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:''For the Gaelic resurgence to overthrow English supremacy in the 14th-16th century, see: [[History of Ireland (1169–1536)#Gaelic resurgence (1350–1500)|Gaelic resurgence]].'' |
:''For the Gaelic resurgence to overthrow English supremacy in the 14th-16th century, see: [[History of Ireland (1169–1536)#Gaelic resurgence (1350–1500)|Gaelic resurgence]].'' |
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[[File:Frontcover Gaelic Journal.jpg|thumb|The [[Gaelic Journal]], an early organ of the Gaelic revival movement]] |
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The '''Gaelic revival''' ({{lang-ga|an Athbheochan Ghaelach}}) was the late-nineteenth-century [[Romantic nationalism|national revival]] of interest in the [[Irish language]] and [[Gaelic Ireland|Irish Gaelic culture]] (including folklore, sports, music, arts, etc.). Irish had diminished as a spoken tongue, remaining the main daily language only in isolated rural areas, with English as the dominant language of the majority of Ireland. |
The '''Gaelic revival''' ({{lang-ga|an Athbheochan Ghaelach}}) was the late-nineteenth-century [[Romantic nationalism|national revival]] of interest in the [[Irish language]] (known as ''Gaelic'') and [[Gaelic Ireland|Irish Gaelic culture]] (including folklore, sports, music, arts, etc.). Irish had diminished as a spoken tongue, remaining the main daily language only in isolated rural areas, with English as the dominant language of the majority of Ireland. |
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== |
==Early movements== |
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Early pioneers of Irish scholarship were [[John O'Donovan (scholar)|John O'Donovan]], [[Eugene O'Curry]] and [[George Petrie (artist)|George Petrie]]; O'Donovan and O'Curry found an outlet for their work in the Archaeological Society, founded in 1840.<ref name=Tierney16>{{Cite book |title=Eoin MacNeill:Scholar and Man of Action 1867–1945 |last=Tierney |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Tierney (politician) |year=1980 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0 19 822440 0 |page=16 }}</ref> From 1853 Irish literary works, particularly those associated with the [[Fianna]], were published by the [[Ossianic Society]], in which [[Standish Hayes O'Grady]] was active.<ref name=Tierney16/> The Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language was formed in 1877 by, among others, [[George Sigerson]] and [[Thomas O'Neill Russell]].<ref name=Tierney16/> The secretary of that society, Father John Nolan, split with it in 1880 and formed the Gaelic Union, of which the president was [[Charles Owen O'Conor|The O'Conor Don]], and whose members included [[Douglas Hyde]] and [[Michael Cusack]].<ref name=Tierney17>Tierney (1980), p. 17</ref> Cusack's interest in Gaelic culture was not restricted to the language; he took a keen interest in the traditional games of Ireland, and in 1884, with [[Maurice Davin]], he would found the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] to promote the games of [[Gaelic football]], [[hurling]] and [[Gaelic handball|handball]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nli.ie/1916/pdf/3.4.1.pdf |title=Michael Cusack, Maurice Davin and the Gaelic Athletic Association |publisher=National Library of Ireland |work=The 1916 Rising: Personalities and Perspectives |date=2006 |accessdate=4 April 2013}}</ref> In 1882 the Gaelic Union began publication of a monthly journal, the [[Gaelic Journal]]. Its first editor was David Comyn; he was followed by John Fleming, a prominent Irish scholar,<ref name=Tierney17/> and then Father [[Eugene O'Growney]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ryan|first=John|date=Dec 1945|title=Eoin Mac Neill 1867-1945|journal=Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review|publisher=Irish Province of the Society of Jesus|volume=34|issue=136|page=438|jstor=30100064|ref=Ryan}}</ref> |
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==Gaelic League== |
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The [[Young Ireland]] movement of the 1840s, in common with other European [[Nationalism|nationalist]] movements of the time, sought a new kind of national identity in the stories and myths of ancient [[Gaelic Ireland]]. This was seen in the poetry published in ''[[The Nation (Irish newspaper)|The Nation]]'' newspaper. The works of writers such as [[Thomas Davis (Young Irelander)|Thomas Davis]] and [[Thomas Moore]] used Gaelic themes, in the words of Kevin B. Nowlan, "to glorify the notion that although we may now be in the mire, we were once great, we were taller than Roman spears."<ref>{{cite book |title=Myth and Reality in Irish literature |last=Ronsley |first=Joseph |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1977 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |location= |isbn=0-88920-039-4 |page=10 |pages= |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=sjDjBvgofuoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=2010-04-16}}</ref> |
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In November 1892 Douglas Hyde gave a lecture to the [[National Literary Society]] entitled "The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Revival of Irish Literature |last=Duffy |first=Charles Gavan |authorlink=Charles Gavan Duffy |coauthors=George Sigerson and Douglas Hyde |year=1894 |publisher=[[T. Fisher Unwin|T. F. Unwin]] |location=London |isbn= |page=117 |pages= |url=http://archive.org/stream/revivalofirishli00duffiala#page/n5/mode/2up |accessdate=4 April 2013 }}</ref> He said that the Irish people had become almost completely [[Anglicisation|anglicised]], and that this could only be reversed through building up the language.<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 20</ref> Eoin MacNeill followed this up with an article in the ''Gaelic Journal'', "A Plea and a Plan for the Extension of the Movement to Preserve and Spread the Gaelic language in Ireland", and set about forming an organisation to help bring this about, together with Eugene O'Growney and J. H. Lloyd.<ref>Tierney (1980), pp. 21-2</ref> The [[Conradh na Gaeilge|Gaelic League]] (''{{lang|ga|Conradh na Gaeilge''}}) was founded on 31 July 1893. Hyde was elected president, MacNeill secretary, and Lloyd treasurer, and Thomas O'Neill Russell was among those elected to the council.<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 24</ref> |
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The Gaelic League held weekly meetings that were a combination of classes and conversation.<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 26</ref> Within months it had branches in Cork and Galway. After four years it had 43 branches, and after ten years more than 400.<ref name=Tierney28>Tierney (1980), p. 28</ref> Although it was more concerned with fostering the language in the home than with teaching it in schools, it was nonetheless successful in having Irish added to the curriculum; the number of schools teaching it rose from about a dozen in the 1880s to 1,300 in 1903.<ref>tierney (1980), p. 42</ref> The League took over the ''Gaelic Journal'' in 1894, when O'Growney retired as editor, with MacNeill replacing him.<ref name=Tierney28/> In January 1898 it began publication of a weekly newspaper, ''{{lang|ga|Fáinne an Lae}}''.<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 44</ref> In March of the following year, following a dispute with the owner, this was replaced by ''{{lang|ga|[[An Claidheamh Soluis]]}}'', with MacNeill again as editor.<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 48</ref> In 1901 MacNeill was replaced as editor by Eoghan Ó Neachtain, who was in turn replaced in 1903 by [[Patrick Pearse]].<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 73</ref> The League also concerned itself with the [[folk music of Ireland]], and was involved in the movement which led to the organisation of the [[Feis Ceoil]] by Annie Patterson in 1897.<ref>Tierney (1980), pp. 29-30</ref> |
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== Sport == |
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The League's relations with contemporary cultural movements were strained, and sometimes hostile, despite the fact that some of the League's leaders were on friendly terms with those movements. [[Pan-Celticism]] was viewed with suspicion by many members because its leaders in Ireland, especially [[Bernard FitzPatrick, 2nd Baron Castletown|Lord Castletown]], were closely associated with the Irish establishment.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Patrick Pearse: The Triumph of Failure |last=Edwards |first=Ruth Dudley |authorlink=Ruth Dudley Edwards |year=1977 |publisher=[[Victor Gollancz Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=0 575 02153 5 |pages=31-2 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> When Douglas Hyde was invited to the planned Pan-Celtic Congress of 1900—to be held in Dublin—as a delegate of the League, the ''{{lang|ga|Coiste Gnótha}}'' (executive committee) refused to send any representative, though Hyde might attend as an individual if he wished. Hyde reluctantly declined to attend.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Douglas Hyde: A Maker of Modern Ireland |last=Dunleavy |first=Janet Egleson |coauthors=Gareth W. Dunleavy |year=1991 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley |isbn=0 520 90932 1 |page=204 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=24sMpeVwhXgC&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2013 }}</ref> The [[Irish Literary Revival]] was denounced because its works were written in English, not Irish, and therefore tended even more towards anglicisation. Eoin MacNeill wrote, "Let them write for the 'English-speaking world' or the 'English-speaking race' if they will. But let them not vex our ears by calling their writings Irish and national."<ref name=Tierney66>Tierney (1980), p. 66</ref> Patrick Pearse said of the [[Irish Literary Theatre]] recently founded by [[W. B. Yeats]] that it should be "strangled at birth",<ref name=Tierney66/> |
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Prior to industrialisation, sport was disorganised by modern standards with rules for ball games frequently being agreed between opposing teams on a per-game basis. The emergence of organised sport in England in the nineteenth century, where [[football]] games were played by written rules establishment by the [[Football Association]] and the [[Rugby Football Union]], led to the soccer and rugby codes becoming popular in Britain and spreading to Ireland. The soccer code emphasised a kicking game, rugby emphasised a carrying game. The style of football that had been played in Ireland prior to this was a combination of carrying and kicking, and some people involved in the Gaelic Revival were concerned at the encroachment of the English codes that were displacing the traditional native style of football, with cricket contributing to the decline of [[hurling]].<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.nli.ie/1916/pdf/3.4.1.pdf |
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==Writers== |
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|title=Michael Cusack, Maurice Davin and the Gaelic Athletic Association |
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{{lang|ga|An tAthair [[Peadar Ua Laoghaire]]}} (Fr. Peter O'Leary), a [[parish priest]] from [[Castlelyons]] in County Cork, began contributing to the ''Gaelic Journal'' in 1894, and in November of that year he published the first installment of ''{{lang|ga|Séadna}}'', which was to become his best-known work. It was described by the journal as a "specimen of Munster Irish, one of the best samples, if not the very best, of southern popular Gaelic that has ever been printed."<ref>Tierney (1980), p. 35</ref> ''{{lang|ga|Séadna}}'' was the first major work of [[modern literature in Irish]].<ref name=Murphy>{{Cite web |url=http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a6390 |last=Murphy |first=John A. |authorlink=John A. Murphy |title=Ó Laoghaire, Peadar |accessdate=9 April 2013 |work=Dictionary of Irish Biography |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2009 }}</ref> {{lang|ga|Ua Laoghaire}} serialised the ''{{lang|ga|[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]}}'' in the ''[[Irish Examiner|Cork Weekly Examiner]]'' in 1900-1901, and followed it up with a series of modern renderings of ancient Irish tales such as ''{{lang|ga|Bricriu}}'', ''{{lang|ga|Eisirt}}'', ''{{lang|ga|An Cleasaidhe}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|An Craos-Deamhan}}'', all of which eschewed scholarship in favour of colloquial, entertaining Irish.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Prose Literature of the Gaelic Revival, 1881-1921: Ideology and Innovation |last=O'Leary |first=Philip |year=2005 |publisher=[[Penn State University Press|Penn State Press]] |location= |isbn=0271025964 |page=238 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=XBJiZPfpJkoC&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=9 April 2013 }}</ref> After ''{{lang|ga|Séadna}}'', his best-known work is his autobiography, ''{{lang|ga|Mo Scéal Féin}}''. All his works are written in what was called "''{{lang|ga|caint na ndaoine}}''" (the language of the people).<ref name=Murphy/> |
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|accessdate=2008-03-16 |
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}}</ref> Most prominent of these was [[Michael Cusack]] of County Clare who, along with Maurice Davin, John Wyse Power, John McKay, [[Joseph Kevin Bracken|J. K. Bracken]], Joseph O'Ryan, [[Thomas St. George McCarthy]] and several others formed the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]]. The association codified the native style of football in the form of what is now modern [[Gaelic football]], and the rules of hurling were also codified. The [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] went on to preserve the native pastimes to the point where they were saved from extinction and to this day remain the most popular sports in Ireland. |
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[[Patrick Pearse]], the editor of ''{{lang|ga|An Claidheamh Soluis}}''—and later a revolutionary leader in the [[Easter Rising]]—wrote poetry, short stories and plays. He is considered the first [[Modernist literature|modernist]] writer in Irish.<ref name=Koch>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |last=Koch |first=John |authorlink=John T. Koch |year=2006 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=1851094407 |page=1013 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA1013#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=9 April 2013 }}</ref> Pearse rejected what he called the imposition of "dead linguistic and literary forms on a living language", but at the same time rejected the idea that only native speakers like {{lang|ga|Ua Laoghaire}} could produce "Irish Irish".<ref>Edwards (1977), p. 97</ref> He produced two books of short stories, ''{{lang|ga|Íosagán agus Scéalta Eile}}'' (1907) and ''{{lang|ga|An Mháthair agus Scéalta Eile}}'' (1916).<ref name=Koch/> His collection of poems, ''{{lang|ga|Suantraithe agus Goltraithe}}'' (1914) contains his most famous poem, "{{lang|ga|Mise Éire}}" ("I am Ireland").<ref>{{Cite book |title=Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century: A Reader |last=Pierce |first=David |year=2000 |publisher=Cork University Press |location=Cork |isbn=1859182089 |page=260 |url=http://books.google.ie/books?id=T-HQ5ds2vf0C&pg=PA260#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=9 April 2013 }}</ref> |
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{{lang|ga|[[Pádraic Ó Conaire]]}} was arguably the best writer of the period.<ref name=Koch/> He wrote more than 400 short stories between 1901 and his death in 1928. His stories were darker than those of his contemporaries, dealing with "isolation, conflict between good and evil, the tragedy of life, hatred, blindness, despair, and madness."<ref name=NiM>{{Cite web |url=http://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a6314 |last=Ní Mhunghaile |first=Lesa |title=Ó Conaire, Pádraic |accessdate=9 April 2013 |work=Dictionary of Irish Biography |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2009 }}</ref> He wrote one novel, ''{{lang|ga|Deoraíacht}}'', a "strange and brooding psychological novel, the first of the genre in Irish", about a [[Connemara]] man living in London.<ref name=Koch/> {{lang|ga|Ó Conaire}}'s works were controversial, addressing themes such as alcoholism and prostitution, which {{lang|ga|Ua Laoghaire}} and others within the movement found objectionable.<ref name=NiM/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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John Hutchinson, The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism; The Gaelic Revival and the creation of the Irish Nation State. London, Allen and Unwin, 1987. |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*[http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishFireside/6-133RevivalIrishLanguage.php/ The Revival of the Irish Language] |
*[http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishFireside/6-133RevivalIrishLanguage.php/ The Revival of the Irish Language], from ''The Irish Fireside'', 1886 |
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{{National revivals}} |
{{National revivals}} |
Revision as of 11:50, 9 April 2013
- For the Gaelic resurgence to overthrow English supremacy in the 14th-16th century, see: Gaelic resurgence.
The Gaelic revival (Irish: an Athbheochan Ghaelach) was the late-nineteenth-century national revival of interest in the Irish language (known as Gaelic) and Irish Gaelic culture (including folklore, sports, music, arts, etc.). Irish had diminished as a spoken tongue, remaining the main daily language only in isolated rural areas, with English as the dominant language of the majority of Ireland.
Early movements
Early pioneers of Irish scholarship were John O'Donovan, Eugene O'Curry and George Petrie; O'Donovan and O'Curry found an outlet for their work in the Archaeological Society, founded in 1840.[1] From 1853 Irish literary works, particularly those associated with the Fianna, were published by the Ossianic Society, in which Standish Hayes O'Grady was active.[1] The Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language was formed in 1877 by, among others, George Sigerson and Thomas O'Neill Russell.[1] The secretary of that society, Father John Nolan, split with it in 1880 and formed the Gaelic Union, of which the president was The O'Conor Don, and whose members included Douglas Hyde and Michael Cusack.[2] Cusack's interest in Gaelic culture was not restricted to the language; he took a keen interest in the traditional games of Ireland, and in 1884, with Maurice Davin, he would found the Gaelic Athletic Association to promote the games of Gaelic football, hurling and handball.[3] In 1882 the Gaelic Union began publication of a monthly journal, the Gaelic Journal. Its first editor was David Comyn; he was followed by John Fleming, a prominent Irish scholar,[2] and then Father Eugene O'Growney.[4]
Gaelic League
In November 1892 Douglas Hyde gave a lecture to the National Literary Society entitled "The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland."[5] He said that the Irish people had become almost completely anglicised, and that this could only be reversed through building up the language.[6] Eoin MacNeill followed this up with an article in the Gaelic Journal, "A Plea and a Plan for the Extension of the Movement to Preserve and Spread the Gaelic language in Ireland", and set about forming an organisation to help bring this about, together with Eugene O'Growney and J. H. Lloyd.[7] The Gaelic League ([Conradh na Gaeilge] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) was founded on 31 July 1893. Hyde was elected president, MacNeill secretary, and Lloyd treasurer, and Thomas O'Neill Russell was among those elected to the council.[8]
The Gaelic League held weekly meetings that were a combination of classes and conversation.[9] Within months it had branches in Cork and Galway. After four years it had 43 branches, and after ten years more than 400.[10] Although it was more concerned with fostering the language in the home than with teaching it in schools, it was nonetheless successful in having Irish added to the curriculum; the number of schools teaching it rose from about a dozen in the 1880s to 1,300 in 1903.[11] The League took over the Gaelic Journal in 1894, when O'Growney retired as editor, with MacNeill replacing him.[10] In January 1898 it began publication of a weekly newspaper, Fáinne an Lae.[12] In March of the following year, following a dispute with the owner, this was replaced by An Claidheamh Soluis, with MacNeill again as editor.[13] In 1901 MacNeill was replaced as editor by Eoghan Ó Neachtain, who was in turn replaced in 1903 by Patrick Pearse.[14] The League also concerned itself with the folk music of Ireland, and was involved in the movement which led to the organisation of the Feis Ceoil by Annie Patterson in 1897.[15]
The League's relations with contemporary cultural movements were strained, and sometimes hostile, despite the fact that some of the League's leaders were on friendly terms with those movements. Pan-Celticism was viewed with suspicion by many members because its leaders in Ireland, especially Lord Castletown, were closely associated with the Irish establishment.[16] When Douglas Hyde was invited to the planned Pan-Celtic Congress of 1900—to be held in Dublin—as a delegate of the League, the Coiste Gnótha (executive committee) refused to send any representative, though Hyde might attend as an individual if he wished. Hyde reluctantly declined to attend.[17] The Irish Literary Revival was denounced because its works were written in English, not Irish, and therefore tended even more towards anglicisation. Eoin MacNeill wrote, "Let them write for the 'English-speaking world' or the 'English-speaking race' if they will. But let them not vex our ears by calling their writings Irish and national."[18] Patrick Pearse said of the Irish Literary Theatre recently founded by W. B. Yeats that it should be "strangled at birth",[18]
Writers
An tAthair Peadar Ua Laoghaire (Fr. Peter O'Leary), a parish priest from Castlelyons in County Cork, began contributing to the Gaelic Journal in 1894, and in November of that year he published the first installment of Séadna, which was to become his best-known work. It was described by the journal as a "specimen of Munster Irish, one of the best samples, if not the very best, of southern popular Gaelic that has ever been printed."[19] Séadna was the first major work of modern literature in Irish.[20] Ua Laoghaire serialised the Táin Bó Cúailnge in the Cork Weekly Examiner in 1900-1901, and followed it up with a series of modern renderings of ancient Irish tales such as Bricriu, Eisirt, An Cleasaidhe and An Craos-Deamhan, all of which eschewed scholarship in favour of colloquial, entertaining Irish.[21] After Séadna, his best-known work is his autobiography, Mo Scéal Féin. All his works are written in what was called "caint na ndaoine" (the language of the people).[20]
Patrick Pearse, the editor of An Claidheamh Soluis—and later a revolutionary leader in the Easter Rising—wrote poetry, short stories and plays. He is considered the first modernist writer in Irish.[22] Pearse rejected what he called the imposition of "dead linguistic and literary forms on a living language", but at the same time rejected the idea that only native speakers like Ua Laoghaire could produce "Irish Irish".[23] He produced two books of short stories, Íosagán agus Scéalta Eile (1907) and An Mháthair agus Scéalta Eile (1916).[22] His collection of poems, Suantraithe agus Goltraithe (1914) contains his most famous poem, "Mise Éire" ("I am Ireland").[24]
Pádraic Ó Conaire was arguably the best writer of the period.[22] He wrote more than 400 short stories between 1901 and his death in 1928. His stories were darker than those of his contemporaries, dealing with "isolation, conflict between good and evil, the tragedy of life, hatred, blindness, despair, and madness."[25] He wrote one novel, Deoraíacht, a "strange and brooding psychological novel, the first of the genre in Irish", about a Connemara man living in London.[22] Ó Conaire's works were controversial, addressing themes such as alcoholism and prostitution, which Ua Laoghaire and others within the movement found objectionable.[25]
See also
References
- ^ a b c Tierney, Michael (1980). Eoin MacNeill:Scholar and Man of Action 1867–1945. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 16. ISBN 0 19 822440 0.
- ^ a b Tierney (1980), p. 17
- ^ "Michael Cusack, Maurice Davin and the Gaelic Athletic Association" (PDF). The 1916 Rising: Personalities and Perspectives. National Library of Ireland. 2006. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
- ^ Ryan, John (Dec 1945). "Eoin Mac Neill 1867-1945". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review. 34 (136). Irish Province of the Society of Jesus: 438. JSTOR 30100064.
- ^ Duffy, Charles Gavan (1894). The Revival of Irish Literature. London: T. F. Unwin. p. 117. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Tierney (1980), p. 20
- ^ Tierney (1980), pp. 21-2
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 24
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 26
- ^ a b Tierney (1980), p. 28
- ^ tierney (1980), p. 42
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 44
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 48
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 73
- ^ Tierney (1980), pp. 29-30
- ^ Edwards, Ruth Dudley (1977). Patrick Pearse: The Triumph of Failure. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. pp. 31–2. ISBN 0 575 02153 5.
- ^ Dunleavy, Janet Egleson (1991). Douglas Hyde: A Maker of Modern Ireland. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 204. ISBN 0 520 90932 1. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Tierney (1980), p. 66
- ^ Tierney (1980), p. 35
- ^ a b Murphy, John A. (2009). "Ó Laoghaire, Peadar". Dictionary of Irish Biography. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ O'Leary, Philip (2005). The Prose Literature of the Gaelic Revival, 1881-1921: Ideology and Innovation. Penn State Press. p. 238. ISBN 0271025964. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ a b c d Koch, John (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 1013. ISBN 1851094407. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ Edwards (1977), p. 97
- ^ Pierce, David (2000). Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century: A Reader. Cork: Cork University Press. p. 260. ISBN 1859182089. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ a b Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa (2009). "Ó Conaire, Pádraic". Dictionary of Irish Biography. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
External links
- The Revival of the Irish Language, from The Irish Fireside, 1886