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'''Grand Teton National Park''' is a [[United States National Park]] located in northwestern [[Wyoming]], [[United States|U.S.]] Grand Teton National Park consists of approximately {{convert|310000|acre}} and includes the major peaks of the {{convert|40|mi}} long [[Teton Range]] as well as most of the northern sections of the valley known as [[Jackson Hole]]. Only {{convert|10|mi}} south of [[Yellowstone National Park]], the two parks are connected by the [[National Park Service]] managed [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway]]. These three protected areas in conjunction with surrounding [[United States National Forest|National Forests]] constitute the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]], which at almost {{convert|18000000|acre}}, is one of the largest intact ecosystems in the United States. |
'''Grand Teton National Park''' is a [[United States National Park]] located in northwestern [[Wyoming]], [[United States|U.S.]] Grand Teton National Park consists of approximately {{convert|310000|acre}} and includes the major peaks of the {{convert|40|mi|adj=on}} long [[Teton Range]] as well as most of the northern sections of the valley known as [[Jackson Hole]]. Only {{convert|10|mi}} south of [[Yellowstone National Park]], the two parks are connected by the [[National Park Service]] managed [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway]]. These three protected areas in conjunction with surrounding [[United States National Forest|National Forests]] constitute the [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]], which at almost {{convert|18000000|acre}}, is one of the largest intact ecosystems in the United States. |
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Grand Teton National Park is named for [[Grand Teton]] which is the tallest mountain in the Teton Range. At {{convert|13775|ft}}, Grand Teton rises abruptly more than {{convert|7000|ft}} above Jackson Hole and is almost {{convert|850|ft}} higher than [[Mount Owen (Wyoming)|Mount Owen]], the second highest summit in the range. |
Grand Teton National Park is named for [[Grand Teton]] which is the tallest mountain in the Teton Range. At {{convert|13775|ft}}, Grand Teton rises abruptly more than {{convert|7000|ft}} above Jackson Hole and is almost {{convert|850|ft}} higher than [[Mount Owen (Wyoming)|Mount Owen]], the second highest summit in the range. |
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{{Main|Historical buildings and structures of Grand Teton National Park}} |
{{Main|Historical buildings and structures of Grand Teton National Park}} |
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[[File:Teton Range from the west 1872.jpg|thumb|right|"The Three Tetons" as seen from west of the Teton Range by members of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. One of the earliest photographs of the Teton Range taken by William Henry Jackson in 1872.]] |
[[File:Teton Range from the west 1872.jpg|thumb|right|"The Three Tetons" as seen from west of the Teton Range by members of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. One of the earliest photographs of the Teton Range taken by William Henry Jackson in 1872.]] |
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The [[Raynolds Expedition of 1860]] led by [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Captain [[William F. Raynolds]] was guided by mountain man [[Jim Bridger]] and included naturalist [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F. V. Hayden]], who later led other expeditions to the region, was the first major U.S. Government sponsored expedition to enter Jackson Hole. The expedition had been charged with exploring the Yellowstone region, but encountered difficulties crossing mountain passes due to snow. Bridger ended up guiding the expedition south over [[Union Pass]] then following the [[Gros Ventre River]] drainage to the Snake River and leaving the region over Teton Pass.<ref name=baldwin>{{cite web| last = Baldwin | first = Kenneth H. | title = Terra Incognita: The Raynolds Expedition of 1860 | work = Enchanted Enclosure The Army Engineers and Yellowstone National Park| publisher = National Park Service | date = November 15, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/baldwin/chap2.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Organized exploration of the region was halted during the [[American Civil War]] but resumed when F. V. Hayden led the well funded [[Hayden Geological Survey of 1871]]. Split into two divisions, Hayden explored Yellowstone while a smaller group under James Stevenson explored the Teton region. Along with Stevenson was photographer [[William Henry Jackson]] who took the first photographs of the Teton Range.<ref name=jackson2>{{cite web| last = Jackson | first = Reynold G | title = Park of the Matterhorns | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs16.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> The Hayden Geological Survey is also credited with providing many of the now familiar place names to some of the mountains and lakes in the region.<ref name=daugherty3>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Explorers and Scientists | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs4a.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> A nearly |
The [[Raynolds Expedition of 1860]] led by [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] Captain [[William F. Raynolds]] was guided by mountain man [[Jim Bridger]] and included naturalist [[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F. V. Hayden]], who later led other expeditions to the region, was the first major U.S. Government sponsored expedition to enter Jackson Hole. The expedition had been charged with exploring the Yellowstone region, but encountered difficulties crossing mountain passes due to snow. Bridger ended up guiding the expedition south over [[Union Pass]] then following the [[Gros Ventre River]] drainage to the Snake River and leaving the region over Teton Pass.<ref name=baldwin>{{cite web| last = Baldwin | first = Kenneth H. | title = Terra Incognita: The Raynolds Expedition of 1860 | work = Enchanted Enclosure The Army Engineers and Yellowstone National Park| publisher = National Park Service | date = November 15, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/baldwin/chap2.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Organized exploration of the region was halted during the [[American Civil War]] but resumed when F. V. Hayden led the well funded [[Hayden Geological Survey of 1871]]. Split into two divisions, Hayden explored Yellowstone while a smaller group under James Stevenson explored the Teton region. Along with Stevenson was photographer [[William Henry Jackson]] who took the first photographs of the Teton Range.<ref name=jackson2>{{cite web| last = Jackson | first = Reynold G | title = Park of the Matterhorns | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs16.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> The Hayden Geological Survey is also credited with providing many of the now familiar place names to some of the mountains and lakes in the region.<ref name=daugherty3>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Explorers and Scientists | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs4a.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> A nearly disastrous and possibly unauthorized [[Gustavus Cheyney Doane#1876 Snake River Expedition|expedition]] led by U.S. Army Lt. [[Gustavus Cheyney Doane]] in 1876 added to the aura of wildness the Tetons were noted for.<ref name=potts2>{{cite web| last = Potts | first = Merlin K. | title = The Doane Expedition of 1876-1877 | work = Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = March 27, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte/chap3.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> The explorations by early mountain men and subsequent expeditions failed to identify any sources of economically viable mineral wealth in the Teton region. Nevertheless, small groups of prospectors set up claims and mining operations on several of the creeks and rivers. By 1900, all organized efforts to retrieve mineral wealth had been abandoned.<ref name=daugherty4>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Prospectors and Miners | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs5.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> |
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Though the Teton Range was never permanently inhabited, the Jackson Hole valley to the east eventually was and pioneers began settling the valley in 1884.<ref name=pitcher>{{Cite book| last = Pitcher | first = Don| title = Yellowstone and Grand Teton: Including Jackson Hole | publisher = Avalon Travel Publishing | date = May 5, 2009| pages = 157| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wPKRLRQ2lYkC&pg=PA157&dq=earliest+settlers+in+jackson+hole&hl=en&ei=e-KoTYiIE8S10QG0kdz5CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false| isbn = 1598801600}}</ref> These earliest [[Homestead Act|homesteaders]] were mostly single men who endured long winters, short growing seasons and rocky soils which were hard to cultivate. The region was mostly suited for the cultivation of hay and cattle ranching. By 1890, Jackson Hole only had an estimated permanent population of 60.<ref name=daugherty5>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = The Pioneers: Homesteading in Jackson Role, 1884-1900 | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs6.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Around 1892 [[Menor's Ferry]] was built near present day [[Moose, Wyoming]] to provide access for wagons to the west side of the Snake River.<ref name=judge>{{cite web| last = Judge | first = Frances | title = Mountain River Men | work = Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = March 27, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte/chap7.htm | accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Ranching increased significantly from 1900 to 1920 but a series of agricultural related economic downturns in the early 1920's led to the extirpation of [[Grey wolf|wolves]] in Jackson Hole by the early 1920's as ranchers sought to protect their livlihood.<ref name=daugherty6>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Cattle Ranchers | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs10a.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> Also during the 1920's the automobile provided faster and easier access to areas of natural beauty and old military roads into Jackson Hole over Teton and Togwotee Passes were improved to accomodate the increased vehicle traffic. In response to the increased tourism, some cattle ranches also provided [[Guest ranch|dude ranch]] services so more urbanized travellers could experience life as a cattleman.<ref name=daugherty7>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = The Dude Wranglers | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs14.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> |
Though the Teton Range was never permanently inhabited, the Jackson Hole valley to the east eventually was and pioneers began settling the valley in 1884.<ref name=pitcher>{{Cite book| last = Pitcher | first = Don| title = Yellowstone and Grand Teton: Including Jackson Hole | publisher = Avalon Travel Publishing | date = May 5, 2009| pages = 157| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=wPKRLRQ2lYkC&pg=PA157&dq=earliest+settlers+in+jackson+hole&hl=en&ei=e-KoTYiIE8S10QG0kdz5CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false| isbn = 1598801600}}</ref> These earliest [[Homestead Act|homesteaders]] were mostly single men who endured long winters, short growing seasons and rocky soils which were hard to cultivate. The region was mostly suited for the cultivation of hay and cattle ranching. By 1890, Jackson Hole only had an estimated permanent population of 60.<ref name=daugherty5>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = The Pioneers: Homesteading in Jackson Role, 1884-1900 | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs6.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Around 1892 [[Menor's Ferry]] was built near present day [[Moose, Wyoming]] to provide access for wagons to the west side of the Snake River.<ref name=judge>{{cite web| last = Judge | first = Frances | title = Mountain River Men | work = Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = March 27, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte/chap7.htm | accessdate = 2011-04-09}}</ref> Ranching increased significantly from 1900 to 1920 but a series of agricultural related economic downturns in the early 1920's led to the extirpation of [[Grey wolf|wolves]] in Jackson Hole by the early 1920's as ranchers sought to protect their livlihood.<ref name=daugherty6>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Cattle Ranchers | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs10a.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> Also during the 1920's the automobile provided faster and easier access to areas of natural beauty and old military roads into Jackson Hole over Teton and Togwotee Passes were improved to accomodate the increased vehicle traffic. In response to the increased tourism, some cattle ranches also provided [[Guest ranch|dude ranch]] services so more urbanized travellers could experience life as a cattleman.<ref name=daugherty7>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = The Dude Wranglers | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/grte2/hrs14.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-15}}</ref> |
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=== Establishment of the park === |
=== Establishment of the park === |
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[[Image:Park Dedication in 1929 in Grand Teton NP-NPS.jpg|thumb|right|Grand Teton National Park Dedication in 1929]] |
[[Image:Park Dedication in 1929 in Grand Teton NP-NPS.jpg|thumb|right|Grand Teton National Park Dedication in 1929]] |
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To the north of Jackson Hole, Yellowstone National Park had been established in 1872.<ref name=ynp>{{cite web| title =Yellowstone Fact Sheet| publisher = National Park Service| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/factsheet.htm|date=August 10, 2006| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> By the late 1800's, conservationists worked to provide further protection to |
To the north of Jackson Hole, Yellowstone National Park had been established in 1872.<ref name=ynp>{{cite web| title =Yellowstone Fact Sheet| publisher = National Park Service| url =http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/factsheet.htm|date=August 10, 2006| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> By the late 1800's, conservationists worked to provide further protection to surrounding regions, which led [[U.S. President]] [[Grover Cleveland]] to create the Teton Forest Reserve, which included a portion of northern Jackson Hole.<ref name=daugherty8>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Conservationists | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/grte2/hrs17.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> By 1902, the reserve was combined into the [[Yellowstone Forest Reserve]], then divided again in 1908 by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], establishing the [[Teton National Forest]], protecting most of the Teton Range.<ref name=fhs>{{Cite web| title = The National Forests of the United States| publisher = Forest History Society| url = http://www.foresthistory.org/ASPNET/Places/National%20Forests%20of%20the%20U.S.pdf| format = pfd| accessdate =2011-04-23}}</ref> By 1907, the [[U.S. Bureau of Reclamation]] had constructed a temporary dam at the Snake River outlet of [[Jackson Lake]]. This dam failed in 1910 and a new concrete [[Jackson Lake Dam]] replaced it by 1911. The dam was further enlarged in 1916, raising lake waters {{convert|39|ft}} as part of the [[Minidoka Project]], designed to provide irrigation for agriculture in the state of [[Idaho]].<ref name=reclamation>{{cite web| title = Jackson Lake Dam | publisher = Bureau of Reclamation | date = Jul 13, 2009 | url = http://www.usbr.gov/projects/Facility.jsp?fac_Name=Jackson+Lake+Dam| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref><ref name=reclamation2>{{cite web| title = The Minidoka Project | publisher = Bureau of Reclamation | date = 1997 | url = http://www.usbr.gov/projects/ImageServer?imgName=Doc_1245093434100.pdf| format = pdf | accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> Though efforts to protect the Teton Range and Jackson Hole as part of an expanded Yellowstone National Park dated back to the late 1800's, the proposals to construct more dams on some of the other lakes in Jackson Hole led Yellowstone National Park superintendent [[Horace Albright]] to block such efforts. Albright was originally an advocate of the expanded Yellowstone plan which was very unpopular with local residents. By the mid 1920's however, local sentiment had changed once the proposals for a new national park carved out of land currently protected as part of the Teton National Forest and including only the Teton Range and six lakes at the base of the range were put forward.<ref name=creation>{{Cite web|last=Skaggs|first=Jackie| title = Creation of Grand Teton National Park| publisher = National Park Service| url = http://www.nps.gov/grte/planyourvisit/upload/creation.pdf| format = pfd| accessdate =2011-04-23}}</ref> With the general agreement of prominent Jackson Hole residents on this plan, President [[Calvin Coolidge]] signed the executive order establishing the {{convert|96000|acre}} Grand Teton National Park on February 26, 1929.<ref name=besser>{{Cite book| last = Besser | first = Brook| title = Wyoming Road Trip by the Mile Marker | publisher = NightBlaze Books | date = March 23, 2010| pages = 35|isbn = 0984409300}}</ref> |
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[[Image:The Rockefellers in Grand Teton area-NPS.jpg|thumb|left|[[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]] and his wife [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller|Abby]] in Grand Teton National Park in 1931]] |
[[Image:The Rockefellers in Grand Teton area-NPS.jpg|thumb|left|[[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]] and his wife [[Abby Aldrich Rockefeller|Abby]] in Grand Teton National Park in 1931]] |
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The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]] and his wife visited the region in the late 1920's.<ref name=daugherty8b>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Conservationists | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/grte2/hrs17b.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> Horace Albright had hoped to protect the valley of Jackson Hole north of the town of Jackson from commercial |
The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]] and his wife visited the region in the late 1920's.<ref name=daugherty8b>{{cite web| last = Daugherty | first = John | title = Conservationists | work = A Place Called Jackson Hole | publisher = Grand Teton Natural History Association | date = July 24, 2004| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/grte2/hrs17b.htm| accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> Horace Albright had hoped to protect the valley of Jackson Hole north of the town of Jackson from commercial exploitation. Rockefeller agreed and through a private enterprise known as the [[Snake River Land Company]] by 1928 Rockefeller was buying land in Jackson Hole to be later turned over to the National Park Service. In 1930, this plan was revealed to the residents of the region and was met with strong disapproval.<ref name=daugherty8b/> However under the authority of the [[Antiquities Act]], (which permitted any President to set aside land as a [[National Monument (United States)|National Monument]]), the property belonging to the Snake River Land Company and additional land carved from Teton National Forest were incorporated into the {{convert|221000|acre}} [[Jackson Hole National Monument]] by President [[Franklin Roosevelt]] in 1943.<ref name=record>{{Cite book| title = Congressional Record| publisher = U.S. Congress| volume = 148, Pt. 13| edition = September 20, 2002 to October 1, 2002 | date = August 16, 2006| pages = 17710| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=pY5e3AMIdn0C&pg=PA17710&dq=grand+teton+national+monument&hl=en&ei=rE2zTas_htrRAa-T0fUI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CF8Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=grand%20teton%20national%20monument&f=false| isbn =0160767741}}</ref> The monument and park were adjacent to each other and administered by the National Park Service, but the monument designation ensured no funding allotment, nor provided the level of resource protection equal to the park. Almost inevitably, the monument and park were combined in 1950.<ref name=creation/> The scenic [[highway]] that extends from [[Moran, Wyoming]] through Grand Teton National Park to [[Grant Village]] in Yellowstone National Park was named the [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway]] to recognize Rockefeller's contributions.<ref name=jodr>{{cite web| title = John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway | publisher = National Park Service | date = August 18, 2006| url = http://www.nps.gov/grte/jodr.htm | accessdate = 2011-04-23}}</ref> In 2001, the Rockefellers donated their Jackson Hole retreat, the [[JY Ranch]], to the national park for the establishment of the [[Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve]], dedicated on June 21, 2008.<ref name=gtnpnews>{{cite web| last=Skaggs|first=Jackie|title= Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve Center Opens to the Public|publisher=Grand Teton National Park News Releases|date= June 21, 2008|url=http://gtnpnews.blogspot.com/2008/06/laurance-s-rockefeller-preserve-center.html| accessdate=2001-04-23}}</ref> |
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== Geography == |
== Geography == |
Revision as of 01:22, 25 April 2011
Grand Teton National Park | |
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Location | Teton County, Wyoming, USA |
Nearest city | Jackson |
Area | Approximately 310,000 acres (1,300 km2)[1] |
Established | February 26, 1929 |
Visitors | 2,669,374[2] (in 2010) |
Governing body | National Park Service |
Grand Teton National Park is a United States National Park located in northwestern Wyoming, U.S. Grand Teton National Park consists of approximately 310,000 acres (130,000 ha) and includes the major peaks of the 40-mile (64 km) long Teton Range as well as most of the northern sections of the valley known as Jackson Hole. Only 10 miles (16 km) south of Yellowstone National Park, the two parks are connected by the National Park Service managed John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. These three protected areas in conjunction with surrounding National Forests constitute the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, which at almost 18,000,000 acres (7,300,000 ha), is one of the largest intact ecosystems in the United States.
Grand Teton National Park is named for Grand Teton which is the tallest mountain in the Teton Range. At 13,775 feet (4,199 m), Grand Teton rises abruptly more than 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above Jackson Hole and is almost 850 feet (260 m) higher than Mount Owen, the second highest summit in the range.
Human history
Paleo-Indians and Native Americans
Evidence of hunter-gatherer Paleo-Indian seasonal settlement in what is now Grand Teton National Park indicates that the first humans arrived more than 11,000 years ago.[3] Jackson Hole valley climate then was likely more alpine and colder than the semi-arid climate found today, so the first humans were likely migratory, spending summer months in Jackson Hole and wintering in the valleys west of the Teton Range. Along the shores of Jackson Lake, fire pits, tools and what are believed to have been fishing weights have been discovered. One of the tool artifacts is similar to those associated with the Clovis culture which is believed to have existed approximately 11,500 years ago. Some of the tools are made of obsidian which chemical analysis indicates was from sources near present day Teton Pass which is south of where Grand Teton National Park is located.[3] Though obsidian was also available north of Jackson Hole, virtually all the obsidian spear points found are from a source to the south, indicating that the main seasonal migratory route for the Paleo-Indian and later cultures was from the south.[4] Elk, which winter on the National Elk Refuge at the southern end of Jackson Hole and head north into higher altitudes during spring and summer, follow a similar migratory pattern to this day.[5] From 11,000 to about 500 years ago, there is little evidence of change in the migratory patterns amongst the Native American groups in the region and no evidence that indicates any permanent human settlement.[6]
When caucasian explorers first entered the region in the first decade of the 1800's, they encountered the eastern tribes of the Shoshone people.[7] Most of the Shoshone that lived in the mountain vastness of the greater Yellowstone region continued to be pedestrian while other groups of Shoshone that resided in lower elevations had limited use of horses. The Shoshone that lived in the Jackson Hole region were known within their culture as the "Sheep-eaters" or "Tukudika" as they referred to themselves since a main staple of their diet was the Bighorn Sheep.[7] The Shoshones of the region continued to follow the same migratory pattern of their predecessors and have been documented as having a close spiritual relationship with the Teton Range. A number of stone enclosures on some of the peaks including on the upper slopes of Grand Teton (known simply as The Enclosure) are believed to have been used by Shoshone during vision quests.[8] In 1868, the mountain dwelling Shoshone were relocated to the Wind River Indian Reservation east of the Wind River Range in Wyoming.[7]
Fur trade exploration
The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) passed well north of the Grand Teton region. During the expedition's return trip from the Pacific Ocean, expedition member John Colter was given an early discharge so he could join two fur trappers who were heading west in search of beaver pelts. Colter was later hired by Manuel Lisa to lead fur trappers and to explore the region around the Yellowstone River. It is generally believed that during the winter of 1807/08 Colter passed through Jackson Hole and was the first caucasian to see the Teton Range.[9] In 1810, Lewis and Clark expedition coleader William Clark produced a map of the previous expedition as well as travels made by John Colter in 1807, apparently based on discussions between Clark and Colter when the two met in St. Louis, Missouri in 1810.[10] Another map attributed to William Clark indicates John Colter entered Jackson Hole from the northeast, crossing the Continental Divide at either Togwotee Pass or Union Pass and left the region after crossing Teton Pass, probably following the well established Native American trails.[11] In 1931, the Colter Stone, a carved rock in the shape of a head with the inscription "John Colter" on one side and the year "1808" on the other, was discovered in a field in Tetonia, Idaho, which is west of Teton Pass. The Colter Stone has not been authenticated to have been created by John Colter and may have been the work of later expeditions to the region.[12]
John Colter is widely considered the first mountain man and like those that came to the Jackson Hole region over the next 30 years, they were all there primarily due to the North American fur trade since the region was rich with the highly sought after pelts of beaver and other fur bearing animals. Between 1810 and 1811, the Astorians are known to have travelled through Jackson Hole and crossed Teton Pass as they headed east in 1812.[13] British and American fur trading companies vied for control of the fur trade starting in the 1810's as an offshoot of border disputes in the region. One party employed by the British North West Company and led by explorer Donald Mackenzie is believed to have entered Jackson Hole from the west in 1818 or 1819. The Tetons, as well as the valley west of the Teton Range known today as Pierre's Hole, may have been named by French speaking Iroquois or French Canadian trappers that were part of Mackenzie's party.[14] Earlier parties had referred to the most prominent peaks of the Teton Range as the Pilot Knobs, however the French trappers "les trois tetons" (the three breasts) was later shortened to the Tetons.[15]
The Rocky Mountain Fur Company partnership included Jedediah Smith, William Sublette and David Edward Jackson or "Davey Jackson". Jackson oversaw the trapping operations in the Grand Teton region between 1826 and 1830. It is believed that Sublette named the valley east of the Teton Range "Jackson's Hole", (later simply Jackson Hole) for Davey Jackson.[16][17] As the demand for beaver fur declined and the various regions of the American West became depleted of beaver due to over trapping, American fur trading companies folded but individual mountain men continued to trap beaver in the Jackson Hole region until about 1840.[17] From the mid 1840's until 1860, Jackson Hole and the Teton Range were generally devoid of all but the small populations of native American tribes that had already been there. Most overland human migration routes such as the Oregon and Mormon Trails crossed over South Pass, well to the south of the Teton Range and caucasian influence in the Teton region was minimal until the U.S. Government commenced organized explorations.[17]
Organized exploration and settlement
The Raynolds Expedition of 1860 led by U.S. Army Captain William F. Raynolds was guided by mountain man Jim Bridger and included naturalist F. V. Hayden, who later led other expeditions to the region, was the first major U.S. Government sponsored expedition to enter Jackson Hole. The expedition had been charged with exploring the Yellowstone region, but encountered difficulties crossing mountain passes due to snow. Bridger ended up guiding the expedition south over Union Pass then following the Gros Ventre River drainage to the Snake River and leaving the region over Teton Pass.[18] Organized exploration of the region was halted during the American Civil War but resumed when F. V. Hayden led the well funded Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. Split into two divisions, Hayden explored Yellowstone while a smaller group under James Stevenson explored the Teton region. Along with Stevenson was photographer William Henry Jackson who took the first photographs of the Teton Range.[19] The Hayden Geological Survey is also credited with providing many of the now familiar place names to some of the mountains and lakes in the region.[20] A nearly disastrous and possibly unauthorized expedition led by U.S. Army Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane in 1876 added to the aura of wildness the Tetons were noted for.[21] The explorations by early mountain men and subsequent expeditions failed to identify any sources of economically viable mineral wealth in the Teton region. Nevertheless, small groups of prospectors set up claims and mining operations on several of the creeks and rivers. By 1900, all organized efforts to retrieve mineral wealth had been abandoned.[22]
Though the Teton Range was never permanently inhabited, the Jackson Hole valley to the east eventually was and pioneers began settling the valley in 1884.[23] These earliest homesteaders were mostly single men who endured long winters, short growing seasons and rocky soils which were hard to cultivate. The region was mostly suited for the cultivation of hay and cattle ranching. By 1890, Jackson Hole only had an estimated permanent population of 60.[24] Around 1892 Menor's Ferry was built near present day Moose, Wyoming to provide access for wagons to the west side of the Snake River.[25] Ranching increased significantly from 1900 to 1920 but a series of agricultural related economic downturns in the early 1920's led to the extirpation of wolves in Jackson Hole by the early 1920's as ranchers sought to protect their livlihood.[26] Also during the 1920's the automobile provided faster and easier access to areas of natural beauty and old military roads into Jackson Hole over Teton and Togwotee Passes were improved to accomodate the increased vehicle traffic. In response to the increased tourism, some cattle ranches also provided dude ranch services so more urbanized travellers could experience life as a cattleman.[27]
Establishment of the park
To the north of Jackson Hole, Yellowstone National Park had been established in 1872.[28] By the late 1800's, conservationists worked to provide further protection to surrounding regions, which led U.S. President Grover Cleveland to create the Teton Forest Reserve, which included a portion of northern Jackson Hole.[29] By 1902, the reserve was combined into the Yellowstone Forest Reserve, then divided again in 1908 by President Theodore Roosevelt, establishing the Teton National Forest, protecting most of the Teton Range.[30] By 1907, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation had constructed a temporary dam at the Snake River outlet of Jackson Lake. This dam failed in 1910 and a new concrete Jackson Lake Dam replaced it by 1911. The dam was further enlarged in 1916, raising lake waters 39 feet (12 m) as part of the Minidoka Project, designed to provide irrigation for agriculture in the state of Idaho.[31][32] Though efforts to protect the Teton Range and Jackson Hole as part of an expanded Yellowstone National Park dated back to the late 1800's, the proposals to construct more dams on some of the other lakes in Jackson Hole led Yellowstone National Park superintendent Horace Albright to block such efforts. Albright was originally an advocate of the expanded Yellowstone plan which was very unpopular with local residents. By the mid 1920's however, local sentiment had changed once the proposals for a new national park carved out of land currently protected as part of the Teton National Forest and including only the Teton Range and six lakes at the base of the range were put forward.[33] With the general agreement of prominent Jackson Hole residents on this plan, President Calvin Coolidge signed the executive order establishing the 96,000 acres (39,000 ha) Grand Teton National Park on February 26, 1929.[34]
The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and his wife visited the region in the late 1920's.[35] Horace Albright had hoped to protect the valley of Jackson Hole north of the town of Jackson from commercial exploitation. Rockefeller agreed and through a private enterprise known as the Snake River Land Company by 1928 Rockefeller was buying land in Jackson Hole to be later turned over to the National Park Service. In 1930, this plan was revealed to the residents of the region and was met with strong disapproval.[35] However under the authority of the Antiquities Act, (which permitted any President to set aside land as a National Monument), the property belonging to the Snake River Land Company and additional land carved from Teton National Forest were incorporated into the 221,000 acres (89,000 ha) Jackson Hole National Monument by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1943.[36] The monument and park were adjacent to each other and administered by the National Park Service, but the monument designation ensured no funding allotment, nor provided the level of resource protection equal to the park. Almost inevitably, the monument and park were combined in 1950.[33] The scenic highway that extends from Moran, Wyoming through Grand Teton National Park to Grant Village in Yellowstone National Park was named the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway to recognize Rockefeller's contributions.[37] In 2001, the Rockefellers donated their Jackson Hole retreat, the JY Ranch, to the national park for the establishment of the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve, dedicated on June 21, 2008.[38]
Geography
Grand Teton National Park is located in the northwestern region of the U.S. state of Wyoming. To the north the park is bordered by the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway, which is administered by Grand Teton National Park. The scenic highway by the same name passes from the southern boundary of Grand Teton National Park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park.[37] The Jedediah Smith Wilderness of Caribou-Targhee National Forest lies along the western boundary and includes the western slopes of the Teton Range. To the northeast and east lie the Teton Wilderness and Gros Ventre Wilderness of Bridger-Teton National Forest. The southeastern border of the park is the location of the National Elk Refuge, where migrating herds of elk from the region spend winters. Privately owned land borders the park to the south and southwest. Grand Teton National Park, along with Yellowstone National Park, surrounding National Forests and related protected areas constitute the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a nearly intact ecosystem that spans across three states and includes an area of nearly 18,000,000 acres (7,300,000 ha) (28,000 sq mi (73,000 km2)).[39]
Teton Range
The Teton Range is the youngest mountain range in the Rocky Mountains, and began forming between 6 to 9 million years ago.[40] The Teton Range runs roughly north to south and rises from the floor of Jackson Hole without any foothills along a 40 miles (64 kilometres) long by 7 to 9 miles (11 to 14 kilometres) wide active fault-block mountain front.[1] In addition to 13,775 ft (4,199 m) high Grand Teton, another nine peaks are over 12,000 ft (3,658 m) above sea level.[41] Eight of these peaks between Avalanche and Cascade Canyons make up the often-photographed Cathedral Group. The most prominent peak north of Cascade Canyon is the monolithic Mount Moran (12,605 feet (3,842 m)) which rises almost 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above Jackson Lake. To the north of Mount Moran, the range eventually merges into the high altitude Yellowstone Plateau. South of the central Cathedral Group the Teton Range tapers off near Teton Pass and blends into the Snake River Range.[42]
West to east trending canyons provide easier access by foot into the heart of the range as no vehicular roads traverse the range except at Teton Pass, which is outside the park. Carved by a combination of glacier activity as well as by numerous streams, the canyons are at their lowest point along the eastern margin of the range at Jackson Hole. Flowing from higher to lower elevations, the glaciers created more than a dozen U-shaped valleys throughout the range.[43] Cascade Canyon is the best known and is sandwiched between Mount Owen and Teewinot Mountain to the south and Symmetry Spire to the north. North to south, Webb, Moran, Paintbrush, Cascade, Death and Granite Canyons slice through Teton Range.
Jackson Hole
Jackson Hole is a 55 miles (89 kilometres) long by 6 to 13 miles (9.7 to 20.9 kilometres) wide graben valley that has an average elevation of 6,800 ft (2,100 m) with its lowest point near the south park boundary at 6,350 ft (1,940 m).[44] The valley sits east of the Teton Range and is vertically displaced downward 30,000 ft (9,100 m) from corresponding rock layers in it, making the Teton Fault and its parallel twin on the east side of the valley normal faults with the Jackson Hole block being the hanging wall and the Teton Mountain block being the footwall. Grand Teton National Park contains the major part of both blocks. A great deal of erosion of the range and sediment filling the graben, however, yields a topographic relief of only up to 7,700 ft (2,300 m).[40] Jackson Hole is surprisingly flat, with only a modest increase in altitude south to north, however a few isolated buttes such as Blacktail Butte and hills including Signal Mountain dot the valley floor.[45]
Lakes and Rivers
All of the lakes in Grand Teton National Park were formed by glaciers and the majority of these lakes are located at the base of the Teton Range. In the northern section of the park lies Jackson Lake, the largest lake in the park at 15 miles (24 km) long 5 miles (8.0 km) wide and 438 feet (134 m) deep.[1] Though Jackson Lake is natural, the Jackson Lake Dam was constructed at its outlet before the creation of the park (since modified) and the lake level was raised almost 40 feet (12 m) consequently.[31] East of the Jackson Lake Lodge lies Emma Matilda and Two Ocean Lakes. South of Jackson Lake Leigh, Jenny, Bradley, Taggart and Phelps Lakes can be found near the entrance to the canyons which lead into the Teton Range. Within the Teton Range, smaller lakes are sometimes found in high altitude cirques. Lake Solitude, located at an elevation of 9,035 feet (2,754 m), is in a cirque at the head of the North Fork of Cascade Canyon. Other high altitude lakes can be found at over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in elevation and a few, such as Icefloe Lake, remain ice clogged for much of the year.[46]
The Snake River flows north to south through the park, entering Jackson Lake near the boundary of Grand Teton National Park and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. The Snake River then flows through the spillways of the Jackson Lake Dam and from there flows south through Jackson Hole, exiting the park just west of the Jackson Hole Airport. The Snake River is the hydrologic watershed for the entire park and in addition to the lakes which feed into the river either directly or by tributary streams, the Buffalo Fork and the Gros Ventre River also contribute to the Snake River.
Glaciation
The glaciated Teton Range is composed of a series of horns and arêtes separated by U-shaped valleys headed by cirques and ended by moraines, making the Tetons a textbook example of alpine topography. Rubble piles left by ice age alpine glaciers impounded a series of interconnected lakes at the foot of the range (Jackson, Leigh, String, Jenny, Bradley, Taggart, and Phelps). The largest lake in the valley, Jackson Lake, was impounded by a recessional moraine left by a very large valley glacier as it retreated north out of Jackson Hole. Jackson Lake covers 25,540 acres (103.4 km2) and has a maximum depth of 438 feet (134 metres). There are also over 100 alpine and backcountry lakes.
Just to the south is Burned Ridge, the same glacier's terminal or end moraine, which runs down the center of Jackson Hole roughly perpendicular to the range and cut in two by the Snake River. After exiting its dammed outlet at the southeast corner of Jackson Lake, the Snake runs down the valley and through the 10 miles (16 kilometres) long glacial outwash plain south of Burned Ridge. The river's headwaters are in a part of the Teton Wilderness a short distance north in Yellowstone National Park and its destination is the Columbia River far to the west, which in turn empties into the Pacific Ocean. Terraces have been cut by the river into the moraines and outwash plain in the valley. About 50 miles (80 kilometres) of the 1,056-mile (1,699 km) long Snake River winds through the park where it is fed by three major tributaries; Pacific Creek, Buffalo Fork, and the Gros Ventre River.
Climate
The local climate is a semi-arid mountain one with a yearly extreme high of 93 °F (34 °C) and extreme low of −46 °F (−43 °C). Average annual snowfall is 191 inches (490 centimetres) and average rainfall is 10 inches (250 millimetres). The coldest temperature ever recorded in Grand Teton National Park was −63 °F (−53 °C), and snow often blankets the landscape from early November to late April.
Geology
The rock units that make up the east face of the Teton Range are around 2500 million years old and made of metamorphosed sandstones, limestones, various shales, and interbeded volcanic deposits. Buried deep under Tertiary volcanic, sedimentary, and glacial deposits in Jackson Hole, these same Precambrian rocks are overlain by Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations that have long since been eroded away from atop the Tetons.
The Paleozoic-aged sediments were deposited in warm shallow seas and resulted in various carbonate rocks along with sandstones and shales. Mesozoic deposition transitioned back and forth from marine to non-marine sediments. In later Mesozoic, the Cretaceous Seaway periodically covered the region and the Sierran Arc to the west provided volcanic sediments.
A mountain-building episode called the Laramide orogeny started to uplift western North America 70 million years ago and eventually formed the Rocky Mountains. This erased the seaway and created fault systems along which highlands rose. Sediment eroded from uplifted areas filled-in subsiding basins such as Jackson Hole while reverse faults created the first part of the Teton Range in the Eocene epoch. Large Eocene-aged volcanic eruptions from the north in the Yellowstone-Absaroka area along with later Pleistocene-aged Yellowstone Caldera eruptions, left thick volcanic deposits in basins.
The Teton Range started to grow along a north-south trending fault system next to Jackson Hole some 9 million years ago in the Miocene epoch. Then starting in the Pliocene, Lake Teewinot periodically filled Jackson Hole and left thick lakebed sediments. The lake was dry by the time a series of glaciations in the Pleistocene epoch saw the introduction of large glaciers in the Teton and surrounding ranges. During the Last Glacial Maximum, these glaciers melded together to become part of the Wisconsin glaciation, which carried away all soil from Jackson Hole and surrounding basins. Later and less severe ice ages created enough locally-deposited material in the form of moraines and till to repair much of this damage. Since then, mass wasting events such as the 1925 Gros Ventre landslide, along with slower forms of erosion, have continued to modify the area. On the floor of the Jackson Hole valley rise several landforms, one of the most conspicuous being Blacktail Butte.
Biology
Flora
Grand Teton National Park and areas adjacent to it host over 1000 species of vascular plants. Whitebark Pine, Limber Pine, Subalpine fir, and Engelmann Spruce survive in Tetons' alpine zone up to around 10,000 feet (3,000 m). Lodgepole Pine, Douglas Fir, and Blue Spruce are found on the valley floor, while the aspens, cottonwoods, alders, and willows commonly inhabit the moist soils along rivers and lakeshores.
Forests in the Teton area generally consist of two to three different tree species that grow together in a specific habitat. Edge habitat for various wildlife species is created where these different forest types merge in zones called ecotones. Some animals, such as the Red squirrel, pine marten, and black bear spend a majority of their life in forests. Other animal species, such as moose, elk (or wapiti), and wolves, use the forest for shade and shelter in the day and move to sagebrush dominated areas or meadows to feed in the early mornings and evenings.
Soil conditions, the amount of water, slope, aspect, and elevation all help determine where different plant communities grow. Biologists divide the plants of Grand Teton National Park into these communities: forests, sagebrush flats, riparian corridors and wetlands, and alpine areas.
Evergreen forests in the area are composed of seven species of coniferous tree while over 900 flowering plant species dominate the Teton Range below the tree line down to the top of Jackson Hole's moraines. These moraines are composed of compact piles of unsorted rubble that have good clay content and retain moisture better than the quartzite-rich outwash plain, which allows them to support large stands of Lodgepole Pines and many other plants.
Outwash plain areas are covered in a loose soil that doesn't hold moisture well and is therefore only able to support sparse vegetation such as sagebrush and coarse grasses. Numerous aspens, cottonwoods, and willows grow along in riparian zones outside of the outwash plain. Grasses, sedges, and wildflowers dominate in wet meadows.
Fauna
Coyotes and badgers dig burrows into the loesses, which were blown into the valley between ice ages. High alpine areas of the park support plants that are specially adapted to the harsh conditions. These hardy plants cope with wind, snow, a lack of soil, increased ultraviolet radiation, rapid and dramatic temperature shifts, and a short growing season. Growing close to the ground in mats like the Alpine Forget-me-not is a common adaptation.
Grand Teton National Park is located in the heart of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, one of the largest intact temperate zone ecosystems remaining on the planet. This means that many of the animals in the Teton area travel between the two parks and the numerous adjacent National Forests.
- 5 species of Amphibians: Spotted Frog, Boreal Chorus Frog, Boreal Toad, Tiger Salamander, Northern Leopard Frog (believed to be locally extinct), and Bullfrog (introduced just outside the park).
- 6 species of bats
- 300+ species of birds, including Bald Eagle, Calliope Hummingbird, Golden Eagle, Osprey, Sage Grouse, Trumpeter Swan, Western Tanager
- 17 species of carnivores, including Grizzly and Black Bear, Mountain Lion, Wolf and Coyote.
- 16 species of fishes, including Yellowstone cutthroat trout, Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout, Mountain sucker, Utah chub, and Mountain whitefish
- 6 species of hoofed mammals, including American Bison, Moose, Pronghorn, elk, and Mule Deer
- Numerous invertebrates (no poisonous spiders)
- 3 species of rabbits/hares
- 4 species of reptiles (none poisonous): Wandering Garter Snake, Valley Garter Snake, Rubber Boa, and Northern Sagebrush Lizard
- 22 species of rodents, including Yellow-Bellied Marmot, Least Chipmunk, Muskrat, Red Squirrel, and Uinta Ground Squirrel
References
- ^ a b c "Park Statistics". National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "NPS Stats". National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ a b Crockett, Stephanie (July 24, 2004). "The Archeological Record of Jackson Hole and Grand Teton National Park". The Prehistoric Peoples of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ Crockett, Stephanie (September 1, 2002). "The Early Archaic (8,000 to 5,000 B.P.)". The Prehistoric Peoples of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ "Elk Natural History". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. May 3, 2010. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ Crockett, Stephanie (July 24, 2004). "Late Prehistoric Period (1,500 to 500 B.P.)". Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ a b c Crockett, Stephanie (July 24, 2004). "Protohistoric Period (A.D. 1700 to 1850)". The Prehistoric Peoples of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ Jackson, Reynold G. (July 24, 2004). "Park of the Matterhorns". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ Harris, Burton (March 1, 1993). John Colter, His Years in the Rockies. Bison Books. pp. 73–113. ISBN 9780803272644.
- ^ Mattes, Merrrill J. (March 5, 2004). "John Colter, the Phantom Explorer—1807-1808". Colter's Hell and Jackson's Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ Potts, Merlin K. (March 27, 2004). "The Discovery of Jackson Hole and the Yellowstone". Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "The Fur Trappers". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ Kelsey, Joe (January 1994). Climbing and hiking in the Wind River Mountains. Globe Pequot Press. p. 56. ISBN 0934641706.
- ^ Mattes, Merrrill J. (March 5, 2004). ""Le Trois Tetons": The Golden Age of Discovery, 1810-1824". Colter's Hell and Jackson's Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
- ^ Moulton, Candy Vyvey (January 16, 2007). Legacy of the Tetons: Homesteading in Jackson Hole. La Frontera Publishing; 2nd edition. p. 15. ISBN 9780978563400.
- ^ Hafen, LeRoy R. (October 1, 1983). Trappers of the Far West: Sixteen Biographical Sketches. Bison Books. p. 85. ISBN 9780803272187.
- ^ a b c Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "The Fur Trappers". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-02.
- ^ Baldwin, Kenneth H. (November 15, 2004). "Terra Incognita: The Raynolds Expedition of 1860". Enchanted Enclosure The Army Engineers and Yellowstone National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Jackson, Reynold G (July 24, 2004). "Park of the Matterhorns". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-15.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Explorers and Scientists". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Potts, Merlin K. (March 27, 2004). "The Doane Expedition of 1876-1877". Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Prospectors and Miners". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Pitcher, Don (May 5, 2009). Yellowstone and Grand Teton: Including Jackson Hole. Avalon Travel Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 1598801600.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "The Pioneers: Homesteading in Jackson Role, 1884-1900". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Judge, Frances (March 27, 2004). "Mountain River Men". Campfire Tales of Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-09.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Cattle Ranchers". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-15.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "The Dude Wranglers". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-15.
- ^ "Yellowstone Fact Sheet". National Park Service. August 10, 2006. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Conservationists". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ "The National Forests of the United States" (pfd). Forest History Society. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ a b "Jackson Lake Dam". Bureau of Reclamation. Jul 13, 2009. Retrieved 2011-04-23. Cite error: The named reference "reclamation" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "The Minidoka Project" (pdf). Bureau of Reclamation. 1997. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ a b Skaggs, Jackie. "Creation of Grand Teton National Park" (pfd). National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ Besser, Brook (March 23, 2010). Wyoming Road Trip by the Mile Marker. NightBlaze Books. p. 35. ISBN 0984409300.
- ^ a b Daugherty, John (July 24, 2004). "Conservationists". A Place Called Jackson Hole. Grand Teton Natural History Association. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ Congressional Record. Vol. 148, Pt. 13 (September 20, 2002 to October 1, 2002 ed.). U.S. Congress. August 16, 2006. p. 17710. ISBN 0160767741.
- ^ a b "John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway". National Park Service. August 18, 2006. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- ^ Skaggs, Jackie (June 21, 2008). "Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve Center Opens to the Public". Grand Teton National Park News Releases. Retrieved 2001-04-23.
- ^ "Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem" (PDF). Yellowstone Resources and Issues. National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
- ^ a b "Park Geology". Geology Fieldnotes. National Park Service. January 4, 2005. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
- ^ "Teton Range". Peakbagger. Retrieved 2011-03-13.
- ^ Love, J. David (January 19, 2007). Creation of the Teton Landscape. Grand Teton Natural History Association. pp. An Astronauts View. ISBN 0931895081.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Glaciation" (PDF). Journey Through the Past: A Geologic Tour. National Park Service. July 2006. Retrieved 2011-03-19.
- ^ Dougherty, Michael (October 2003). The Ultimate Wyoming Atlas and Travel Encyclopedia (PDF). Ultimate Press. p. 405. ISBN 1888550120.
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Park Service.
- Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition, Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing; 1997) ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
- Daugherty, John (2002-09-01) [1999]. A Place Called Jackson Hole. Crockett, Stephanie; Goetzmann, William H.; Jackson Reynold G. Moose, Wyoming: Grand Teton Natural History Association. ISBN 0931895561. Retrieved 2007-03-13.