[Tibet ( |
On February 2, 1913 the [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet]] was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan (he was a Tibetan) disrupted Soviet secret operations in [[Tibet (1912–51)|Tibet]] to change its regime in the 1920s. |
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Following the Russian Revolution of October 1917, China regained its claims to Outer Mongolia aiming at its conversion into a common Chinese province. In late 1919, the Chinese general [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied Urga after suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles and forced the Bogd Khaan and the leading nobles to sign a document renouncing Mongolia's independence. Leaders of Mongolia's national independence movement, such as Magsarjav or Damdinsuren (died in the prison under brutal torture) were arrested and imprisoned. The Chinese had tighted their control of Mongolia by this time. |
Following the Russian Revolution of October 1917, China regained its claims to Outer Mongolia aiming at its conversion into a common Chinese province. In late 1919, the Chinese general [[Xu Shuzheng]] occupied Urga after suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles and forced the Bogd Khaan and the leading nobles to sign a document renouncing Mongolia's independence. Leaders of Mongolia's national independence movement, such as Magsarjav or Damdinsuren (died in the prison under brutal torture) were arrested and imprisoned. The Chinese had tighted their control of Mongolia by this time. |
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The Mongolian People's Party established in early 1921 as a merger of 2 underground revolutionary groups who had their own view on the future of Mongolia. One of these groups was headed by Soliin Danzan and the other group was headed by Bodoo. They sought aid from [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]], which was an unacceptable decision for the Bogd Khaan Government. However, for the sake of liberty of the country, Bogd Khaan stamped their letter addressed to the Soviet Government. However, Soviet Government did not want to communicate the Mongolian powers as the Bolsheviks staked on Mongolian People's Party. |
The Mongolian People's Party established in early 1921 as a merger of 2 underground revolutionary groups who had their own view on the future of Mongolia. One of these groups was headed by Soliin Danzan and the other group was headed by Bodoo. They sought aid from [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]], which was an unacceptable decision for the Bogd Khaan Government. However, for the sake of liberty of the country, Bogd Khaan stamped their letter addressed to the Soviet Government. However, Soviet Government did not want to communicate the Mongolian powers as the Bolsheviks staked on Mongolian People's Party. |
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The Revolution began on the 18th of March when 400 volunteer troops led by Sukhbaatar attacked the 2000 Chinese garrison in [[Kyakhta]] at the northern frontier of Mongolia. The Mongolian volunteer troops and units of the Soviet Red Army advanced to the south annihilating the remainder of the defeated Chinese troops (who were robbing the peaceful population) and Ungern's White troops. The main battles undertaken by the Mongolian troops took place at [[Tujiin Nars]] against the Chinese and at [[Zelter]] and [[Bulnai]] against the White troops. Simultaneously, Khatanbaatar Magsarjav, who had been sent by Baron Ungern to the western provinces, revolted and allied himself with the [[Mongolian People's Party]]. He defeated the White troops led by Kazantsev, Vandanov and general Bakich. Mongolian and Soviet troops led by Khasbaatar and Baikalov withstood a long encirclement by the Whites at lake [[Tolbo]] (nowadays in [[Bayan-Ölgii aimag]]). |
The Revolution began on the 18th of March when 400 volunteer troops led by Sukhbaatar attacked the 2000 Chinese garrison in [[Kyakhta]] at the northern frontier of Mongolia. The Mongolian volunteer troops and units of the Soviet Red Army advanced to the south annihilating the remainder of the defeated Chinese troops (who were robbing the peaceful population) and Ungern's White troops. The main battles undertaken by the Mongolian troops took place at [[Tujiin Nars]] against the Chinese and at [[Zelter]] and [[Bulnai]] against the White troops. Simultaneously, Khatanbaatar Magsarjav, who had been sent by Baron Ungern to the western provinces, revolted and allied himself with the [[Mongolian People's Party]]. He defeated the White troops led by Kazantsev, Vandanov and general Bakich. Mongolian and Soviet troops led by Khasbaatar and Baikalov withstood a long encirclement by the Whites at lake [[Tolbo]] (nowadays in [[Bayan-Ölgii aimag]]). Baron Ungern, after a conspiracy, was lost by his troops and captured by a detachment of the Red Army. The Mongolian People's Party troops and Russian Red Army troops entered [[Ulan Bator|Urga]] in July 1921. The [[Mongolian Revolution of 1921|Mongolian People's Revolution of 1921]] (Mongolian National Democratic Revolution) ended Chinese occupation over Mongolia then Mongolian and Soviet armies defeated White Russian army in Mongolia. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionist leaders in 1921. Soviet recognized that Mongolia is Chinese territory in 1924 during secret meeting with the Republic of China.<ref name="Bor">J.Bor, Mongolian independence, 1996</ref> Soviet officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but Soviet carried out various policies against Mongolia.<ref name="Bor" /> |
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The Mongolian People's Government kept the Bogd Khaan as nominal head of state, but the actual power was in the hands of the Mongolian People's Party and its Soviet (esp. Buryat and Kalmyk) counselors. The mysterious death of the Bogd Khaan in 1924 was speedily utilized to promulgate a Soviet-style constitution, abolishing monarchy, and declaring the Mongolian People's Republic on 26 November 1924. Mongolia became completely isolated from the world by People's Party powers followed the Soviets for accomplishment of the Communist experiment. From the other hand, this also created protection against the potential aggression of China which considered Mongolia as its territory at that time. |
The Mongolian People's Government kept the Bogd Khaan as nominal head of state, but the actual power was in the hands of the Mongolian People's Party and its Soviet (esp. Buryat and Kalmyk) counselors. The mysterious death of the Bogd Khaan in 1924 was speedily utilized to promulgate a Soviet-style constitution, abolishing monarchy, and declaring the Mongolian People's Republic on 26 November 1924. Mongolia became completely isolated from the world by People's Party powers followed the Soviets for accomplishment of the Communist experiment. From the other hand, this also created protection against the potential aggression of China which considered Mongolia as its territory at that time. |
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As a result the policies were taken back in 1932 under so called Policy of the New Turn (Шинэ эргэлтийн бодлого, Shine ergeltiin boglogo), after the [[Comintern]] had given corresponding "advice". The leftist leaders of Mongolia were purged under pretext of "bending" (нугалаа, nugalaa) the policy of the party. The "Policies of the New Turn" were favored by the new leaders of Mongolia such as Prime Minister P. Genden who were enthusiastic in the liberalized development of the economy. However, they did not realize that this was a temporary tactical retreat of Stalin and Comintern. [[Stalinist purges in Mongolia|Another wave of repressions]] began in 1937 and resulted in the almost complete elimination of the Buddhist clergy. |
As a result the policies were taken back in 1932 under so called Policy of the New Turn (Шинэ эргэлтийн бодлого, Shine ergeltiin boglogo), after the [[Comintern]] had given corresponding "advice". The leftist leaders of Mongolia were purged under pretext of "bending" (нугалаа, nugalaa) the policy of the party. The "Policies of the New Turn" were favored by the new leaders of Mongolia such as Prime Minister P. Genden who were enthusiastic in the liberalized development of the economy. However, they did not realize that this was a temporary tactical retreat of Stalin and Comintern. [[Stalinist purges in Mongolia|Another wave of repressions]] began in 1937 and resulted in the almost complete elimination of the Buddhist clergy. |
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The [[Buryats|Buryat Mongols]] started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression.<ref>B.Shirnen, Migration and language of the Buryats, 2005</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started genocide action against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia many Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) shot dead by under pressure of Soviet.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> |
The [[Buryats|Buryat Mongols]] started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression.<ref>B.Shirnen, Migration and language of the Buryats, 2005</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]]'s regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started genocide action against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia many Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) shot dead by under pressure of Soviet.<ref>[http://www.olloo.mn/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=113303 Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь] '''(Mongolian)'''</ref> |
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<ref name="Death Tolls"> |
<ref name="Death Tolls">{{cite web|url=http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat5.htm#Mong2|title=Twentieth Century Atlas - Death Tolls|publisher=}}</ref> Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.<ref name="Death Tolls" /> Around the late 1930s the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. Proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the [[Great Purge]] in the Soviet Union. |
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[[File:Purge victims statue.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to the victims of the political purges]] |
[[File:Purge victims statue.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to the victims of the political purges]] |
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[[File:Mongolian Tank.JPG|thumb|right|During [[Great Patriotic War|WW2]], the Mongolian people financed a Soviet tank brigade and an air squadron]] |
[[File:Mongolian Tank.JPG|thumb|right|During [[Great Patriotic War|WW2]], the Mongolian people financed a Soviet tank brigade and an air squadron]] |
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In 1939, Soviet and Mongolian troops fought against Japan in the [[Battle of Khalkhyn Gol]], in Eastern Mongolia.<ref name="nepko"> |
In 1939, Soviet and Mongolian troops fought against Japan in the [[Battle of Khalkhyn Gol]], in Eastern Mongolia.<ref name="nepko">{{cite web|url=http://nepko.niitlelch.mn/content/5008.shtml|title=Халхын голын байлдааныг АНУ-д судалсан нь |publisher=}}</ref> In August 1945, at the end of World War II, Mongolian troops took part in the [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|Soviet operations]] in [[Inner Mongolia]]. |
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The Russian historian V. Suvorov wrote that Mongolian help during the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet-German War]] was important to the Soviets, as [[USA|American]] help also was, because warm clothes decided victory or defeat in the battles. |
The Russian historian V. Suvorov wrote that Mongolian help during the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet-German War]] was important to the Soviets, as [[USA|American]] help also was, because warm clothes decided victory or defeat in the battles. |
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<ref>[http://www.polit.mn/content/2206.htm;jsessionid=FAF6B2B851F446ED2DF18E8399923D43 ГЕРМАНЫГ ДАРСАН ХОЛБООТОН УЛСЫН НЭГ НЬ МОНГОЛ] (Mongolian)</ref><ref>[http://militera.lib.ru/research/suvorov3/08.html В.Суворов. Последняя республика ГЛАВА 8 |
<ref>[http://www.polit.mn/content/2206.htm;jsessionid=FAF6B2B851F446ED2DF18E8399923D43 ГЕРМАНЫГ ДАРСАН ХОЛБООТОН УЛСЫН НЭГ НЬ МОНГОЛ] (Mongolian)</ref><ref>[http://militera.lib.ru/research/suvorov3/08.html В.Суворов. Последняя республика ГЛАВА 8 У КОГО СОЮЗНИКИ ЛУЧШЕ?] (Russian)</ref><ref>V.Suvorov, The last republic</ref> |
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Also in August, China had agreed to finally recognize Mongolia's independence if a vote were held. The vote took place in the presence of Chinese observers on October 20, 1945,<ref name=Jes>{{cite book |last1=Jessup |first1=John E. |title=A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, |
Also in August, China had agreed to finally recognize Mongolia's independence if a vote were held. The vote took place in the presence of Chinese observers on October 20, 1945,<ref name=Jes>{{cite book |last1=Jessup |first1=John E. |title=A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945–1985 |year=1989 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=New York |isbn=0-313-24308-5 |page= |pages=}}</ref> and, according to official numbers, yielded a 100% pro-independence vote. |
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After the victory (with decisive Soviet assistance) of the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists in China]] in 1949, Mongolia initially kept good relations with both of her neighbours, but after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], she attached herself firmly with the Soviet Union. In 1960, Mongolia gained a seat in the UN, after earlier attempts had failed due to U.S. and [[Republic of China|ROC]] vetos. |
After the victory (with decisive Soviet assistance) of the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists in China]] in 1949, Mongolia initially kept good relations with both of her neighbours, but after the [[Sino-Soviet split]], she attached herself firmly with the Soviet Union. In 1960, Mongolia gained a seat in the UN, after earlier attempts had failed due to U.S. and [[Republic of China|ROC]] vetos. |
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The post-war years also saw the acceleration of the drive towards creating a socialist society. In the 1950s, livestock was [[negdel|collectivized again]]. At the same time, state farms were established, and, with extensive aid of Russia and China, infrastructure projects like the [[Trans-Mongolian Railway]] were completed. In the 1960s, [[Darkhan (city)|Darkhan]] was built with aid from Soviet Union and other [[COMECON]] countries, and in the 1970s the [[Erdenet]] [[kombinat]] was created. |
The post-war years also saw the acceleration of the drive towards creating a socialist society. In the 1950s, livestock was [[negdel|collectivized again]]. At the same time, state farms were established, and, with extensive aid of Russia and China, infrastructure projects like the [[Trans-Mongolian Railway]] were completed. In the 1960s, [[Darkhan (city)|Darkhan]] was built with aid from Soviet Union and other [[COMECON]] countries, and in the 1970s the [[Erdenet]] [[kombinat]] was created. |
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The first democratic election was held in July 1990. |
The first democratic election was held in July 1990. |
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On 3 October 2002 the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of China)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that Taiwan [[Foreign relations of Taiwan#Mongolia|recognizes]] Mongolia as an independent country,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|title=Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year| |
On 3 October 2002 the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of China)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that Taiwan [[Foreign relations of Taiwan#Mongolia|recognizes]] Mongolia as an independent country,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/archives/2002/10/11/0000175237|title=Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year|work=Taipei Times |date=2002-10-11|accessdate=2009-05-28|quote=In October 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted for independence, gaining the recognition of many countries, including the Republic of China. (…) Due to a souring of relations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, however, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia, reclaiming it as ROC territory.}}</ref> although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1842387.stm|title=Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China |publisher=BBC News|date=2002-02-26 |accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the [[Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtac.gov.tw/pages.php?lang=5 |title=The History of MTAC|publisher=Mongolian & Tibetan Affairs Commission|accessdate=2009-05-07}}</ref> lie dormant. |
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==See also== |
== See also == |
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* [[Mongolic languages]] |
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* [[Architecture of Mongolia]] |
* [[Architecture of Mongolia]] |
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* [[Central Asian studies]] |
* [[Central Asian studies]] |
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* [[History of Central Asia]] |
* [[History of Central Asia]] |
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* [[History of East Asia]] |
* [[History of East Asia]] |
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== References == |
== References == |
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* Sanders, Alan J. K. (2010). [https://books.google.mn/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C&printsec=frontcover''Historical Dictionary of Mongolia'']. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810874520 |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{ |
{{Commons category|History of Mongolia}} |
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{{ |
{{Commons category|Maps of the history of Mongolia}} |
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{{Commons category|Archaeology in Mongolia}} |
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{{Commons category|Culture of Mongolia}} |
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*[http://books.google.mn/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C&pg=PA548&lpg=PA548&dq=Columbia+Chronologies+of+Asian+History+and+Culture+209+bc+great+xiongnu+leader&source=bl&ots=Nmudw2Orqo&sig=k5I4-Lrb9UXjUSdJVnRMcDalceM&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=wcdHVIPjMtGQgwTP2YHgBQ&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false John Stewart Bowman "Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture"] |
*[http://books.google.mn/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C&pg=PA548&lpg=PA548&dq=Columbia+Chronologies+of+Asian+History+and+Culture+209+bc+great+xiongnu+leader&source=bl&ots=Nmudw2Orqo&sig=k5I4-Lrb9UXjUSdJVnRMcDalceM&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=wcdHVIPjMtGQgwTP2YHgBQ&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false John Stewart Bowman "Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture"] |
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* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/snafu1056/liaomap.jpg&date=2009-10-26+02:50:49 Map of the Capital Districts of the Kidan Empire] |
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/snafu1056/liaomap.jpg&date=2009-10-26+02:50:49 Map of the Capital Districts of the Kidan Empire] |
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* [http://uighur.narod.ru/uigur2/article21.html Dual Manichaeism in Uighuria and Iran] |
* [http://uighur.narod.ru/uigur2/article21.html Dual Manichaeism in Uighuria and Iran] |
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* [http://www.coldsiberia.org/ Realm of the Mongols] |
* [http://www.coldsiberia.org/ Realm of the Mongols] |
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10479b.htm Mongolia] |
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10479b.htm Mongolia] – Entry on Mongolia from the 1907 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' |
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* [http://www.zanabazar.org/ Biography of Zanabazar and history of dissemination of Buddhism in Mongolia by Don Croner] |
* [http://www.zanabazar.org/ Biography of Zanabazar and history of dissemination of Buddhism in Mongolia by Don Croner] |
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*[http://www.e-mongol.com/mongolia_history.htm History of Mongolia : Chronology and details] |
*[http://www.e-mongol.com/mongolia_history.htm History of Mongolia : Chronology and details] |
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*[https://books.google.mn/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C&dq=hazara+mongolia&source=gbs_navlinks_s Alan J. K. Sanders "Historical Dictionary of Mongolia"] |
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*[http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Xiong_Nu_Empire The Xiongnu Empire] |
*[http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Xiong_Nu_Empire The Xiongnu Empire] |
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{{Mongolia topics|state=collapsed}} |
{{Mongolia topics|state=collapsed}} |
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{{Mongolic ethnic groups |state=collapsed}} |
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{{History of Asia}} |
{{History of Asia}} |
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[[Category:History of Mongolia| ]] |
[[Category:History of Mongolia| ]] |
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[[Category:History of Siberia]] |
[[Category:History of Siberia]] |