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Fuzuli, whose given name was ''[[Muhammad (name)|Muhammad]]''{{efn|Also written as ''Mehmed'' in some sources.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|3p=240|4a1=Andrews|4a2=Black|4a3=Kalpakli|4y=2006|4p=235}}}} and whose father's name was ''Suleyman'',{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Karahan|1996|2p=240|Macit|2013}} was born in 1483.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} He adopted the [[pen name]] ''Fuzuli'',{{efn|Also spelled in various sources as ''Fuduli'',{{sfnm|Karahan|1965|Macit|2014}} ''Fozuli'',{{sfn|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} and ''Fizuli''.{{sfn|Mustafayev|2013|p=341}}}} which can be translated both as "presumptuous, superfluous" or "exalted, superior, virtuous". In his Persian ''[[Diwan (poetry)|divan]]'' (a collection of short poems), he wrote that he picked this name to stand out, knowing that no one else would choose such a pen name.{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1996|2p=241}} Little is known about Fuzuli's life.{{sfnm|Karahan|1996|1p=240|2a1=Andrews|2a2=Black|2a3=Kalpakli|2y=2006|2p=235}} He was probably a [[Shia Muslim]]{{efn|Whether Fuzuli was a [[Sunni]] or a Shia Muslim is a matter of scholarly debate, though it is probable that he was a Shia Muslim.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=603|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1965|Terzioğlu|2022|4p=584|5a1=Andrews|5a2=Black|5a3=Kalpakli|5y=2006|5p=236}}}} of [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani Turkic]] origin, descending from the [[Bayat tribe]].{{sfnm|Birnbaum|1976|1p=82|Laguna|2022|2p=156|Abbas|2021|3p=9–10}} Although some contemporary sources refer to him as ''Fuzuli of [[Baghdad]]'' ({{lang-ar|Fuzuli-yi Baghdadi}}), suggesting he was born or raised in that city or its surroundings, other sources cite the nearby cities of [[Najaf]], [[Hilla]], or [[Karbala]] as his birthplace.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|3p=240–241}} His father, who was reported to have been a ''[[mufti]]'' (Islamic jurist) in Hilla at one time, suggests that Fuzuli likely came from an educated family.{{sfn|Andrews|Black|Kalpakli|2006|p=235}} As a child, he studied literature, mathematics, astronomy and languages,{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Abbas|2021|2p=10|3a1=Andrews|3a2=Black|3a3=Kalpakli|3y=2006|3p=235}} learning [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], in addition to his native [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mendel|1a2=Nicola|1a3=Qutbuddin|1y=2010|1p=293|2a1=Gutsche|2a2=Weber|2a3=Rollberg|2y=1987|2p=79}} He had an interest in poetry since his childhood, getting his first poetic inspiration from the poems of the late-15th-century Azerbaijani poet [[Habibi (poet)|Habibi]].{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|2p=241|Karahan|1965}} |
Fuzuli, whose given name was ''[[Muhammad (name)|Muhammad]]''{{efn|Also written as ''Mehmed'' in some sources.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|3p=240|4a1=Andrews|4a2=Black|4a3=Kalpakli|4y=2006|4p=235}}}} and whose father's name was ''Suleyman'',{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Karahan|1996|2p=240|Macit|2013}} was born in 1483.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} He adopted the [[pen name]] ''Fuzuli'',{{efn|Also spelled in various sources as ''Fuduli'',{{sfnm|Karahan|1965|Macit|2014}} ''Fozuli'',{{sfn|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} and ''Fizuli''.{{sfn|Mustafayev|2013|p=341}}}} which can be translated both as "presumptuous, superfluous" or "exalted, superior, virtuous". In his Persian ''[[Diwan (poetry)|divan]]'' (a collection of short poems), he wrote that he picked this name to stand out, knowing that no one else would choose such a pen name.{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1996|2p=241}} Little is known about Fuzuli's life.{{sfnm|Karahan|1996|1p=240|2a1=Andrews|2a2=Black|2a3=Kalpakli|2y=2006|2p=235}} He was probably a [[Shia Muslim]]{{efn|Whether Fuzuli was a [[Sunni]] or a Shia Muslim is a matter of scholarly debate, though it is probable that he was a Shia Muslim.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=603|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1965|Terzioğlu|2022|4p=584|5a1=Andrews|5a2=Black|5a3=Kalpakli|5y=2006|5p=236}}}} of [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani Turkic]] origin, descending from the [[Bayat tribe]].{{sfnm|Birnbaum|1976|1p=82|Laguna|2022|2p=156|Abbas|2021|3p=9–10}} Although some contemporary sources refer to him as ''Fuzuli of [[Baghdad]]'' ({{lang-ar|Fuzuli-yi Baghdadi}}), suggesting he was born or raised in that city or its surroundings, other sources cite the nearby cities of [[Najaf]], [[Hilla]], or [[Karbala]] as his birthplace.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|3p=240–241}} His father, who was reported to have been a ''[[mufti]]'' (Islamic jurist) in Hilla at one time, suggests that Fuzuli likely came from an educated family.{{sfn|Andrews|Black|Kalpakli|2006|p=235}} As a child, he studied literature, mathematics, astronomy and languages,{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Abbas|2021|2p=10|3a1=Andrews|3a2=Black|3a3=Kalpakli|3y=2006|3p=235}} learning [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], in addition to his native [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mendel|1a2=Nicola|1a3=Qutbuddin|1y=2010|1p=293|2a1=Gutsche|2a2=Weber|2a3=Rollberg|2y=1987|2p=79}} He had an interest in poetry since his childhood, getting his first poetic inspiration from the poems of the late-15th-century Azerbaijani poet [[Habibi (poet)|Habibi]].{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|2p=241|Karahan|1965}} |
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Fuzuli lived in [[Iraq]] under the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] confederation, which ruled the region between 1470 and 1508, when [[Shah Ismail I]] of the [[Safavid Iran|Iranian]] [[Safavid dynasty]] took over. By the time of the Safavid takeover, Fuzuli was already a popular young poet and had dedicated his first known poem, a Persian ''[[qasida]]'' (eulogy), to [[Alvand Beg|Shah Alvand Mirza]] of the Aq Qoyunlu.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1996|3p=241|Karahan|1965}} After 1514, the poet received patronage from Ibrahim Khan Mawsillu, the Safavid governor of Baghdad, whom he met during Mawsillu's visit to Najaf and Karbala.{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=241}} He dedicated his first Azerbaijani poem, a ''[[Mathnawi|masnavi]]'' (a poem written in rhyming couplets) entitled {{lang|tr|[[Hashish and Wine|Beng ü bāde]]}} ({{lit|Hashish and Wine}}), to Ismail I and two ''qasidas'' and one ''{{ill|terciibent|tr|Terciibent}}'' (a poem with repeating verses) to Mawsillu.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1965|3a1=Gutsche|3a2=Weber|3a3=Rollberg|3y=1987|3p=79}} After Mawsillu was murdered by his own nephew in 1527, Fuzuli lost his patron and moved to Hilla or Najaf, likely because he could not find another reliable patron among the Safavid nobles.{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=241}} |
Fuzuli lived in [[Iraq]] under the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] confederation, which ruled the region between 1470 and 1508, when [[Shah Ismail I]] of the [[Safavid Iran|Iranian]] [[Safavid dynasty]] took over. By the time of the Safavid takeover, Fuzuli was already a popular young poet and had dedicated his first known poem, a Persian ''[[qasida]]'' (eulogy), to [[Alvand Beg|Shah Alvand Mirza]] of the Aq Qoyunlu.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1996|3p=241|Karahan|1965}} After 1514, the poet received patronage from Ibrahim Khan Mawsillu, the Safavid governor of Baghdad, whom he met during Mawsillu's visit to Najaf and Karbala.{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=241}} He dedicated his first Azerbaijani poem, a ''[[Mathnawi|masnavi]]'' (a poem written in rhyming couplets) entitled {{lang|tr|[[Hashish and Wine|Beng ü bāde]]}} ({{lit|Hashish and Wine}}), to Ismail I and two ''qasidas'' and one ''{{ill|terciibent|tr|Terciibent}}'' (a poem with repeating verses) to Mawsillu.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1965|3a1=Gutsche|3a2=Weber|3a3=Rollberg|3y=1987|3p=79}} After Mawsillu was murdered by his own nephew in 1527, Fuzuli lost his patron and moved to either Hilla or Najaf, likely because he could not find another reliable patron among the Safavid nobles.{{sfn|Macit|2014|Karahan|1996|p=241}} His life between 1527 and 1534 is largely unknown,{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=241}} but it is known that he worked as a custodian of the [[Imam Ali Shrine]] in Najaf during this time.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karahan|1965}} Despite this position, he did not have much money and relied on different patrons for support.{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|2a1=Andrews|2a2=Black|2a3=Kalpakli|2y=2006|2p=237}} |
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[[File:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg|thumb|[[Imam Husayn Shrine]] where Fuzuli worked as a candle-lighter later in his life|alt=Aerial view of Imam Husayn Shrine]] |
[[File:Kerbela Hussein Moschee.jpg|thumb|[[Imam Husayn Shrine]] where Fuzuli worked as a candle-lighter later in his life|alt=Aerial view of Imam Husayn Shrine]] |
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When [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Sultan Suleiman I]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered Baghdad in 1534, Fuzuli was already in his fifties. He presented the [[sultan]] with a long ''qasida'' and also wrote ''qasidas'' to Ottoman officials in his entourage in order to earn their favour. One of these officials, {{ill|Celalzade Mustafa Çelebi|tr|Celâlzâde Mustafa Çelebi}}, was appointed chancellor while in Baghdad and arranged for the poet to receive a stipend of nine {{lang|tr|[[akçe]]s}} a day from the surplus of donations made to Shia sanctuaries. Later when administrators withheld the stipend claiming that there was no excess, he expressed his disappointment in a poetic letter called {{lang|tr|Şikayetname}} ({{lit|'Complaint'}}), written in Azerbaijani and addressed to Çelebi.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} In the letter, he declared that he had abandoned all hope, explaining that he had been greatly affected by the political and theological instability of his age.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} At the time, he was working as a candle-lighter at the [[Bektashi]] [[Khanqah|convent]] in the [[Imam Husayn Shrine]] in Karbala.{{sfnm|Taner|2019|1p=99|Karakaya-Stump|2019|2p=195}} He wrote that he had never found a patron who satisfied his needs and his desire to join a royal court had never been realised.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} Despite expressing a strong desire to see places like [[Tabriz]], [[Anatolia]] and [[India]], he never travelled outside Iraq. The majority of his life was spent in the cities of Karbala, Hilla, Najaf, and Baghdad.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Karahan|1996|2p=242|Karahan|1965}} In 1556, he died from the plague, either in Baghdad or Karbala,{{efn|According to literary researcher Muhsin Macit, Fuzuli died in Baghdad.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} However, Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, argues that Karbala is the most likely place of his death.{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=242}}}} and was buried in Karbala within the grounds of the Bektashi convent.{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karakaya-Stump|2019|2p=195|3a1=Andrews|3a2=Black|3a3=Kalpakli|3y=2006|3p=237}} |
When [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Sultan Suleiman I]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered Baghdad in 1534, Fuzuli was already in his fifties. He presented the [[sultan]] with a long ''qasida'' and also wrote ''qasidas'' to Ottoman officials in his entourage in order to earn their favour. One of these officials, {{ill|Celalzade Mustafa Çelebi|tr|Celâlzâde Mustafa Çelebi}}, was appointed chancellor while in Baghdad and arranged for the poet to receive a stipend of nine {{lang|tr|[[akçe]]s}} a day from the surplus of donations made to Shia sanctuaries. Later when administrators withheld the stipend claiming that there was no excess, he expressed his disappointment in a poetic letter called {{lang|tr|Şikayetname}} ({{lit|'Complaint'}}), written in Azerbaijani and addressed to Çelebi.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} In the letter, he declared that he had abandoned all hope, explaining that he had been greatly affected by the political and theological instability of his age.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} At the time, he was working as a candle-lighter at the [[Bektashi]] [[Khanqah|convent]] in the [[Imam Husayn Shrine]] in Karbala.{{sfnm|Taner|2019|1p=99|Karakaya-Stump|2019|2p=195}} He wrote that he had never found a patron who satisfied his needs and his desire to join a royal court had never been realised.{{sfnm|Macit|2014|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000}} Despite expressing a strong desire to see places like [[Tabriz]], [[Anatolia]] and [[India]], he never travelled outside Iraq. The majority of his life was spent in the cities of Karbala, Hilla, Najaf, and Baghdad.{{sfnm|Çelebioğlu|2017|1p=601|Karahan|1996|2p=242|Karahan|1965}} In 1556, he died from the plague, either in Baghdad or Karbala,{{efn|According to literary researcher Muhsin Macit, Fuzuli died in Baghdad.{{sfn|Macit|2014}} However, Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, argues that Karbala is the most likely place of his death.{{sfn|Karahan|1996|p=242}}}} and was buried in Karbala within the grounds of the Bektashi convent.{{sfnm|Encyclopædia Iranica|2000|Karakaya-Stump|2019|2p=195|3a1=Andrews|3a2=Black|3a3=Kalpakli|3y=2006|3p=237}} |
Revision as of 10:46, 17 July 2023
Fuzuli | |
---|---|
Born | Muhammad bin Suleyman 1483 |
Died | 1556 (aged 72–73) |
Resting place | Karbala |
Occupation | Poet |
Language | |
Notable works | Leyli and Majnun |
Children | Fazli |
Muhammad bin Suleyman[a] (Azerbaijani: Məhəmməd Süleyman oğlu, مَحمد سلیمان اوغلو; 1483–1556), better known by his pen name Fuzuli (Füzuli, فضولی), was a 16th-century poet who composed works in his native Azerbaijani, as well as Persian and Arabic. He is regarded as one of the greatest poets of Turkic literature and a prominent figure in both Azerbaijani and Ottoman literature. Fuzuli's work was widely known and admired throughout the Persianate Turkic cultural domain from the 16th to the 19th century, with his fame reaching as far as Central Asia and India.
Born in 1483 in modern-day Iraq, Fuzuli studied literature, mathematics, astronomy and languages as a child. During his lifetime, his homeland changed hands between the Aq Qoyunlu, Safavid, and Ottoman empires. He composed poetry for officials in all three empires, writing his first known poem to Shah Alvand Mirza of the Aq Qoyunlu. Fuzuli wrote most his poetry during the Ottoman rule of Iraq, which is why he is also sometimes called an Ottoman poet. Throughout his life, he had several patrons but never found one that fully satisfied him, and his desire to join a royal court was never realised. Despite expressing a desire to see places like Tabriz in modern-day Iran, Anatolia and India, he never travelled outside Iraq. In 1556, Fuzuli died from the plague and was buried in Karbala.
Fuzuli is best known for his Azerbaijani works, especially his ghazals (a form of love poem) and his lyric poem Leyli and Majnun, which is an interpretation of a Middle Eastern story of tragic love. He also wrote divans (collections of short poems) in Azerbaijani, Persian, and possibly Arabic. His style has been described as being distinguished by his "intense expression of feelings"[3] and his use of mystic metaphors and symbols, with his poetry showing influences from Persian poets like Nizami, Jami, and Hafez, as well as Azerbaijani poets like Habibi and Nasimi.
Fuzuli's poetry played a role in the development of the Azerbaijani language, with his writings being described as elevating Azerbaijani poetry and language to new heights.[4] His work has been characterised as a reconciliation of Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic literary practices, as well as of Shia and Sunni beliefs.[5] He also frequently incorporated themes of love into his poetry. He remains a popular poet in Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.
Biography
Fuzuli, whose given name was Muhammad[b] and whose father's name was Suleyman,[7] was born in 1483.[2] He adopted the pen name Fuzuli,[c] which can be translated both as "presumptuous, superfluous" or "exalted, superior, virtuous". In his Persian divan (a collection of short poems), he wrote that he picked this name to stand out, knowing that no one else would choose such a pen name.[10] Little is known about Fuzuli's life.[11] He was probably a Shia Muslim[d] of Azerbaijani Turkic origin, descending from the Bayat tribe.[13] Although some contemporary sources refer to him as Fuzuli of Baghdad (Arabic: Fuzuli-yi Baghdadi), suggesting he was born or raised in that city or its surroundings, other sources cite the nearby cities of Najaf, Hilla, or Karbala as his birthplace.[14] His father, who was reported to have been a mufti (Islamic jurist) in Hilla at one time, suggests that Fuzuli likely came from an educated family.[15] As a child, he studied literature, mathematics, astronomy and languages,[16] learning Persian and Arabic, in addition to his native Azerbaijani.[17] He had an interest in poetry since his childhood, getting his first poetic inspiration from the poems of the late-15th-century Azerbaijani poet Habibi.[18]
Fuzuli lived in Iraq under the Aq Qoyunlu confederation, which ruled the region between 1470 and 1508, when Shah Ismail I of the Iranian Safavid dynasty took over. By the time of the Safavid takeover, Fuzuli was already a popular young poet and had dedicated his first known poem, a Persian qasida (eulogy), to Shah Alvand Mirza of the Aq Qoyunlu.[19] After 1514, the poet received patronage from Ibrahim Khan Mawsillu, the Safavid governor of Baghdad, whom he met during Mawsillu's visit to Najaf and Karbala.[20] He dedicated his first Azerbaijani poem, a masnavi (a poem written in rhyming couplets) entitled Beng ü bāde (lit. 'Hashish and Wine'), to Ismail I and two qasidas and one terciibent (a poem with repeating verses) to Mawsillu.[21] After Mawsillu was murdered by his own nephew in 1527, Fuzuli lost his patron and moved to either Hilla or Najaf, likely because he could not find another reliable patron among the Safavid nobles.[22] His life between 1527 and 1534 is largely unknown,[20] but it is known that he worked as a custodian of the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf during this time.[23] Despite this position, he did not have much money and relied on different patrons for support.[24]
When Sultan Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire conquered Baghdad in 1534, Fuzuli was already in his fifties. He presented the sultan with a long qasida and also wrote qasidas to Ottoman officials in his entourage in order to earn their favour. One of these officials, Celalzade Mustafa Çelebi , was appointed chancellor while in Baghdad and arranged for the poet to receive a stipend of nine akçes a day from the surplus of donations made to Shia sanctuaries. Later when administrators withheld the stipend claiming that there was no excess, he expressed his disappointment in a poetic letter called Şikayetname (lit. ''Complaint''), written in Azerbaijani and addressed to Çelebi.[3] In the letter, he declared that he had abandoned all hope, explaining that he had been greatly affected by the political and theological instability of his age.[2] At the time, he was working as a candle-lighter at the Bektashi convent in the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala.[25] He wrote that he had never found a patron who satisfied his needs and his desire to join a royal court had never been realised.[26] Despite expressing a strong desire to see places like Tabriz, Anatolia and India, he never travelled outside Iraq. The majority of his life was spent in the cities of Karbala, Hilla, Najaf, and Baghdad.[27] In 1556, he died from the plague, either in Baghdad or Karbala,[e] and was buried in Karbala within the grounds of the Bektashi convent.[29]
Poetry
Fuzuli composed poetry and prose in Azerbaijani, Persian and Arabic. Fifteen of his works are extant.[30] The Encyclopædia Iranica distinguishes his work by "the way in which he integrates the mystic and the erotic, in the combination of the conventionality of his topics with the sincerity of his style, and in his intense expression of feelings of passionate love, of pity for the unfortunate, and of patience in the face of adversity".[3] His frequent use of love themes in his poetry has earned him the nickname poet of love by scholars.[31] Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, notes that what distinguished Fuzuli was his "sincerity, enthusiasm, simplicity, sensitivity, and power of expression".[28] Alireza Asgharzadeh, an academic studying Iranian and Azerbaijani culture, describes Fuzuli's poetry as having "manifested the spirit of a profound humanism, reflecting the discontent of both the masses and the poet himself towards autocracy, feudal lords, and establishment religion".[32] His poems have also been described by the literary researcher Muhsin Macit as having a "multi-layered structure" because of his "skilful use of metaphors and mystic symbols".[33] Macit has also stated that Fuzuli's poems in Azerbaijani "have a multi-faceted structure, which, combined with perfection of expression, gives them permanence".[2] His works show influence from Persian poets like Nizami, Jami, and Hafez, as well as Azerbaijani poets like Habibi and Nasimi.[33]
Leyli and Majnun
Fuzuli is best known for his works in Azerbaijani, especially his ghazals (a form of love poem) and his masnavi Leyli and Majnun.[26] This lyric poem, written in 1535,[f] is the poet's interpretation of the Middle Eastern story of the tragic love between Layla and Majnun. He reveals in the work that he was prompted to write it by a request from some Ottoman poets who had accompanied Sultan Suleiman during his invasion of Baghdad. Accepting the request as a challenge, he completed the work in a short amount of time.[35] Before beginning the work, he studied Persian versions of the story, particularly drawing inspiration from the 12th-century poet Nizami's rendition. However, Fuzuli made significant changes to the narrative. For instance, while Nizami's work concludes with Majnun's death, Fuzuli's version sees the two lovers reunited in heaven and their graves transformed into türbes (a form of mausoleum).[36]
His interpretation of the story generated more interest than previous Arabic and Persian versions, which the Turkish literature scholar İskender Pala attributes to the sincerity and lyricism of the poet's expression.[37] The work has been described by the Encyclopædia Iranica as "the culmination of the Turk[ic] masnavi tradition in that it raised the personal and human love-tragedy to the plane of mystical longing and ethereal aspiration".[3] Through his interpretation, the story of Layla and Majnun became widely known and Fuzuli's poem is considered one of the greatest works of Turkic literature.[38]
Other Azerbaijani works
Another famous work by Fuzuli is the maktel (a poem about a historic death) Ḥadīqat es-suʿadā (lit. 'The Garden of the Blessed') which deals with the Battle of Karbala, a military engagement in 680 CE between the army of the second Umayyad Caliph Yazid I and a small army led by Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The work includes an introduction, ten chapters and an epilogue. In the introduction, the poet explains that while there were existing works about the battle in Arabic and Persian, there were none in a Turkic language, leaving the Turkic people deprived of this knowledge.[39] Adapted from the 15th-century Persian poet Husayn Kashifi's Rawżat al-šohadāʾ (lit. 'The Garden of Martyrs'), it is considered a masterpiece of the Turkic maktel genre and is the most popular among contemporary works covering the Battle of Karbala.[40] Although the work does not specify its date of creation, it is believed to have been written before 1546. This estimation is based on the oldest available copy, the Cairo manuscript, which was recorded in library records as dating back to 1546.[41]
Fuzuli was also the author of a divan in Azerbaijani, which is his most extensive work in this language. It comprises 302 ghazals, 27 qasidas, several panegyrics (verses praising a person) and rubaʿis (four-line poems).[42] In the preface of his divan, he emphasises the importance of science to poetry, writing that "poetry without science cannot be permanent, just like a wall without a pillar".[43] Karahan regards several of the qasidas in the divan as masterpieces, including the radif na'ts (poems praising the Prophet Muhammad) titled sabâ (lit. 'Sabbath'), su (lit. 'Water'), gül (lit. 'Flower'), and hançer (lit. 'Dagger'), as well as the qasida composed by Fuzuli to commemorate Sultan Suleiman's capture of Baghdad. Despite this, it was Fuzuli's ghazals that brought him widespread recognition. Karahan states that Fuzuli "reached the peak of lyricism, mystical love and excitement in his ghazals".[44]
Other works by him in Azerbaijani include the 445-couplets-long allegorical-satirical poem Beng ü bāde, which imagines a dispute between wine and hashish over their respective merits;[45] a translation of the Persian poet Jami's Forty Hadith titled Ḥadīth-i arbaʿīn tercemesi (lit. 'Translation of Forty Hadiths'); and an allegorical masnavi titled Sohbetü’l-esmâr (lit. 'Conversation of Fruits'), which depicts vineyard fruits engaging in self-praise and arguments. Additionally, he wrote a poetic letter to Sultan Bayezid II and four others to his Ottoman officials.[46]
Persian works
Fuzuli also wrote several works in Persian, including a divan. According to Karahan, this collection of short poems, comprising 410 ghazals, 46 qasidas, 106 rubaʿis, and other works, demonstrates the poet's proficiency in Persian equal to that of any classical Iranian poet.[47] The collection opens with a prose preface, where the poet praises the merits of poetry, his enduring fascination with it, and its ability to turn pain into pleasure.[3] In the divan, he shows great influence from Persian poets like Hafez and Jami.[47]
He also wrote Haft jām (lit. 'Seven Goblets', also called Sāqī-nāma, lit. 'Book of the Cupbearer'), a seven-part masnavi of 327 couplets with each part focusing on a specific musical instrument. The work is notable for its richness in symbolism related to Sufism. Another Persian masnavi by him is Ṣeḥḥat o marazµ (lit. 'Health and Sickness', also called Ḥosn o ʿEšq, lit. 'Beauty and Love'), which was inspired by the 15th–century Persian poet Fattahi Nishapuri's Ḥosn o Del (lit. 'Beauty and Heart') and is an important work in demonstrating Fuzuli's knowledge of both medicine and well-being of the body and the soul.[48] It tells the story of a dervish losing and regaining his body's health physically because of its struggle with a disease and later psychologically because of its struggle with love.[47] Fuzuli also has a prose work in Persian titled Rend o zāhed (lit. 'Rend and Zahed'), which describes a relationship between a father named Zahed and his son Rend. Zahed is trying to guide Rend to live according to Sharia laws by encouraging him to attend the mosque, read the Quran, and avoid writing poetry. Rend initially resists his father's views, but ultimately chooses to accept them of his own accord.[49]
Additionally, he wrote Resâla-ye moʿammīyāt (lit. 'Treatise of Idioms'), a work consisting of 190 riddle poems, and Anīs al-qalb (lit. 'Amiable Heart'), a 134-couplet-long qasida.[46] The latter piece is in the form a nasîhatnâme, a type of guidance letter for Ottoman sultans, that Fuzuli wrote for Sultan Suleiman. In the qasida, Fuzuli offers guidance to the Sultan on how to govern and serve the people. According to the professor of Turkic literature Hamide Demirel, Fuzuli candidly presents the people's viewpoint towards a tyrannical ruler, presenting his opinions "in what were for the age very advanced terms" on the appropriate relationships between the populace, the Sultan, and the state.[50] Demirel states that the language used in the work is stronger than a typical nasîhatnâme and even possesses characteristics of a revolutionary manifesto. She concludes from Fuzuli's works that "he must have been no less highminded as a man than he was great as a poet".[51]
Arabic works
Arabic works by Fuzuli include eleven qasidas and a prose work titled Maṭlaʿ al-iʿtiqād (lit. 'The Birth of Faith'). The prose work describes the idea that man can reach God by learning the secrets of the universe through gaining knowledge and is related to the Islamic theological discipline ʿIlm al-Kalām.[2] His Arabic qasidas are believed to be fragments from a larger divan. All of them discuss the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his cousin and son-in-law Ali, who is also the first Shia Imam.[52]
Legacy and assessment
Described by Kathleen Burrill, a professor of Turkish studies, as the "foremost of all the Azeri [Azerbaijani] poets",[53] Fuzuli is also regarded as one of the greatest Turkic poets.[54] He had a major influence on Azerbaijani and Ottoman literature, and is sometimes considered an Ottoman poet, not because of his language or culture, but because he composed most of his poetry after the Ottoman conquest of Iraq.[55] His work also had an impact on Chagatai literature; later writers in Ottoman and Chagatai literature drew on the poet's work because of his ability to reinterpret traditional themes and ideas through his poetry, which brought the two literary traditions closer together.[26] His work has been characterised as a successful reconciliation of Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic literary practices, as well as of Shia and Sunni beliefs, with his legacy characterised as inclusive.[5] He had a son who was also a poet and adopted the name Fazli in tribute to his father.[h] Fazli is believed to have received his poetic education from Fuzuli, and wrote both religious and secular poems in Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic.[56]
Widely recognised and admired throughout the Persianate Turkic cultural domain from the 16th to the 19th centuries, Fuzuli's work was famous not only in the Ottoman Empire, Iran, and Central Asia, but also in the Indian subcontinent, as indicated by Indian library catalogues. The poems were transcribed by scribes from various linguistic backgrounds using different writing systems over a vast area.[57] Some of Fuzuli's works have been translated into English. Sohbetü’l-esmâr was traslated by the Turkologist Gunnar Jarring in 1936 in Lund under the title The Contest of the Fruits, and Leyli and Majnun was translated by the writer-translator Sofi Huri in 1970 in London under the title Leyla and Mejnun.[58]
His poetry played an important role in the development of the Azerbaijani language, with the modern scholar Sakina Berengian referring to him as the "Ferdowsi and Hafez of Azeri literature", comparing him to two poets regarded as among the greatest in Persian literature, and stating that Azerbaijani poetry and language reached new heights in his writings.[59] Karahan regarded Fuzuli as a "brilliant linguist" because of his flawless use of language in his poems, and while he drew inspiration from earlier Persian works for most of his Azerbaijani pieces, he was able to add a "particular stamp of his personality" on his interpretations of subjects, making them popular.[60]
The harmonious and expressive nature of Fuzuli's poems, informed by his extensive musical knowledge, makes them suitable for setting to music.[61] His ghazals continue to be enjoyed in Turkey, including by the members of high society and performers outside major cities, where classical Turkish music merges with folk music.[2] The first opera in the Islamic world, Leyli and Majnun, was composed by the Azerbaijani composer Uzeyir Hajibeyov in 1908 and based on Fuzuli's work of the same name.[33] The poet's ghazals were also the subject of Fuzuli Cantata, a cantata composed by another Azerbaijani composer, Jahangir Jahangirov, in 1959.[62]
Fuzuli remains a popular poet in countries such as Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.[63] A street and a square in central Baku are named after him. Additionally, an administrative region and its capital city are also named after the poet.[64] In October 1994, the Turkish Authors' Association and Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality jointly organised an academic conference in Istanbul about Fuzuli to honour the 500th anniversary of his birth.[g] Another conference took place in Konya in December of the same year.[65]
References
Notes
- ^ Also spelled in various sources as Muhammad bin Suleiman,[1] Mehmed bin Suleyman,[2] and Mohammad bin Solayman.[3]
- ^ Also written as Mehmed in some sources.[6]
- ^ Also spelled in various sources as Fuduli,[8] Fozuli,[3] and Fizuli.[9]
- ^ Whether Fuzuli was a Sunni or a Shia Muslim is a matter of scholarly debate, though it is probable that he was a Shia Muslim.[12]
- ^ According to literary researcher Muhsin Macit, Fuzuli died in Baghdad.[2] However, Abdülkadir Karahan, a scholar of medieval Turkic literature, argues that Karbala is the most likely place of his death.[28]
- ^ While most sources indicate that the work was completed in 1535,[34] the Encyclopædia Iranica states that it was finished in 1536.[3]
- ^ a b Until the late twentieth century, Fuzuli's birth date was incorrectly considered to be 1495.[20]
- ^ Fazli means "belonging to munificence or abundance", as opposed to Fuzuli, which means "superfluous".[56]
Citations
- ^ Laguna 2022, p. 156.
- ^ a b c d e f g Macit 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Encyclopædia Iranica 2000.
- ^ Berengian 1988, p. 19.
- ^ a b Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Abbas 2021, p. 10.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Macit 2014; Karahan 1996, p. 240; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 235.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Karahan 1996, p. 240; Macit 2013.
- ^ Karahan 1965; Macit 2014.
- ^ Mustafayev 2013, p. 341.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1996, p. 241.
- ^ Karahan 1996, p. 240; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 235.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 603; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1965; Terzioğlu 2022, p. 584; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 236.
- ^ Birnbaum 1976, p. 82; Laguna 2022, p. 156; Abbas 2021, p. 9–10.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Macit 2014; Karahan 1996, p. 240–241.
- ^ Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 235.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Abbas 2021, p. 10; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 235.
- ^ Mendel, Nicola & Qutbuddin 2010, p. 293; Gutsche, Weber & Rollberg 1987, p. 79.
- ^ Macit 2014; Karahan 1996, p. 241; Karahan 1965.
- ^ Macit 2014; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1996, p. 241; Karahan 1965.
- ^ a b c Karahan 1996, p. 241.
- ^ Macit 2014; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Gutsche, Weber & Rollberg 1987, p. 79; Karahan 1965.
- ^ Macit, 2014 & Karahan 1996, p. 241.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Macit 2014; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1965.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 237.
- ^ Taner 2019, p. 99; Karakaya-Stump 2019, p. 195.
- ^ a b c Macit 2014; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Karahan 1996, p. 242; Karahan 1965.
- ^ a b Karahan 1996, p. 242.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karakaya-Stump 2019, p. 195; Andrews, Black & Kalpakli 2006, p. 237.
- ^ Karahan 1996, p. 244; Karahan 1965.
- ^ Abbas 2021, p. 10.
- ^ Asgharzadeh 2007, p. 11.
- ^ a b c Macit 2013.
- ^ Macit 2014; Macit 2013; Pala 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Macit 2014; Pala 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Pala 2003, p. 163; Encyclopædia Iranica 2000.
- ^ Pala 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Macit 2014; Skilliter 1972, p. 157.
- ^ Hyder 2008, p. 22; Güngor 1997, p. 21.
- ^ Taner 2019, p. 144.
- ^ Güngor 1997, p. 21.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1996, p. 244; Péri 2020, p. 373.
- ^ Çelebioğlu 2017, p. 601; Macit 2014.
- ^ Karahan 1996, p. 244.
- ^ Péri 2020, p. 374; Aynur 2020, p. 287.
- ^ a b Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1996, p. 245.
- ^ a b c Karahan 1996, p. 245.
- ^ Encyclopædia Iranica 2000; Karahan 1996, p. 245; Karahan 1965.
- ^ Mermer 2017, p. 256–257.
- ^ Demirel 1971, p. 138.
- ^ Demirel 1971, p. 141.
- ^ Karahan 1996, p. 245; Macit 2013.
- ^ Burrill 1972, p. 76.
- ^ Skilliter 1972, p. 157; Aynur 2020, p. 300; Birnbaum 1976, p. 83; Németh 1962, p. 17.
- ^ Andrews & Mignon 2017, p. 558.
- ^ a b Hess 2015.
- ^ Péri 2020, p. 374.
- ^ Karahan 1996, p. 245; Karahan 1965; Pala 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Berengian 1988.
- ^ Karahan 1965.
- ^ Macit 2014; Macit 2013.
- ^ Guliyeva 2019, p. 2029.
- ^ Şahin 2007, pp. 507–508.
- ^ Supreme Court 2007.
- ^ Şahin 2007, p. 508.
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External links
- Works by or about Fuzuli at Wikisource
- Media related to Fuzuli at Wikimedia Commons