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The word ''gospel'' derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''gōd-spell'' <ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gospel</ref> (rarely ''godspel''), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". It is a [[calque]] (word-for-word translation) of the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] word {{lang|grc|εὐαγγέλιον}}, ''[[Good news (Christianity)|euangelion]]'' (''eu-'' "good", ''-angelion'' "message"). The Greek word ''"euangelion"'' is also the source (via [[Latinised]] "evangelium") of the terms "evangelist" and "evangelism" in English. The authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the four evangelists. |
The word ''gospel'' derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''gōd-spell'' <ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gospel</ref> (rarely ''godspel''), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". It is a [[calque]] (word-for-word translation) of the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] word {{lang|grc|εὐαγγέλιον}}, ''[[Good news (Christianity)|euangelion]]'' (''eu-'' "good", ''-angelion'' "message"). The Greek word ''"euangelion"'' is also the source (via [[Latinised]] "evangelium") of the terms "evangelist" and "evangelism" in English. The authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the four evangelists. |
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Originally, the gospel was the good news of redemption through the propitiatory offering of Jesus Christ for one's sins, the central Christian message. Note: John 3:16.<ref name="ODCC self">"Gospel." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Before the first gospel was written (Mark, ''c'' 65-70),<ref |
Originally, the gospel was the good news of redemption through the propitiatory offering of Jesus Christ for one's sins, the central Christian message. Note: John 3:16.<ref name="ODCC self">"Gospel." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Before the first gospel was written (Mark, ''c'' 65-70),<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]] used the term {{lang|grc|εὐαγγέλιον}} gospel when he reminded the people of the church at [[Corinth]] "of the gospel I preached to you" ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 15.1). Paul averred that they were being [[Salvation|saved]] by the gospel, and he characterized it in the simplest terms, emphasizing [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|Christ's appearances after the Resurrection]] (15.3 – 8): |
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{{quotation|...that Christ died for our sins according to the [[Old Testament|scriptures]]; And that he was buried; and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures; And that he was seen of [[Saint Peter|Cephas]]; then of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve]]: After that, he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once: of whom the greater part remain unto this present, but some have fallen asleep. After that he was seen of [[James the Just|James]], then of all the apostles. Last of all, he was seen of me also, as one born out of due time.}} |
{{quotation|...that Christ died for our sins according to the [[Old Testament|scriptures]]; And that he was buried; and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures; And that he was seen of [[Saint Peter|Cephas]]; then of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve]]: After that, he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once: of whom the greater part remain unto this present, but some have fallen asleep. After that he was seen of [[James the Just|James]], then of all the apostles. Last of all, he was seen of me also, as one born out of due time.}} |
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The short ''o'' in the modern word gospel is due to mistaken association with the word [[god (word)|god]]. Old English gōd-spell had a long vowel and would have become good-spell in modern English. |
The short ''o'' in the modern word gospel is due to mistaken association with the word [[god (word)|god]]. Old English gōd-spell had a long vowel and would have become good-spell in modern English. |
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==The first |
==The first accounts== |
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Critical scholars generally agree on several early sayings collections and accounts preceding the "canonical" Gospels. The dedicatory preface of the [[Gospel of Luke]] testifies already to the existence of several "accounts" of the life of Jesus by the time of its composition.<ref>Stanley E. Porter ''Reading the Gospels today'' p100</ref> The term Luke uses (διήγησις ''diēgēsis'') is a term used in classical Greek for any historical narrative.<ref>Charles H. Talbert ''Reading Luke: a literary and theological commentary'' 2002 p2 "(3) What exactly is Luke? The prologue (1:1-4) says it is a diegesis (account). The second-century rhetorician Theon defines diegesis as "an expository account of things which happened or might have happened." Cicero (De Inv. 1.19.27)"</ref> The term "Gospel" is not used in the New Testament text for any of the [[canonical]] Gospels, though in later centuries a traditional reading of 2 Corinthians 8:18 "the brother whose praise is the Gospel" was to sometimes identify this with Luke, and consequently Gospel of Luke.<ref>F. F. Bruce ''Acts'' p383</ref> |
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{{duplication}}{{Original research|date=March 2011}} |
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It is generally accepted by most scholars that [[James the Just|James]] was the first leader of the [[Jewish Christians]] in Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9|NIV}}</ref> |
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<ref>While its [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles|historical accuracy is disputed by some]], the major [[primary source]] for the [[Apostolic Age]] (c.30-c.100) is the [[Acts of the Apostles]].</ref> |
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<ref>Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'' 3</ref> |
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<ref name="E.A. Livingston p 957 & 722">F.L. Cross & E.A. Livingston, ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church,'' Oxford University Press, 1989. p 957 & 722</ref> |
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<ref name="E.A. Livingston p 957 & 722"/><ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> |
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<ref>''Gospel of Matthew'' 2:23</ref><ref>Barrie Wilson 2009 ''How Jesus Became Christian'', Random House. pp. 1 - 20.</ref><ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities'' 20:9</ref> As Jews, this group worshiped at the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], revered the written [[Mosaic law#Mosaic law|Law]] and the [[Oral tradition and the historical Jesus|Oral Tradition]] (called ''Torah Shebeal Peh''). This Oral Tradition interpreted the written Law given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai.<ref name="Ahavat Torat Israel">[http://www.ahavat-israel.com/torat/index.php Ahavat Torat Israel] P 1</ref> |
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<ref name="Joseph Barclay 2009. p 14">Joseph Barclay, ''The Talmud'', BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009. p 14</ref> |
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It was in this cultural context or [[Sitz im Leben]] that the ''Christian Gospel Tradition'' had its roots, as Jesus and later Christian 'Rabbis' developed the oral "Gospel" to interpret the written Law given to Moses by God.<ref name="P. Moreland, 2009. pp 111-115">J. P. Moreland, ''The God Question'', Harvest House Publishers, 2009. pp 111-115</ref><ref name="Brad Young 2007. pp 3-203">Brad Young, ''Meet the rabbis: rabbinic thought and the teachings of Jesus'', Hendrickson Publishers, 2007. pp 3-203</ref> With the [[diaspora]], (or ''Tefutzot'' תפוצות, "scattered") the oral tradition was no longer tenable for Jews or Jewish Christians.<ref>It became necessary for it to be written down, which it was in the [[Mishnah]] for [[Rabbinic Judaism]] and in the gospels for Christianity.</ref> |
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{{main|synoptic gospels}} |
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<ref>Paul Isaac Hershon, 1880 ''A Talmudic miscellany'', Trübner & co. p. xv-xvi</ref><ref>Daṿid Weiss Halivni, 1998 ''Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses'', Westview Press. p. xiii</ref> |
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⚫ | The [[synoptic gospels]] are the source of many popular stories, parables, and sermons, such as [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus' humble birth in Bethlehem]], the [[Sermon on the Mount]], the [[Beatitudes]], the [[Last Supper]], and the [[Great Commission]]. John provides a theological description of Jesus as the [[Logos (Christianity)|eternal Word]], the unique [[Redeemer (Christianity)|savior]] of humanity. All four attest to his [[Son of God|Sonship]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miraculous power]], crucifixion, and resurrection. Portions of the gospels are traditionally read aloud during church services as a formal part of the [[liturgy]]. |
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<ref>R. Travers Herford, 2007 ''Christianity in Talmud and Midrash'', KTAV Publishing House Inc. pp. 1-34.</ref> |
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<ref>Henry Wansbrough, 2004 ''Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition'', Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 10-59.</ref> |
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<ref>Barry W. Henaut, 1993 ''Oral tradition and the Gospels'', Continuum International Publishing Group, 1993. pp. 13-53.</ref> |
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<ref>Hermann Strack, 1945 ''Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash'', Jewish Publication Society. pp. 11-12.</ref> |
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<ref name="Grayzel p. 193">Grayzel, 1984 ''A History of the Jews'', Penguin Books. p. 193.</ref> |
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When Peter (one of the [[Twelve]] disciples and a Jew) left Jerusalem,<ref name="P. Moreland, 2009. pp 111-115"/><ref name="Brad Young 2007. pp 3-203"/><ref name="ODCC Peter">"Peter, St. " F. L., Cross, ''The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church'', Oxford University Press, 2005</ref> he preached the Gospel orally to the ''Diaspora'' (scattered communities of believers, Jews and Hebrew Christians) in [[Early centers of Christianity#Anatolia|Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bithynia]] and eventually went to [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]].<ref name="ODCC Peter"/><ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Fathers of the Church}}.</ref> |
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<ref>Thomas Patrick Halton, 1999 ''On Illustrious Men''], v. 100, CUA Press. pp. 5–7.</ref><ref>The [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm Early Church Fathers] Chapter 1</ref> However it was Peter's [[scribe]] [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] who first reduced the Oral Tradition of Peter to written form. According to Jerome,<ref>'' Then too the Gospel according to Mark, who was his disciple and interpreter, is ascribed to (Peter) him.'' Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'' 3</ref> Mark set down these teachings of Peter in what is now called the [[Gospel of Mark]] |
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Modern scholars agree <ref>The hypothesis that the Gospel of Mark was the first written of the canonical gospels is known as [[Markan priority]]. According to the [[two-source hypothesis]] the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke used the Gospel of Mark among other sources in writing their gospels. See the [[synoptic gospels]].</ref> that Mark composed the first gospel, in [[Koine Greek]]. Peter is said to have reviewed this work and given it his blessing, elevating the [[Gospel of Mark]] to the level of an eyewitness account.<ref>''Mark, who had been Peter's interpreter, wrote down carefully, but not in order, all that he remembered of the [[Logia|Lord’s sayings]] and doings. For he had not heard the Lord or been one of his followers, but later, as I said, one of Peter’s. Peter used to adapt his teachings to the occasion, without making a systematic arrangement of the Lord’s sayings, so that Mark was quite justified in writing down some of the things as he remembered them. For he had one purpose only – to leave out nothing that he had heard, and to make no misstatement about it.'' - Papias, quoted in Eusebius ''History of the Church'', trans. G.A. Williamson (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1965). 3.39.15 / pp. 103–4. Also available [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P2185_1027485 online]</ref><ref>Irenaeus, ''Haer'' 3.1.</ref><ref>Tertullian, ''Against Marcion'' 4:5</ref><ref>''Mark the disciple and interpreter of Peter wrote a short gospel at the request of the brothers at Rome embodying what he had heard Peter preach. When Peter had heard this, he approved it and published it to the churches'' - Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'' 8</ref> The Gospel of Mark was widely circulated and scholars agree that it was a primary source used in the writing of later gospels.<ref name="Grayzel p. 193"/><ref>See the [[Synoptic Gospels]]</ref><ref>, Hermann Strack, 1945 ''Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash'', Jewish Publication Society. pp. 11-12.</ref> |
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Matthew (one of the [[Twelve]] disciples and a Jew) was also part of the ''Diaspora''. The Church Fathers recognized this and said that his gospel was born out of necessity. |
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<ref>'' "They (the Apostles) were led to write only under the pressure of necessity. Matthew, who had first preached the Gospel in Hebrew, when on the point of [[Great Commission|going to other nations]], committed the Gospel to writing in his native language".'' - Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 3.24.6</ref> |
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<ref>'' " The very first Gospel to be written was by Matthew, once a tax collector but later an apostle of Jesus Christ. Matthew published it for the converts from Judaism and composed it in Hebrew letters." '' - [[Eusebius]],''Hist. eccl.'', 6.25.4.</ref> It was composed in Hebrew and meant for Hebrew Christians.<ref>''"Matthew collected the teachings of Jesus (ta logia) in the Hebrew language and everyone translated them as best he could.' '' |
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- Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 39.16</ref> |
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<ref>The first reference to the Hebrew text written by the disciple Matthew comes from [[Papias]]. Papius was born about thirty years after the crucifixion and eventually became Bishop of Hierapolis in [[Early centers of Christianity#Western Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. Papias starts by discussing the origin of the Gospel of Mark, and then further remarks that "Matthew composed the [[logia]] in the Hebrew tongue and each one interpreted them as he was able". According to [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman]] this "first gospel to be written" is not a reference to the canonical gospel, since the canonical ''Gospel of Matthew'' was [[Greek primacy|originally written in Greek]] and not Hebrew. Although most scholars agree, it goes against the teachings of the [[Catholic Church]] - Bart Ehrman, ''Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium'', Oxford University Press, 1999. p 43</ref> |
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<ref>Peter Schäfer, 2007 ''Jesus in the Talmud'', Princeton University Press. p. 75.</ref><ref>Bernhard Pick, 2007 ''The Talmud: What It Is and What It Knows of Jesus and His Followers'', Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 116.</ref><ref>''Talmud Bavli'', Tractate Sotah 48b</ref><ref>Paul Carus, ''The sayings of Jesus in the Talmud'', The Monist, Volume 20, Open Court for the Hegeler Institute p 414</ref><ref>Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl''., 6.25.4.</ref><ref>Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl''., 39.16</ref> |
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This [[Hebrew Gospel]] was translated into Greek, but the Greek translation was lost. The Hebrew original was kept at the [[Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima|Library of Caesarea]]. The Nazarene Community transcribed a copy for [[Jerome]] which he used in his work.<ref>''"Matthew, also called Levi, who used to be a tax collector and later an apostle, composed the Gospel of Christ, which was first published in Judea in Hebrew script for the sake of those of the Jews who believed. This Gospel was afterwards translated into Greek (and the Greek has been lost) though by what author uncertain. The Hebrew original has been preserved to this present day in the library of Caesarea, which [[Pamphilus]] diligently gathered. I have also had the opportunity of having this volume transcribed for me by the Nazarenes of Beroea, Syria, who use it."'' - Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'' 3)</ref><ref>Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'', 3]</ref><ref>Edward Byron Nicholson, ''The Gospel According to the Hebrews'',BiblioBazaar. p. 26.</ref> |
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Matthew's ''Hebrew Gospel'' was often called the [[Authentic Gospel of Matthew]], the [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]] <ref>''"They too accept Matthew's gospel, and like the followers of [[Cerinthus]] and Merinthus, they use it alone. They call it the 'Gospel of the Hebrews', for in truth Matthew alone in the New Testament expounded and declared the ''Gospel in Hebrew'' using Hebrew script."'' - Epiphanius, ''Pan.'' 30.3.7</ref><ref>''"Matthew also issued a written 'Gospel of the Hebrews' in their own language."''Irenaeus, ''Haer'' 3.1.1</ref> or sometimes the ''Gospel of the Apostles'' <ref>''"In the 'Gospel of the Hebrews', written in the Chaldee and Syriac language but in Hebrew script, and used by the Nazarenes to this day (I mean the 'Gospel of the Apostles', or, as it is generally maintained, 'Matthew's gospel', a copy of which is in the library at Caesarea) we find . . . "'' - Jerome, ''Pelag'' 3.2</ref><ref>''"the Gospel called of the Hebrews'', was recently translated by me into Greek and Latin.", - Jerome, ''Vir.ill.'', 2</ref><ref>John Bovee Dods, ''The Gospel of Jesus'', G. Smith Pub. pp. iv - vi.]</ref><ref>Edward Byron Nicholson, 2009 ''The Gospel According to the Hebrews'', Edward Byron Nicholson, BiblioBazaar. p 82</ref> and it was once believed that it was the original to the ''Greek Matthew'' found in the Bible, although this is currently disputed by modern Biblical Scholars. |
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The ''Hebrew Gospel'' was widely circulated among early [[Jewish Christian]]s. |
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<ref>''Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity'', G.P. Fisher, Scribner & co. p. 167.</ref> |
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<ref>Eusebius in his catalog of early Christian writings noted that the ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' was very popular among the ''Hebrews'' who accept Christ. Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 3.25.5</ref> These groups included the Nazarenes, Ebionites etc. It was generally believed that they added their own oral traditions or midrash to the "Hebrew Gospel" giving rise to what are now known as the [[Jewish Gospels]].<ref>“… The early Church Catalogs of both Eusebius and Nicephorus included the [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]] but did not include other [[Jewish-Christian Gospels]] such as the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] or the [[Gospel of the Nazarenes]]. Also Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople, who produced a list of New Testament books, noted that the ''Gospel of the Hebrews'' is 2200 lines, 300 fewer than ''Greek Matthew.'' He also viewed them as separate works No mention is made of the 'other' Jewish gospels. - (Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople, in his Stichometry)</ref> Almost all critics agree that the ''Jewish Gospels'' are just modified editions of Matthew's ''Hebrew Gospel''.<ref>Pierson Parker, ''A Proto-Lucan basis for the Gospel according to the Hebrews'', Journal of Biblical Literature 59, Dec 1940. pp. 471.</ref><ref name="Walter Richard Cassels 2010. p 419- 422">Walter Richard Cassels, ''Supernatural Religion - An Inquiry Into the Reality of Divine Revelation'', Read Books, Vol. 1, p 419- 422</ref><ref>''"Pantaenus was one of those, and is said to have gone to India. It is reported that among the Christians there that he had found Matthew's Gospel. This had anticipated his own arrival, for Bartholomew (Thomas), one of the apostles, had preached to them, and left with them the writings of Matthew in Hebrew, which they had preserved till that time. After many good deeds, Pantaenus finally became the head of the School in Alexandria, and expounded the treasures of divine doctrine both orally and in writing."'' - Eusebius, ''Hist. eccl.'', 5.10.3</ref><ref>Arthur Lillie, 2005 ''The Gospel According to the Hebrews'', Kessinger Publishing pp. 111–134.</ref><ref>Edward Byron Nicholson, ''The Gospel According to the Hebrews'' BiblioBazaar, LLC. pp 1-26, 78-82 & 90-108</ref><ref name="William Binnington Boyce. pp. 359-360">William Binnington Boyce, ''The higher criticism and the Bible'', Wesleyan Conference Office, pp. 359-360</ref><ref>Sir James Donaldson, 1864 ''A critical history of Christian literature and doctrine: from the death of the apostles to the Nicene Council'', Macmillan. pp. 36-45.</ref><ref>Bernhard Pick, 2005 ''The Gospel According to the Hebrews'', Kessinger Publishing. pp. 1-28.</ref><ref>William Farmer, ''The Synoptic Problem: a Critical Analysis'', New York: Macmillan. p 196</ref><ref>Johannes Kirchhofer, ''Canonicity: a collection of early testimonies to the canonical books of the New Testament'', William Blackwood, 1880. p lxviii</ref><ref>John Kitto, ''A cyclopædia of Biblical literature'', Black Pub, 1876. pp 162-163.</ref> |
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<ref>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, ''Philosophical and Theological Writings'', Cambridge University Press. 2005. pp 148-171</ref> |
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<ref>Everett Falconer Harrison, ''Introduction to the New Testament'', Wm. Eerdmans Pub, 1971. p 152</ref> |
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<ref>J.R. Edwards, ''The Hebrew Gospel and the development of the synoptic tradition. Wm. B. Eerdmans'', 2009. p 259-263</ref> |
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<ref name="Bart Erhman 1999. p 44">Bart Erhman, ''Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium'', Oxford University Press, 1999. p 44</ref><ref>James R. Edwards, ''The [[Hebrew Gospel]] & the Development of the Synoptic Tradition'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co, 2009. p 259-262</ref> |
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In addition to the Gospel of Mark and the ''Hebrew Gospel'' (sometimes referred to as [[M source]]) another source held to be used in redacting the Gospels of Matthew and Luke is known as [[Q source]], which most scholars believe was a written document.<ref name="Harris"/> This forms the basis of Streeter's [[Four Document Hypothesis]]. (See also the [[synoptic gospels]] and the [[two-gospel hypothesis]])<ref name ="Harris"/> Finally in a recent monograph James R. Edwards has put forward the possibility that the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] was the first gospel to be written. It is further argued that this gospel was the basis for the canonical gospels.<ref>James R. Edwards, ''The Hebrew Gospel & the Development of the Synoptic Tradition'', (2009), Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 1-376</ref> |
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⚫ | The fourth gospel, the Gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his [[Ministry of Jesus|ministry]] from the synoptics.<ref |
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⚫ | The fourth gospel, the Gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his [[Ministry of Jesus|ministry]] from the synoptics.<ref>Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> In differentiating history from invention, historians interpret the gospel accounts skeptically<ref name = "Sanders">[[E. P. Sanders|Sanders, E. P.]], ''The historical figure of Jesus'', Penguin, 1993.</ref> but generally regard the synoptic gospels as including significant amounts of historically reliable information about Jesus.<ref name = "Sanders"/> |
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⚫ | The [[synoptic gospels]] are the source of many popular stories, parables, and sermons, such as [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus' humble birth in Bethlehem]], the [[Sermon on the Mount]], the [[Beatitudes]], the [[Last Supper]], and the [[Great Commission]]. John provides a theological description of Jesus as the [[Logos (Christianity)|eternal Word]], the unique [[Redeemer (Christianity)|savior]] of humanity. All four attest to his [[Son of God|Sonship]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miraculous power]], crucifixion, and resurrection. Portions of the gospels are traditionally read aloud during church services as a formal part of the [[liturgy]]. |
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More generally, gospels compose a [[genre]] of [[early Christian]] [[literature]].<ref>Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., ''Das Evangelium und die Evangelien'', [[Tübingen]] 1983, also in English: ''The Gospel and the Gospels''</ref> Gospels that did not become canonical |
More generally, gospels compose a [[genre]] of [[early Christian]] [[literature]].<ref>Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., ''Das Evangelium und die Evangelien'', [[Tübingen]] 1983, also in English: ''The Gospel and the Gospels''</ref> Gospels that did not become canonical also circulated in [[Early Christianity]]. Some, such as the work known today as [[Gospel of Thomas]], lack the narrative framework typical of a gospel.<ref name="Oxford:unspecified">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, unspecified article</ref> These gospels almost certainly appeared much later than the canonical gospels, with the Gospel of Thomas being a likely exception. |
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==Historicity of the canonical gospels== |
==Historicity of the canonical gospels== |
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Estimates for the dates when the canonical gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Because the earliest surviving complete copies of the gospels date to the 4th century and because only fragments and quotations exist before that, scholars use [[higher criticism]] to propose likely ranges of dates for the original gospel autographs. Scholars variously assess the majority (though not the consensus <ref>Beck, David (2001). Rethinking the Synoptic Problem. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-2281-9</ref>) view as follows: |
Estimates for the dates when the canonical gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Because the earliest surviving complete copies of the gospels date to the 4th century and because only fragments and quotations exist before that, scholars use [[higher criticism]] to propose likely ranges of dates for the original gospel autographs. Scholars variously assess the majority (though not the consensus <ref>Beck, David (2001). Rethinking the Synoptic Problem. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-2281-9</ref>) view as follows: |
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* '''Mark''': c. 68–73,<ref name="Brown">[[Raymond E. Brown]]. An Introduction to the New Testament.</ref> ''c'' 65-70<ref |
* '''Mark''': c. 68–73,<ref name="Brown">[[Raymond E. Brown]]. An Introduction to the New Testament.</ref> ''c'' 65-70<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> |
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* '''Matthew''': c. 70–100.<ref name="Brown"/> ''c'' 80-85.<ref |
* '''Matthew''': c. 70–100.<ref name="Brown"/> ''c'' 80-85.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> |
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* '''Luke''': c. 80–100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85,<ref name="Brown"/> ''c'' 80-85<ref |
* '''Luke''': c. 80–100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85,<ref name="Brown"/> ''c'' 80-85<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> |
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* '''John''': ''c'' 90-100,<ref |
* '''John''': ''c'' 90-100,<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> c. 90–110,<ref>C K Barrett, among others.</ref> The majority view is that it was written in stages, so there was no one date of composition. |
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Traditional Christian scholarship has generally preferred to assign earlier dates. Some historians interpret the end of the book of Acts as indicative, or at least suggestive, of its date; as Acts does not mention the death of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], generally accepted as the author of many of the Epistles, who was later put to death by the Romans c. 65.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} Acts is attributed to the author of the Gospel of Luke, which is believed to have been written before Acts, and therefore would shift the chronology of authorship back, putting Mark as early as the mid 50s. Here are the dates given in the modern [[NIV Study Bible]] (''for a fuller discussion see [[Augustinian hypothesis]]''): |
Traditional Christian scholarship has generally preferred to assign earlier dates. Some historians interpret the end of the book of Acts as indicative, or at least suggestive, of its date; as Acts does not mention the death of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], generally accepted as the author of many of the Epistles, who was later put to death by the Romans c. 65.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} Acts is attributed to the author of the Gospel of Luke, which is believed to have been written before Acts, and therefore would shift the chronology of authorship back, putting Mark as early as the mid 50s. Here are the dates given in the modern [[NIV Study Bible]] (''for a fuller discussion see [[Augustinian hypothesis]]''): |
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====Location==== |
====Location==== |
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Matthew was probably written in Syria, perhaps in [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]],<ref |
Matthew was probably written in Syria, perhaps in [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]],<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> an ancient Christian center. Mark has traditionally been associated with Peter's preaching in [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]], and it is well-suited to a Roman audience.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> Various cities have been proposed for the origin of Luke, but there is no consensus on the matter. Ephesus, in [[Early centers of Christianity#Western Anatolia|Western Anatolia]], is a popular scholarly choice for the place of origin for the Gospel of John.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> |
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Following [[Raymond E. Brown|Raymond Brown]]'s postulation of a Johannine community having been responsible for John's gospel and letters,<ref>R. Brown, ''The Gospel According to John'' The Anchor Bible. (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966)</ref> other scholars have identified localized communities behind each of the other gospels and Q. This assumes the relative isolation of early Christian communities in which distinctive traditions concerning Jesus thrived. Other scholars have questioned this hypothesis and have stressed the constant communication between early Christian communities.<ref>J. Dunn, "Jesus in Oral Memory": the Initial Stages of the Jesus Tradition" ''Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers'', 39 (2000) p. 325; "Altering the Default Setting: Re-envisaging the Early Transmission of the Jesus Tradition" ''New Testament Studies'' 49 (2003) pp. 139-175; R. Bauckham, "For Who Were the Gospels Written?" ''The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 13-22; B. A. Pearason, "A Q Community in Galilee?" ''New Testament Studies'', 50 (2004) p. 489</ref> |
Following [[Raymond E. Brown|Raymond Brown]]'s postulation of a Johannine community having been responsible for John's gospel and letters,<ref>R. Brown, ''The Gospel According to John'' The Anchor Bible. (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966)</ref> other scholars have identified localized communities behind each of the other gospels and Q. This assumes the relative isolation of early Christian communities in which distinctive traditions concerning Jesus thrived. Other scholars have questioned this hypothesis and have stressed the constant communication between early Christian communities.<ref>J. Dunn, "Jesus in Oral Memory": the Initial Stages of the Jesus Tradition" ''Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers'', 39 (2000) p. 325; "Altering the Default Setting: Re-envisaging the Early Transmission of the Jesus Tradition" ''New Testament Studies'' 49 (2003) pp. 139-175; R. Bauckham, "For Who Were the Gospels Written?" ''The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 13-22; B. A. Pearason, "A Q Community in Galilee?" ''New Testament Studies'', 50 (2004) p. 489</ref> |
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All four gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples, performing miracles, preaching in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], being crucified, and [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|rising from the dead]]. |
All four gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples, performing miracles, preaching in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], being crucified, and [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|rising from the dead]]. |
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The synoptic gospels represent Jesus as an [[exorcist]] and healer who preached in parables about the coming [[Kingdom of God]]. He preached first in Galilee and later in Jerusalem, where [[Jesus and the money changers|he cleansed the temple]]. He states that he offers no sign as proof (Mark) or only the sign of Jonah (Matthew and Luke).<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> In Mark, apparently written with a Roman audience in mind, Jesus is a heroic man of action, given to powerful emotions, including agony.<ref |
The synoptic gospels represent Jesus as an [[exorcist]] and healer who preached in parables about the coming [[Kingdom of God]]. He preached first in Galilee and later in Jerusalem, where [[Jesus and the money changers|he cleansed the temple]]. He states that he offers no sign as proof (Mark) or only the sign of Jonah (Matthew and Luke).<ref name = "5G">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.</ref> In Mark, apparently written with a Roman audience in mind, Jesus is a heroic man of action, given to powerful emotions, including agony.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> In Matthew, apparently written for a [[Jewish Christianity|Jewish audience]], Jesus is repeatedly called out as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> In Luke, apparently written for gentiles, Jesus is especially concerned with the poor.<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> Luke emphasizes the importance of prayer and the action of the [[Holy Spirit]] in Jesus' life and in the Christian community.<ref name = "tggkjn">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Luke, Gospel of St''</ref> Jesus appears as a stoic supernatural being, unmoved even by his own crucifixion.<ref name = "mvkcgb"/> Like Matthew, Luke insists that salvation offered by Christ is for all, and not the Jews only.<ref name = "tggkjn"/><ref>St. Matthew , "The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible New King James Version", (B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co. Inc., 1997) p. 1258 verse 12:21, p.1274, verse 21:43.</ref> |
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The Gospel of John represents Jesus as an incarnation of the eternal Word (Logos), who spoke no parables, talked extensively about himself, and did not explicitly refer to a [[Second Coming]].<ref |
The Gospel of John represents Jesus as an incarnation of the eternal Word (Logos), who spoke no parables, talked extensively about himself, and did not explicitly refer to a [[Second Coming]].<ref>Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985</ref> Jesus preaches in Jerusalem, launching his ministry with the cleansing of the temple. He performs several miracles as signs, most of them not found in the synoptics. And just how the Gospel of John ends - John 21:25 ''"And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written. Amen."'' |
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===Gospel Genre=== |
===Gospel Genre=== |
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{{Main|Jewish-Christian Gospels|Gospel of the Nazarenes|Gospel of the Ebionites|Gospel of the Hebrews}} |
{{Main|Jewish-Christian Gospels|Gospel of the Nazarenes|Gospel of the Ebionites|Gospel of the Hebrews}} |
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[[Epiphanius]], [[Jerome]] and other early church fathers preserve in their writings citations from one or more [[Jewish-Christian Gospels]], versions of Matthew used by [[Ebionites]] and [[Nazarenes]]. Most modern critical scholars consider that the extant citations suggest at least two and probably three distinct Jewish-Christian versions of Matthew, and that the source language of these is probably Greek.<ref> |
[[Epiphanius]], [[Jerome]] and other early church fathers preserve in their writings citations from one or more [[Jewish-Christian Gospels]], versions of Matthew used by [[Ebionites]] and [[Nazarenes]]. Most modern critical scholars consider that the extant citations suggest at least two and probably three distinct Jewish-Christian versions of Matthew, and that the source language of these is probably Greek.<ref>[[Philipp Vielhauer]] in [[Schneemelcher]]'s ''New Testament Apocrypha'' Vol.1 (1971) English revised edition R. Wilson, of ''Neutestamentliche Apokryphen'' 1964 Hennecke & Schneemelcher </ref> A minority of scholars, including [[Edward Nicholson (librarian)|Edward Nicholson]] (1879) and [[James R. Edwards]] (2009) have suggested that the surviving citations are all from one Gospel, which is, as Jerome himself records that the Nazarenes claimed, the original, and Hebrew, Gospel of Matthew.<ref>[[Edward Nicholson (librarian)|Edward Nicholson]] (1879), The Gospel according to the Hebrews: its fragments translated and annotated, first published 1879, [[James R. Edwards|Edwards, James R.]] ''The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009. Pp. 402 ISBN 0802862349</ref> |
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[[Origen]] said the first<ref>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Vs9YXAB_axYC&pg=PA18&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false Eusebius, ''Church History'' 6.25.4]</ref> Gospel was written by Matthew.<ref>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=X2VLANXcZsYC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=Matthaei+Authenticum&source=bl&ots=NdyBrgMJDN&sig=hM8xzHN7uqET8gbXJbURQAC7qIs&hl=en&ei=R1FzSrWVAo_aNoy0wbEM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8#v=onepage&q=Matthaei%20Authenticum&f=false Jerome, ''Commentary on Matthew'' 2.12]</ref> This Gospel was composed in Hebrew near Jerusalem for Hebrew Christians and translated into Greek, but the Greek copy was lost. The Hebrew original was kept at the Library of Caesarea. The Nazarene Community transcribed a copy for [http://books.google.ca/books?id=Cb4CAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA82&dq=Matthew+Jerome+%22The+Fathers+of+the+Church%22+%22+Gospel+according+to+the+Hebrews%22++extant&num=100#v=onepage&q=Matthew%20Jerome%20%22The%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church%22%20%22%20Gospel%20according%20to%20the%20Hebrews%22%20extant&f=false Jerome] which he used in his work.<ref>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=uqzY1zBtKg0C&pg=PA10&dq=%22matthew+surnamed+levi%22+%22composed+a+gospel+of+Christ+at+first+published+in+Judea+in+Hebrew%22&lr=&num=100&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22matthew%20surnamed%20levi%22%20%22composed%20a%20gospel%20of%20Christ%20at%20first%20published%20in%20Judea%20in%20Hebrew%22&f=false Jerome, ''On Illustrious Men'' 3]</ref> Matthew's Gospel was called the [http://books.google.ca/books?id=_wLZAAAAMAAJ&q=Hebrew+%22Gospel+of+matthew%22+%22in+the+New+Testament+expounded+and+declared+the+gospel+in+Hebrew+%22+%22Gospel+according+to+the+Hebrews+%22+Cerinthus+Merinthus,&dq=Hebrew+%22Gospel+of+matthew%22+%22in+the+New+Testament+expounded+and+declared+the+gospel+in+Hebrew+%22+%22Gospel+according+to+the+Hebrews+%22+Cerinthus+Merinthus ''Gospel according to the Hebrews''] or sometimes the [http://books.google.ca/books?id=Cb4CAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA26&dq=%22Gospel+according+to+the+twelve+apostles%22++Matthew+%22We+may+now+sum+up+the+external+evidence%22++%22Gospel+according+to+the+Hebrews%22&num=100#v=onepage&q=%22Gospel%20according%20to%20the%20twelve%20apostles%22%20Matthew%20%22We%20may%20now%20sum%20up%20the%20external%20evidence%22%20%22Gospel%20according%20to%20the%20Hebrews%22&f=false ''Gospel of the Apostles'']<ref>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=c2ANAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR4&dq=matthew+%22Gospel+of+the+twelve+Apostles%22#v=onepage&q=matthew%20%22Gospel%20of%20the%20twelve%20Apostles%22&f=false John Bovee Dods, ''The Gospel of Jesus'', G. Smith Pub., 1858 pp. iv - vi]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Zm1v-c7fGmgC&pg=PA472&dq=%22gospel+according+to+the+hebrews%22+%22Gospel+according+to+matthew%22+%22gospel+according+to+the+apostles+%22in+Hebrew+characters%22+copy&lr=&num=100&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=%22gospel%20according%20to%20the%20hebrews%22%20%22Gospel%20according%20to%20matthew%22%20%22gospel%20according%20to%20the%20apostles%20%22in%20Hebrew%20characters%22%20copy&f=false Jerome, ''Against Pelagius'' 3.2]</ref> |
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According to Eusebius, [[Origen]] said the first Gospel was written by Matthew (''Church History'' 6.25.4). Jerome reports that the Nazarenes believed that this Gospel was composed in Hebrew near Jerusalem for Hebrew Christians and Jerome claimed to have translated parts of it into Greek, but if so any the Greek translation has not survived. Jerome reports that the Nazarenes' Hebrew original was kept at the Library of Caesarea and that the Nazarene Community transcribed a copy for him which he used in his work (''On Illustrious Men'' 3:7) Jerome refers to this gospel sometimes as the ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (3.7) and sometimes as the ''Gospel of the Apostles'' (''Against Pelagius'' 3.2). |
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Recent studies of the external evidence, shows that there existed among the Nazarene and Ebionite Communities, a gospel commonly referred to as the ''Gospel of the Hebrews''. It was written in Aramaic and its authorship was attributed to St. Matthew. Indeed the Fathers of the Church, while the ''Gospel of the Hebrews'' was still being circulated and read, referred to it always with respect, often with reverence. The Early [[Church Fathers]] (Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus Origen, Jerome etc.) all made reference to this gospel of Matthew. |
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===Gospel of Thomas=== |
===Gospel of Thomas=== |
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The [[Gospel of Judas]] is another controversial and ancient text that purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus in most versions of the Bible. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a Gospel about Judas), and dates no earlier than the 2nd century. |
The [[Gospel of Judas]] is another controversial and ancient text that purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus in most versions of the Bible. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a Gospel about Judas), and dates no earlier than the 2nd century. |
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===The |
===The Sayings Collection 'Q'=== |
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{{Main|Q document}} |
{{Main|Q document}} |
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According to scholars proposing the existence of a hypothetical sayings-source, a ''Redensquelle'', 'Q' (following the terminology of [[Johannes Weiss]]) at some time there existed a document comprised mostly sayings of Jesus with little narrative. It is presumed the source for many of Jesus' sayings in Matthew and Luke, and accordingly must have preceded these gospels. It is believed that the earliest form of the sayings were written circa 50-60.<ref name = "5GStages">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]], Roy W. Hoover, and the [[Jesus Seminar]]. ''The five gospels.'' HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition" p. 128</ref> However [[Mark Goodacre]] and other scholars have questioned the existence of a Q document.<ref>James McConkey Robinson ''The sayings Gospel Q in Greek and English'' 2001 p23 ""Q." (with a period making it clear that it was meant as an abbreviation, representing Quelle, "source") was first used in 1880, but "Q" came to be used simply as a symbol first in the 1890s, beginning with Johannes Weiss"</ref> |
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===Infancy gospels=== |
===Infancy gospels=== |
Revision as of 13:27, 4 April 2011
A gospel is a written account that describes the life, death, and Resurrection of Jesus. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the Good News message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four Canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. However, the term is also used to refer to the Synoptic gospels, the Apocryphal gospels, the Non-canonical gospels, the Jewish gospels and the Gnostic gospels.
Etymology
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The word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell [1] (rarely godspel), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". It is a calque (word-for-word translation) of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion (eu- "good", -angelion "message"). The Greek word "euangelion" is also the source (via Latinised "evangelium") of the terms "evangelist" and "evangelism" in English. The authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the four evangelists.
Originally, the gospel was the good news of redemption through the propitiatory offering of Jesus Christ for one's sins, the central Christian message. Note: John 3:16.[2] Before the first gospel was written (Mark, c 65-70),[3] Paul the Apostle used the term εὐαγγέλιον gospel when he reminded the people of the church at Corinth "of the gospel I preached to you" (1 Corinthians 15.1). Paul averred that they were being saved by the gospel, and he characterized it in the simplest terms, emphasizing Christ's appearances after the Resurrection (15.3 – 8):
...that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures; And that he was buried; and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures; And that he was seen of Cephas; then of the Twelve: After that, he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once: of whom the greater part remain unto this present, but some have fallen asleep. After that he was seen of James, then of all the apostles. Last of all, he was seen of me also, as one born out of due time.
The earliest extant use of εὐαγγέλιον gospel to denote a particular genre of writing dates to the 2nd century. Justin Martyr (c 155) in 1 Apology 66 wrote: "...the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels".
Henry Barclay Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pages 456-457 states:
- Εὐαγγέλιον in the LXX occurs only in the plural, and perhaps only in the classical sense of 'a reward for good tidings' (2 Sam 4:10 [also 18:20, 18:22, 18:25–27, 2 Kings 7:9]); in the N.T. it is from the first appropriated to the Messianic good tidings (Mark 1:1, 1:14), probably deriving this new meaning from the use of εὐαγγελίζεσθαι in Isaiah 40:9, 52:7, 60:6, 61:1.
In the New Testament, evangelism meant the proclamation of God's saving activity in Jesus of Nazareth, or the agape message proclaimed by Jesus of Nazareth. This is the original New Testament usage (for example Mark 1:14–15 or 1 Corinthians 15:1–9; see also Strong's G2098). The peculiar situation in the English language of an obsolete translation persisting into current usage harks back to John Wycliffe who already had gospel, and whose usage was adopted into the King James Version. The short o in the modern word gospel is due to mistaken association with the word god. Old English gōd-spell had a long vowel and would have become good-spell in modern English.
The first accounts
Critical scholars generally agree on several early sayings collections and accounts preceding the "canonical" Gospels. The dedicatory preface of the Gospel of Luke testifies already to the existence of several "accounts" of the life of Jesus by the time of its composition.[4] The term Luke uses (διήγησις diēgēsis) is a term used in classical Greek for any historical narrative.[5] The term "Gospel" is not used in the New Testament text for any of the canonical Gospels, though in later centuries a traditional reading of 2 Corinthians 8:18 "the brother whose praise is the Gospel" was to sometimes identify this with Luke, and consequently Gospel of Luke.[6]
Canonical gospels
The synoptic gospels are the source of many popular stories, parables, and sermons, such as Jesus' humble birth in Bethlehem, the Sermon on the Mount, the Beatitudes, the Last Supper, and the Great Commission. John provides a theological description of Jesus as the eternal Word, the unique savior of humanity. All four attest to his Sonship, miraculous power, crucifixion, and resurrection. Portions of the gospels are traditionally read aloud during church services as a formal part of the liturgy.
The fourth gospel, the Gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his ministry from the synoptics.[7] In differentiating history from invention, historians interpret the gospel accounts skeptically[8] but generally regard the synoptic gospels as including significant amounts of historically reliable information about Jesus.[8]
More generally, gospels compose a genre of early Christian literature.[9] Gospels that did not become canonical also circulated in Early Christianity. Some, such as the work known today as Gospel of Thomas, lack the narrative framework typical of a gospel.[10] These gospels almost certainly appeared much later than the canonical gospels, with the Gospel of Thomas being a likely exception.
Historicity of the canonical gospels
The historicity of the gospels refers to the reliability and historic character of the four New Testament gospels as historical documents. Historians subject the gospels to critical analysis, attempting to differentiate authentic, reliable information from what they judge to be inventions, exaggerations, and alterations.[8]
Many prominent mainstream historians consider the synoptic gospels to contain much reliable historical information about the historical Jesus as a Galilean teacher [11][12] and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
The baptism of Jesus, his preaching, and the crucifixion of Jesus are deemed to be historically authentic. Elements whose historical authenticity is disputed include the two accounts of the nativity of Jesus, as well as certain details about the crucifixion and the resurrection.[20][21][22][23][24][25] The fourth gospel, John, includes a number of historically reliable details, but it differs greatly from the first three gospels, and historians largely discount it. The canonical gospels, overall, are considered to have more historically authentic content than the various non-canonical gospels.
On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus.[26] On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus life.[27]
Canonical gospels
Of the many gospels written in antiquity, only four gospels came to be accepted as part of the New Testament, or canonical. An insistence upon there being a canon of four gospels, and no others, was a central theme of Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 185. In his central work, Adversus Haereses Irenaeus denounced various early Christian groups that used only one gospel, such as Marcionism which used only Marcion's version of Luke, or the Ebionites which seem to have used an Aramaic version of Matthew as well as groups that embraced the texts of newer revelations, such as the Valentinians (A.H. 1.11). Irenaeus declared that the four he espoused were the four "Pillars of the Church": "it is not possible that there can be either more or fewer than four" he stated, presenting as logic the analogy of the four corners of the earth and the four winds (3.11.8). His image, taken from Ezekiel 1, or Revelation 4:6-10, of God's throne borne by four creatures with four faces—"the four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and the four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle"—equivalent to the "four-formed" gospel, is the origin of the conventional symbols of the Evangelists: lion, bull, eagle, man. Irenaeus was ultimately successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively, and exclusively these four, contained the truth. By reading each gospel in light of the others, Irenaeus made of John a lens through which to read Matthew, Mark and Luke.
By the turn of the 5th century, the Catholic Church in the west, under Pope Innocent I, recognized a biblical canon including the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which had been previously established at a number of regional Synods, namely the Council of Rome (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), and two Synods of Carthage (397 and 419).[28] This canon, which corresponds to the modern Catholic canon, was used in the Vulgate, an early 5th century translation of the Bible made by Jerome[29] under the commission of Pope Damasus I in 382.
- Gospel according to Matthew
- Gospel according to Mark
- Gospel according to Luke
- Gospel according to John
There was also another order, the "western order of the Gospels", so called because it is typical for the manuscripts which are usually a representative of the Western text-type.
- Gospel according to Matthew
- Gospel according to John
- Gospel according to Luke
- Gospel according to Mark
This order is found in the following manuscripts: Bezae, Monacensis, Washingtonianus, Tischendorfianus IV, Uncial 0234.
Medieval copies of the four canonical gospels are known as Gospel Books or also simply as Gospels (in Greek as Tetraevangelia). Notable examples include the Lindisfarne Gospels (c 700), the Barberini Gospels, Lichfield Gospels and the Vienna Coronation Gospels (8th century), the Book of Kells and the Ada Gospels (c. 800) or the Ebbo Gospels (9th century).
Origin of the canonical gospels
The majority view today is that Mark is the first Gospel, with Matthew and Luke borrowing passages both from that Gospel and from at least one other common source, lost to history, termed by scholars 'Q' (from German: Quelle, meaning "source"). This view is known as the "two-source hypothesis".[30] The two-gospel hypothesis, in contrast, says that Matthew was written first (by Matthew the Apostle), and then Luke the Evangelist wrote his gospel (using Matthew as his main source) before Mark the Evangelist wrote his gospel (using Peter's testimony). John was written last and shares little with the synoptic gospels.
The gospels were apparently composed in stages. Mark's traditional ending (Mark 16:9-20, see Mark 16) was most likely composed early in the 2nd century and appended to Mark in the middle of that century.[31] The birth and infancy narratives apparently developed late in the tradition.[32] Luke and Matthew may have originally appeared without their first two chapters.[32]
The consensus among biblical scholars is that all four canonical gospels were originally written in Greek, the lingua franca of the Roman Orient.
Dating
Estimates for the dates when the canonical gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Because the earliest surviving complete copies of the gospels date to the 4th century and because only fragments and quotations exist before that, scholars use higher criticism to propose likely ranges of dates for the original gospel autographs. Scholars variously assess the majority (though not the consensus [33]) view as follows:
- Mark: c. 68–73,[34] c 65-70[35]
- Matthew: c. 70–100.[34] c 80-85.[36]
- Luke: c. 80–100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85,[34] c 80-85[37]
- John: c 90-100,[38] c. 90–110,[39] The majority view is that it was written in stages, so there was no one date of composition.
Traditional Christian scholarship has generally preferred to assign earlier dates. Some historians interpret the end of the book of Acts as indicative, or at least suggestive, of its date; as Acts does not mention the death of Paul, generally accepted as the author of many of the Epistles, who was later put to death by the Romans c. 65.[citation needed] Acts is attributed to the author of the Gospel of Luke, which is believed to have been written before Acts, and therefore would shift the chronology of authorship back, putting Mark as early as the mid 50s. Here are the dates given in the modern NIV Study Bible (for a fuller discussion see Augustinian hypothesis):
- Matthew: c. 50 to 70s
- Mark: c. 50s to early 60s, or late 60s
- Luke: c. 59 to 63, or 70s to 80s
- John: c. 85 to near 100, or 50s to 70
Such early dates are not limited to conservative scholars. In Redating the New Testament John A. T. Robinson, a prominent liberal theologian and bishop, makes a case for composition dates before the fall of Jerusalem.
Location
Matthew was probably written in Syria, perhaps in Antioch,[40] an ancient Christian center. Mark has traditionally been associated with Peter's preaching in Rome, and it is well-suited to a Roman audience.[41] Various cities have been proposed for the origin of Luke, but there is no consensus on the matter. Ephesus, in Western Anatolia, is a popular scholarly choice for the place of origin for the Gospel of John.[42]
Following Raymond Brown's postulation of a Johannine community having been responsible for John's gospel and letters,[43] other scholars have identified localized communities behind each of the other gospels and Q. This assumes the relative isolation of early Christian communities in which distinctive traditions concerning Jesus thrived. Other scholars have questioned this hypothesis and have stressed the constant communication between early Christian communities.[44]
Oral tradition
The oral traditions that the evangelists drew on were transmitted by word of mouth for decades. This oral tradition consisted of several distinct components. Parables and aphorisms are the "bedrock of the tradition." Pronouncement stories, scenes that culminate with a saying of Jesus, are more plausible historically than other kinds of stories about Jesus. Other sorts of stories include controversy stories, in which Jesus is in conflict with religious authorities; miracles stories, including healings, exorcisms, and nature wonders; call and commissioning stories; and legends.
One of the most important concerns in accurately accounting for the oral Jesus tradition is the model of transmission used. Form criticism (Formgeschichte) was developed primarily by the German scholars Karl Ludwig Schmidt, Martin Dibelius, and Rudolf Bultmann.[45][46][47] The oral model developed by the form critics drew heavily on contemporary theory of folkloric transmission of oral material, and partly as a result of this form criticism posited that the Jesus tradition was transmitted informally, added to freely, and was uncontrolled.[48] However, "Today it is no exaggeration to claim that a whole spectrum of main assumptions underlying Bultmann's Synoptic Tradition must be considered suspect.[49] " A number of other models have been proposed which posit greater control over the tradition, to varying degrees. For example, largely in response to form critical scholarship, Professor Birger Gerhardsson examined oral transmission in early rabbinic circles, and proposed that a more controlled and formal model of orality would more accurately reflect the transmission of the Jesus tradition in early Christian circles, and therefore that the oral traditions present in the gospels have been fairly reliably and faithfully transmitted.[50] Professor Kenneth Bailey, after spending a great deal of time in remote and illiterate villages in the Middle East, used his experience with orality in such places to formulate a similar model of controlled transmission within the early Christian communities, but posited an informal mechanism of control.[48] Controlled models of the Jesus tradition, and with them an evaluation of the gospels as possessing greater historical reliability, have been accepted by several scholars in recent years.[51][52][53]
Content of the gospels
The four gospels present different narratives, reflecting different intents on the parts of their authors.[54]
All four gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples, performing miracles, preaching in Jerusalem, being crucified, and rising from the dead.
The synoptic gospels represent Jesus as an exorcist and healer who preached in parables about the coming Kingdom of God. He preached first in Galilee and later in Jerusalem, where he cleansed the temple. He states that he offers no sign as proof (Mark) or only the sign of Jonah (Matthew and Luke).[55] In Mark, apparently written with a Roman audience in mind, Jesus is a heroic man of action, given to powerful emotions, including agony.[56] In Matthew, apparently written for a Jewish audience, Jesus is repeatedly called out as the fulfillment of Hebrew prophecy.[57] In Luke, apparently written for gentiles, Jesus is especially concerned with the poor.[58] Luke emphasizes the importance of prayer and the action of the Holy Spirit in Jesus' life and in the Christian community.[59] Jesus appears as a stoic supernatural being, unmoved even by his own crucifixion.[54] Like Matthew, Luke insists that salvation offered by Christ is for all, and not the Jews only.[59][60]
The Gospel of John represents Jesus as an incarnation of the eternal Word (Logos), who spoke no parables, talked extensively about himself, and did not explicitly refer to a Second Coming.[61] Jesus preaches in Jerusalem, launching his ministry with the cleansing of the temple. He performs several miracles as signs, most of them not found in the synoptics. And just how the Gospel of John ends - John 21:25 "And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written. Amen."
Gospel Genre
One important aspect of the study of the gospels is the genre under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings.[62] " Whether the Gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a tremendous impact on how they ought to be interpreted. If, for example, Rudolf Bultmann was correct, and the Gospel authors had no interest in history or in a historical Jesus,[47] then the Gospels must be read and interpreted in this light. However, some recent studies suggest that the genre of the Gospels ought to be situated within the realm of ancient biography.[63][64][65][66][67] Although not without critics,[68] the position that the Gospels are a type of ancient biography is the consensus among scholars today.[69]
Non-canonical gospels
In addition to the four canonical gospels, early Christians wrote other gospels that were not accepted into the canon, some of which are discussed below.
Jewish-Christian Gospels
Epiphanius, Jerome and other early church fathers preserve in their writings citations from one or more Jewish-Christian Gospels, versions of Matthew used by Ebionites and Nazarenes. Most modern critical scholars consider that the extant citations suggest at least two and probably three distinct Jewish-Christian versions of Matthew, and that the source language of these is probably Greek.[70] A minority of scholars, including Edward Nicholson (1879) and James R. Edwards (2009) have suggested that the surviving citations are all from one Gospel, which is, as Jerome himself records that the Nazarenes claimed, the original, and Hebrew, Gospel of Matthew.[71]
According to Eusebius, Origen said the first Gospel was written by Matthew (Church History 6.25.4). Jerome reports that the Nazarenes believed that this Gospel was composed in Hebrew near Jerusalem for Hebrew Christians and Jerome claimed to have translated parts of it into Greek, but if so any the Greek translation has not survived. Jerome reports that the Nazarenes' Hebrew original was kept at the Library of Caesarea and that the Nazarene Community transcribed a copy for him which he used in his work (On Illustrious Men 3:7) Jerome refers to this gospel sometimes as the Gospel according to the Hebrews (3.7) and sometimes as the Gospel of the Apostles (Against Pelagius 3.2).
Gospel of Thomas
The gospel attributed to Thomas is mostly wisdom without narrating Jesus's life. A few scholars argue that its first edition was written c 50-60, but that the surviving edition was written in the first half of the second century.[72] This would mean that its first edition was contemporary with the earliest letters of Paul the Apostle. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church says that the original may date from c. 150.[73] It may represent a tradition independent from the canonical gospels, but that developed over a long time and was influenced by Matthew and Luke.[73] While it can be understood in Gnostic terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine.[73] The Jesus Seminar identified two of its unique parables, the parable of the empty jug and the parable of the assassin.[74] It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at Nag Hammadi in 1945-6, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found.[73]
Gospel of Peter
The gospel of Peter was likely written in the first half of the 2nd century.[75][76] It seems to be largely legendary, hostile toward Jews, and including docetic elements.[77] It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century.[77]
Gospel of Judas
The Gospel of Judas is another controversial and ancient text that purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus in most versions of the Bible. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a Gospel about Judas), and dates no earlier than the 2nd century.
The Sayings Collection 'Q'
According to scholars proposing the existence of a hypothetical sayings-source, a Redensquelle, 'Q' (following the terminology of Johannes Weiss) at some time there existed a document comprised mostly sayings of Jesus with little narrative. It is presumed the source for many of Jesus' sayings in Matthew and Luke, and accordingly must have preceded these gospels. It is believed that the earliest form of the sayings were written circa 50-60.[72] However Mark Goodacre and other scholars have questioned the existence of a Q document.[78]
Infancy gospels
A genre of "Infancy gospels" (Greek: protoevangelion) arose in the 2nd century, such as the Gospel of James, which introduces the concept of the Perpetual Virginity of Mary, and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas (not to be confused with the absolutely different sayings Gospel of Thomas), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels.
Harmonies
Another genre is that of gospel harmonies, in which the four canonical gospels were selectively recast as a single narrative to present a consistent text. Very few fragments of harmonies have survived. The Diatessaron was such a harmonization, compiled by Tatian around 175. It was popular for at least two centuries in Syria, but eventually it fell into disuse. More recently, in 2006, UOG Press published ONE as a modern gospel harmony of the four Canonical Gospels; ONE contains a 2,992 numbering reference system which tracks the textual harmonization process to the extant works for analysis and citation.[79]
Marcion's Gospel of Luke
Marcion of Sinope, c. 150, had a version of the gospel of Luke which differed substantially from that which has now become the standard text. Marcion's version was far less Jewish than the now canonical text, and his critics alleged that he had edited out the portions he didn't like from the canonical version, though Marcion argued that his text was the more genuinely original one. Marcion also rejected all the other gospels, including Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he alleged had been forged by Irenaeus.
See also
- List of Gospels
- Toledoth Yeshu - an anti-gospel
- Agrapha are the collection of religious sayings attributed to Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels.
- Godspell is a musical based on the gospels of Jesus Christ. The word "Gódspell" is Anglo Saxon (ca 1000 AD) for Gospel.[80]
- Good news (Christianity) concerning the content of the Bible's message about Jesus Christ
- Gospel harmony
- Gospel (liturgy)
- Gilyonim
- Injil
- Four evangelists
- Bodmer Papyri
- Acts of the Apostles (genre)
- Apocalyptic literature
- Christianity
- Evangelism
- Bible
- Theology
- Jesusism
References
- ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gospel
- ^ "Gospel." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ Stanley E. Porter Reading the Gospels today p100
- ^ Charles H. Talbert Reading Luke: a literary and theological commentary 2002 p2 "(3) What exactly is Luke? The prologue (1:1-4) says it is a diegesis (account). The second-century rhetorician Theon defines diegesis as "an expository account of things which happened or might have happened." Cicero (De Inv. 1.19.27)"
- ^ F. F. Bruce Acts p383
- ^ Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ a b c Sanders, E. P., The historical figure of Jesus, Penguin, 1993. Cite error: The named reference "Sanders" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, Tübingen 1983, also in English: The Gospel and the Gospels
- ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, unspecified article
- ^ "The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted."—Van Voorst, Robert E. Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16.
- ^ "The denial of Jesus' historicity has never convinced any large number of people, in or out of technical circles, nor did it in the first part of the century." Walter P. Weaver, The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, 1900-1950, (Continuum International, 1999), page 71.
- ^ The Myth about Jesus, Allvar Ellegard 1992,
- ^ Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5,
- ^ Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels pg 42 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).
- ^ “The Historical Figure of Jesus," Sanders, E.P., Penguin Books: London, 1995, p., 3.
- ^ Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction
- ^ Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&C=1230
- ^ http://www.church.org.uk/resources/csdetail.asp?csdate=01/04/2007
- ^ Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts (Westminster John Knox Press 1999), page 108
- ^ James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.
- ^ Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26
- ^ Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978 ISBN 0664241956
- ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495.
- ^ Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: Luke 24:51 is missing in some important early witnesses, Acts 1 varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.
- ^ Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994); pages 90-91
- ^ Howard M. Teeple (1970). "The Oral Tradition That Never Existed". Journal of Biblical Literature. 89 (1): 56–68. doi:10.2307/3263638.
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ignored (help) - ^ Pogorzelski, Frederick (2006). "Protestantism: A Historical and Spiritual Wrong Way Turn". Bible Dates. CatholicEvangelism.com. p. 1. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
- ^ "Canon of the New Testament". Catholic Encyclopedia. NewAdvent.com. 1908. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
- ^ For a dissenting view, seeMark Goodacre.
- ^ May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Mark" p. 1213-1239
- ^ a b Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Birth & Infancy Stories" p. 497-526.
- ^ Beck, David (2001). Rethinking the Synoptic Problem. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-2281-9
- ^ a b c Raymond E. Brown. An Introduction to the New Testament.
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ C K Barrett, among others.
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ R. Brown, The Gospel According to John The Anchor Bible. (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966)
- ^ J. Dunn, "Jesus in Oral Memory": the Initial Stages of the Jesus Tradition" Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers, 39 (2000) p. 325; "Altering the Default Setting: Re-envisaging the Early Transmission of the Jesus Tradition" New Testament Studies 49 (2003) pp. 139-175; R. Bauckham, "For Who Were the Gospels Written?" The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 13-22; B. A. Pearason, "A Q Community in Galilee?" New Testament Studies, 50 (2004) p. 489
- ^ Schmidt, K. L. (1919). Der Rahmen der Geschichte Jesu. Berlin: Paternoster.
- ^ Dibelius, M. (1919). Die Formgeschichte des Evangelium 3d Ed. Günter Bornkamm (ed). Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr.
- ^ a b Bultmann, R. (1921). Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.
- ^ a b http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_tradition_bailey.html
- ^ Kelber, W. H. (1997). The Oral and Written Gospel: The Hermeneutics of Speaking and Writing in the Synoptic Tradition, Mark, Paul, and Q. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 8.
- ^ Gerhadsson, B. (1998). Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity with Tradition aand Transmission in Early Christianity Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
- ^ Wansbrough, H. (Ed). Jesus and the Oral Gospel Tradition London: Sheffield Academic Press
- ^ .Dunn, J. D. G. (2003). Jesus Remembered Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
- ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. Introduction, p. 1-40
- ^ a b Ehrman. Misquoting Jesus.
- ^ Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993.
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ a b Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Luke, Gospel of St
- ^ St. Matthew , "The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible New King James Version", (B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co. Inc., 1997) p. 1258 verse 12:21, p.1274, verse 21:43.
- ^ Harris Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985
- ^ Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 433
- ^ Stanton, G. N. (1974). Jesus of Nazareth in New Testament Preaching Society of New Testament Studies Monograph Series 27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Talbert, C. H. (1977). What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
- ^ Aune, D. E. (1987). The New Testament in Its Literary Environment. Philadelphia: Westminster.
- ^ Frickenschmidt, D. (1997). Evangelium als Biographie: Die vier Evanelien im Rahmen antiker Erzählkunst. Tübingen: Francke Verlag.
- ^ Burridge, R. A. (2004). What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography, rev. updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.
- ^ e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). The Prleblem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature
- ^ Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 437
- ^ Philipp Vielhauer in Schneemelcher's New Testament Apocrypha Vol.1 (1971) English revised edition R. Wilson, of Neutestamentliche Apokryphen 1964 Hennecke & Schneemelcher
- ^ Edward Nicholson (1879), The Gospel according to the Hebrews: its fragments translated and annotated, first published 1879, Edwards, James R. The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009. Pp. 402 ISBN 0802862349
- ^ a b Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition" p. 128
- ^ a b c d "Thomas, Gospel of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "The Gospel of Thomas," p 471-532.
- ^ "Peter, Gospel of St.." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Ehrman, Bart (2003). The Lost Christianities. New York: Oxford University Press. p. xi. ISBN 9780195141832.
- ^ a b "Peter, Gospel of St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ James McConkey Robinson The sayings Gospel Q in Greek and English 2001 p23 ""Q." (with a period making it clear that it was meant as an abbreviation, representing Quelle, "source") was first used in 1880, but "Q" came to be used simply as a symbol first in the 1890s, beginning with Johannes Weiss"
- ^ Gregg R. Zegarelli, 2006, ONE OUG Press Publishers ISBN 978-0-9789906-0-2
- ^ Joseph Bosworth, The Gothic and Anglo Saxon Gospells, John Russell Smith, 1874
Further references
McGrath, A. 2001. In the Beginning the Story of the King James Bible and how it changed a Nation, a Language and a Culture. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0 340 78585 3.
External links
- BibleGateway.com has the text of the New Testament gospels in various translations and versions
- A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the gospels — covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages.
- Greek New Testament — the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants.
- Introduction to The Complete Gospels — an excerpt and information about this compilation of canonical and non-canonical gospels in translation.
- Tessarôn Euaggeliôn Sumphônia - The Greek harmony of the Gospels
- Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (1)
- Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (2)
- The Case against Q collects resources for considering the Q hypothesis and evidence that Luke used Matthew
- Parallel Gospels in Harmony Online version of the public domain book Parallel Gospels in Harmony — with Study Guide
- Synoptic Parallels A web tool for finding corresponding passages in the Gospels