Translations of Four Noble Truths | |
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Sanskrit | चत्वारि आर्यसत्यानि (catvāri āryasatyāni) |
Pali | चत्तारि अरियसच्चानि (cattāri ariyasaccāni) |
Bengali | [চতুরার্য সত্য chôturarjô sôtyô] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) |
Burmese | သစ္စာလေးပါး (MLCTS: θɪʔsà lé bá) |
Chinese | 四聖諦(T) / 四圣谛(S) (Pinyin: sìshèngdì) |
Japanese | 四諦 (Rōmaji: shitai) |
Korean | 사성제 (sa-seong-je) |
Mongolian | Хутагт дөрвөн үнэн (Khutagt durvun unen) |
Sinhala | චතුරාර්ය සත්ය |
Tibetan | འཕགས་པའི་བདེན་པ་བཞི་ (Wylie: 'phags pa'i bden pa bzhi THL: pakpé denpa shyi) |
Thai | อริยสัจสี่ (ariyasaj sii) |
Vietnamese | vi:Tứ Diệu Đế |
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The Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: catvāri āryasatyāni; Pali: cattāri ariyasaccāni) are "the truths of the Noble Ones," which express the basic orientation of Buddhism: by clinging to ever-changing states and things which are ultimately unsatisfactory,[1] we are caught in the realm of samsara, repeated rebirth and redeath,[2][3] but there is a path to end this cycle.[4][3][web 1][web 2][note 1] The truths are as follows:[4][6][web 1]
- Dukkha, "suffering," "unsatisfactoriness."[note 2] All temporary states and things"[1] are dukkha, "suffering,"[note 2] and unsatisfactoy;[2][3][web 1]
- Dukkha samudaya, the origination or arising of dukkha. Craving for and clinging to these temporary states and things produces karma and results in renewed becoming, rebirth, renewed dissatisfaction, and redeath;[7][8][note 3]
- Dukkha niroda, the cessation of dukkha. By stopping craving and clinging nirvana is attained,[9] no more karma is produced, and rebirth, dissatisfaction, and redeath will no longer arise;
- Dukkha magga, the path to the cessation of, or liberation from dukkha. By following the Noble Eightfold Path, behaving decently, cultivating discipline, and practicing mindfulness and meditation, an end can be put to craving, to clinging, to becoming, to dissatisfaction, and to redeath.[10][11]
The Four Truths provide a conceptual framework for introducing and explaining Buddhist thought, which has to be personally understood or "experienced." Many Buddhist teachers present them as the essence of Buddhist teachings, though this importance developed over time, substituting older notions of what constitutes prajna, or "liberating insight."[12][13]
In the sutras, the four truths have both a symbolic and a propositional function.[14] They represent the awakening and liberation of the Buddha, but also the possibility of liberation for all sentient beings, describing how release from craving is to be reached.[15]
Etymology
The four truths
The four truths are a short, formulaic expression:[web 5][web 6][note 4]
- Dukkha saccã[note 5] - "suffering", "anxiety", "uneasiness", "dissatisfaction", "unsatisfactoriness"; "the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity of all conditioned phenomena";[1]
- Samudaya saccã[note 6] - "origin", "source", "arising", "coming to existence";[web 8] "aggregate of the constituent elements or factors of any being or existence", "cluster", "coming together", "combination", "producing cause", "combination", "rising"[web 9]
- Nirodha saccã[note 7] - cessation; release; to confine[16]
- Magga saccã[note 8] - "path"[web 10][note 9]
Truths for the noble ones
The Pali terms ariya sacca (Sanskrit: arya satya) are commonly translated as "noble truths". This translation is a convention started by the earliest translators of Buddhist texts into English.K.R. Norman argues that this is just one of several possible translations.[17] According to Paul Williams,[17]
[T]here is no particular reason why the Pali expression ariyasaccani should be translated as 'noble truths'. It could equally be translated as 'the nobles' truths', or 'the truths for nobles', or 'the nobilising truths', or 'the truths of, possessed by, the noble ones' [...] In fact the Pali expression (and its Sanskrit equivalent) can mean all of these, although the Pali commentators place 'the noble truths' as the least important in their understanding.[17]
According to Norman, probably the best translation is "the truth[s] of the noble one (the Buddha)."[17] It is a statement of how things are seen by a Buddha, how things really are when seen correctly. It is the truthful way of seeing,[note 10] Through not seeing things this way, and behaving accordingly, we suffer.[17][note 11]
The term "arya" was probably later added to the four truths.[13] The term ariya (Sanskrit: arya) can be translated as "noble", "not ordinary", "valuable", "precious".[note 12] "pure",[18] Paul Williams states:
The Aryas are the noble ones, the saints, those who have attained 'the fruits of the path', 'that middle path the Tathagata has comprehended which promotes sight and knowledge, and which tends to peace, higher wisdom, enlightenment, and Nibbana' (Narada 1980: 50 ).[21][note 13]
The term sacca (Sanskrit: satya) is a central term in Indian thought and religion. It is typically translated as "truth"; but it also means "that which is in accord with reality", or "reality". The four noble truths are not asserted as propositional truths or creeds; rather, they are understood as "true things" or "realities" that function as a convenient conceptual framework for making sense of Buddhist thought:.[23]
The word satya (Pali sacca) can certainly mean truth, but it might equally be rendered as ‘real’ or ‘actual thing’. That is, we are not dealing here with propositional truths with which we must either agree or disagree, but with four ‘true things’ or ‘realities’ whose nature, we are told, the Buddha finally understood on the night of his awakening.[23][note 14]
The four truths are to be internalised, and understood or "experienced" personally, to turn them into a lived reality.[24][13]
The four truths
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta
According to Walpola Rahula, the four truths lie at the heart of the Buddha's teachings.[25] According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha first taught the four noble truths in the very first teaching he gave after he attained enlightenment, as recorded in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta ("The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth").[web 13] Within this discourse, there are four key verses which present the four noble truths:
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to re-becoming, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for becoming, craving for disbecoming.
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance on it.
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is this noble eightfold path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.[web 14]
Basic orientation
The four truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism: repeated rebirth and "redeath" in the world is fundamentally unsatisfactory, dukkha, but there is a path to end this cycle.[4][web 1][2][5][26] As Geoffrey Samuel notes, "the Four Noble Truths [...] describe the knowledge needed to set out on the path to liberation from rebirth."[27] By understanding the four truths, one can be freed from this cycle of rebirth and redeath.[web 1][2][note 1] Patrick Olivelle explains that moksha is a central concept in Indian religions, and "literally means freedom from samsara."[web 4][note 15] Melvin E. Spiro further explains that "desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth."[4] When desire ceases, rebirth and its accompanying suffering ceases.[4][note 16] The last sermon, the Maha-parinibbana Sutta (Last Days of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya 16)", states it as follows:
[...] it is through not realizing, through not penetrating the Four Noble Truths that this long course of birth and death has been passed through and undergone by me as well as by you [...] But now, bhikkhus, that these have been realized and penetrated, cut off is the craving for existence, destroyed is that which leads to renewed becoming, and there is no fresh becoming.[web 15]
Some contemporary teachers tend to explain the four truths psychologically, by taking dukkha to mean mental anquish in addition to the physical pain of life,[28] and interpreting the four truths as a means to attain happiness in this life.[29] Yet, Spiro notes that "the Buddhist message is not simply a psychological message," but an eschatological message.[4]
Further explanation
The truth of dukkha,[note 17] the basic insight that life in this "mundane world" is unsatisfactory and painfull.[web 1] We expect happines from states and things which are impermanent, and therefore cannot attain real happiness. By gaining insight into dukkha, one is set on the Buddhist path to moksha, liberation, an starts to disengage from everything which keeps one trapped in samsara.
Dukkha arises when we crave (Pali: tanha) and cling to these changing phenomena. The clinging and craving produces karma, which ties us to samsara, the round of death and rebirth.[30][web 16][note 18] Craving includes kama-tanha, craving for sense-pleasures; bhava-tanha, craving to continue the cycle of life and death, including rebirth; and vibhava-tanha, craving to not experience the world and painful feelings.[30][31][32]
Dukkha ceases when craving and clinging ceases, no more karma is being produced, and rebirth ends. Cessation is often equated with nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali nibbana), which can be described as the state of being in cessation[33] or the event or process of the cessation.[34] A temporary state of nirvana can be said to occur whenever the causes of suffering (e.g. craving) have ceased in our mind.[35] Joseph Goldstein explains:
Ajahn Buddhadasa, a well-known Thai master of the last century, said that when village people in India were cooking rice and waiting for it to cool, they might remark, "Wait a little for the rice to become nibbana". So here, nibbana means the cool state of mind, free from the fires of the defilements. As Ajahn Buddhadasa remarked, "The cooler the mind, the more Nibbana in that moment". We can notice for ourselves relative states of coolness in our own minds as we go through the day.[35]
Craving can be ceased by following the Buddhist path. The term "path" is usually taken to mean the Noble Eightfold Path, but other versions of "the path" can also be found in the Nikayas.[36]
The well-known eightfold path consists of the understanding that this world is floating and unsatisfying, and how craving keeps us tied to this floating world; a friendly and compassionate attitude to others; a correct way of behaving; mind-control, which means not feeding on negative thoughts, and nurturing positive thoughts; constant awareness of the feelings and responses which arise; and the practice of dhyana, meditation.[36] The tenfold path adds the right (liberating) insight, and liberation from rebirth.[36][note 19]
Medical analogy
The model of the four truths may be an analogy with classical Indian medicine, in which the four truths function as a medical diagnosis, and the Buddha is presented as a physician:[37][38][39]
- The truth of dukkha: identifying the illness and the nature of the illness (the diagnosis)
- The truth of origin: identifying the causes of the illness (the etiology)
- The truth of cessation: identifying a cure for the illness (the prognosis)
- The truth of the path: recommending a treatment for the illness that can bring about a cure (the prescription)
This analogy is said to emphasize the compassion of the Buddha—that he was motivated by the desire to relieve the suffering of beings.[40]
Historical development
Development
Growing importance
According to Carol Anderson, only by the time of the commentaries, in the fifth century CE, did the four truths come to be identified as the central teaching of the Buddha.[41][note 20] Carol Anderson notes that the four truths are missing in critical passages in the canon,[42] and states:
... the four noble truths were probably not part of the earliest strata of what came to be recognized as Buddhism, but that they emerged as a central teaching in a slightly later period that still preceded the final redactions of the various Buddhist canons.[43]
Stephen Batchelor notes that the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta contains incongruities, and states that
The First Discourse cannot be treated as a verbatim transcript of what the Buddha taught in the Deer Park, but as a document that has evolved over an unspecified period of time until it reached the form in which it is found today in the canons of the different Buddhist schools.[44]
According to Anderson, the four truths probably entered the Sutta Pitaka from the Vinaya, the rules for monastic order.[45][note 21] They were first added to enlightenment-stories which contain the Four Jhanas, replacing terms for "liberating insight".[47][note 22] From there they were added to the biographical stories of the Buddha:[50][note 23]
K.R. Norman concluded that the earliest version of the sutta did not contain the word "noble", but was added later.[52]
Substituting "liberating insight"
In the Nikayas the four truths are given as the "liberating insight" which constituted the awakening, or "enlightenment" of the Buddha. When he understood these truths, he was "enlightened," and liberated,[note 24] as reflected in Majjhima Nikaya 26:42: "[H]is taints are destroyed by his seeing with wisdom."[56] Typically, the four truths refer here to the eigthfold path as the means to gain liberation, while portraying the attainment of insight in the four truths as liberating in itself.[24]
The earliest Buddhist path consisted of a set of practices which culminate in the practice of dhyana, leading to a calm of mind which is the liberation which is being sought. The description of the four truths is a later addition to this path, shifting the emphasis to liberating insight.[49][36] According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".[57] Initially the term prajna served to denote this "liberating insight." According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas.[12][13] Bronkhorst notices that
...the accounts which include the Four Noble Truths had a completely different conception of the process of liberation than the one which includes the Four Dhyanas and the destruction of the intoxicants.[58]
Prajna came to be replaced by the four truths in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas, and the parctice of the four jhanas culminates in "liberating insight."[59] Bronkhorst also notices that the conception of what exactly this "liberating insight" was developed throughout time. Whereas originally it may not have been specified, later on the four truths served as such, to be superseded by pratityasamutpada, and still later, in the Hinayana schools, by the doctrine of the non-existence of a substantial self or person.[60] And Schmithausen notices that still other descriptions of this "liberating insight" exist in the Buddhist canon:
"that the five Skandhas are impermanent, disagreeable, and neither the Self nor belonging to oneself";[note 25] "the contemplation of the arising and disappearance (udayabbaya) of the five Skandhas";[note 26] "the realisation of the Skandhas as empty (rittaka), vain (tucchaka) and without any pith or substance (asaraka).[note 27][61]
An example of this substitution, and its consequences, is Majjhima Nikaya 36:42-43, which gives an account of the awakening of the Buddha.[62]
Symbolic and propositional function
According to Anderson, the four truths have both a symbolic and a propositional function. As a symbol, they refer to the possibility of awakening, as represented by the Buddha:
[W]hen the four noble truths are regarded in the canon as the first teaching of the Buddha, they function as a view or doctrine that assumes a symbolic function. Where the four noble truths appear in the guise of a religious symbol in the Sutta-pitaka and the Vinaya-pitaka of the Palicanon, they represent the enlightenment experience of the Buddha and the possibility of enlightenment for all Buddhists within the cosmos.[63]
As a proposition, they describe how release from craving is to be reached:[64]
... the four noble truths are truly set apart within the body of the Buddha's teachings, not because they are by definition sacred, but because they are both a symbol and a doctrine and transformative within the sphere of right view. As one doctrine among others, the four noble truths make explicit the structure within which one should seek enlightenment; as a symbol, the four noble truths evoke the possibility of enlightenment. As both, they occupy not only a central but a singular position within the Theravada canon and tradition.[64]
Appearance within the discourses
The developing Buddhist tradition inserted the four truths, using various formulations, at various sutras.[13] They are being used both as a symbol of all dhammas and the Buddha's awakening, and as a set of propositions which function within a matrix of teachings.[65] According to Anderson, there is no single way to understand the teachings; one teaching may be used to explain another teaching, and vice versa. The teachings form a network, which should be apprehended as such to understand how the various teachings intersect with each other.[66]
Symbolic function
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta
According to the Buddhist tradition, the first talk of Gautama Buddha after he attained enlightenment is recorded in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, Samyutta Nikaya 56.11). The four truths originally were not part of this sutta, and were later added in some versions.[58][67] Several versions of this sutta contain the four truths, whereas others don't.[58]
The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta provides details on three stages in the understanding of each truth, for a total of twelve insights. According to Bronkhorst, they are probably also a later addition, born out of unease with the substitution of the general term "prajna" for the more specific "four truths".[68] The three stages for understanding each truth are:[69][70][71][72][73]
- sacca-ñāṇa - knowing the nature of the truth (e.g., acknowledgement, view, reflection)
- kicca-ñāṇa - knowing what needs to be done in connection with that truth (e.g., practice; motivation; directly experiencing)
- kata-ñāṇa - accomplishing what needs to be done (e.g., result, full understanding, knowing)
These three stages of understanding are emphasized particularly in the Theravada tradition, but they are also recognized by some contemporary Mahayana teachers.[73][74]
Maha-parinibbana Sutta
The Maha-parinibbana Sutta (Last Days of the Buddha, Digha Nikaya 16) was given near the end of the Buddha's life. In this sutta, the Buddha emphasized the importance of the four noble truths with the following statement:[web 18]
And the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus, saying: "Bhikkhus, it is through not realizing, through not penetrating the Four Noble Truths that this long course of birth and death has been passed through and undergone by me as well as by you. What are these four? They are the noble truth of suffering; the noble truth of the origin of suffering; the noble truth of the cessation of suffering; and the noble truth of the way to the cessation of suffering. But now, bhikkhus, that these have been realized and penetrated, cut off is the craving for existence, destroyed is that which leads to renewed becoming, and there is no fresh becoming."
Thus it was said by the Blessed One. And the Happy One, the Master, further said:
- Through not seeing the Four Noble Truths,
- Long was the weary path from birth to birth.
- When these are known, removed is rebirth's cause,
- The root of sorrow plucked; then ends rebirth.
Mahasaccaka Sutta
The Mahasaccaka Sutta (The Greater Discourse to Saccaka, Majjhima Nikaya 36) narrates the Buddha's way to liberation. He attains the three knowledges, namely knowledge of his former lifes, knowledge of death and rebirh, and knowledge of the destruction of the taints,[note 28] the Four Noble Truths.[75] After going through the four dhyanas, and gaining the first two knowledges, the story proceeds:
I directed my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicants [suffering ... origin ... cessation ... path] [intoxicants (asava) ... origin ... cessation ... path] My mind was liberated [...] the knowledge arose that it was liberated.[62]
Bronkhorst dismisses the first two knowledges as later additions, and proceeds to notice that the recognition of the intoxicants is modelled on the four truths. According to Bronkhorst, those are added the bridge the original sequence of "I directed my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicants. My mind was liberated", which was interrupted by the addition of the four truths. Bronkhorst points out that those do not fit here, since the four truths culminate in the knowledge of the path to be followed - which has been ended by that point![76]
Propositional function
Majjhima Nikaya 149:3 plus 149:9 give an alternative presentation of the four truths:
When one abides inflamed by lust, fettered, infatuated, contemplating gratification, [...] [o]ne's bodily and mental troubles increase, one's bodily and mental torments increase, one's bodily and mental fevers increase, and one experiences bodily and mental suffering.
...when one does not know and see as it actually is [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact as condition, then one is inflamed by lust for the eye, for forms, for eye-consciousness, for eye-contact, for [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact as condition [repeated for the nose, tongue, body, mind].
When one abides uninflamed by lust, unfettered, uninfatuated, contemplating danger [...] one's craving [...] is abandoned. One's bodily and mental troubles are abandoned, one's bodily and mental torments are abandoned, one's bodily and mental fevers are abandoned, and one experiences bodily and mental pleasure.
...when one knows and see as it actually is [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact as condition, then one is not inflamed by lust for the eye, for forms, for eye-consciousness, for eye-contact, for [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact as condition [repeated for the nose, tongue, body, mind].[77]
Emphasis within different traditions
Early Indian Buddhism
The Ekavyāvahārika sect emphasized the transcendence of the Buddha, asserting that he was eternally enlightened and essentially non-physical. According to the Ekavyāvahārika, the words of the Buddha were spoken with one transcendent meaning, and the Four Noble Truths are perfectly realized with one wisdom.[78] According to the Mahīśāsaka sect, the Four Noble Truths should be meditated upon simultaneously.[79]
Theravada
Within the Theravada tradition, great emphasis is placed upon reading and contemplating The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, and other suttas, as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice.[80][note 29]
The Kathāvatthu records debate by the Theravādins with the Andhakas (who may have been Mahāsāṃghikas) regarding whether or not old age and death are the result (vipāka) of karma.[82] The Theravāda maintained that they are not—not, apparently because there is no causal relation between the two, but because they wished to reserve the term vipāka strictly for mental results--"subjective phenomena arising through the effects of kamma."[82]
Mahayana
In the Mahayana tradition, the four noble truths take a less prominent place. They are traditionally studied through various Mahayana commentaries,[83] in conjunction with teachings on bodhisattva path.[80]
Tibetan Buddhism
Within Tibetan Buddhism, the four noble truths are traditionally studied from Mahayana commentaries such as the Abhisamayalamkara, rather than from reading the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. The truth of the path (the fourth truth) is traditionally presented according to a progressive formula of five paths, rather than as the eightfold path presented in other traditions.[84] The Tibetan tradition also emphasizes the study of the sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths, as described in the Abhisamayalamkara ("Ornament of Clear Realization"). [85] Some contemporary Tibetan Buddhist teachers have provided commentary on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and the noble eightfold path when presenting the dharma to Western students.[86][87][88]
Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism is based on the teaching of the Japanese priest and teacher Nichiren, who believed that the Lotus Sūtra contained the essence of all of Gautama Buddha's teachings.[89] The third chapter of the Lotus Sutra states that the Four Noble Truths was the early teaching of the Buddha, while the Dharma of the Lotus is the "most wonderful, unsurpassed great Dharma."[web 19] The teachings on the four noble truths are a provisional teaching, which Shakyamuni Buddha taught according to the people’s capacity, while the Lotus Sutra is a direct statement of Shakyamuni’s own enlightenment.[web 20]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b According to Donald Lopez, "The Buddha stated in his first sermon that when he gained absolute and intuitive knowledge of the four truths, he achieved complete enlightenment and freedom from future rebirth."[web 1] See also the Maha-parinibbana Sutta,[web 3] and Carol Anderson, Pain and its Ending, pp.162 with note 38, for context see pages 1-3 ;[5] and Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions, on "moksha" in the Encyclopedia Britannica.[web 4]
- ^ a b "Suffering", "anxiety", "uneasiness", "dissatisfaction", "unsatisfactoriness"
- ^ Paul Williams: "All rebirth is due to karma and is impermanent. Short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one's own karma. The endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath, is samsara."[2]
- ^ Five sets of the four truths can be found in the Pitaka.[13] The complete expressions from the first discourse (from the Pali canon) are as follows:
- Dukkham ariyasaccam
- Dukkhasamudayam ariyasaccam
- Dukkhanirodham ariyasaccam
- Dukkhanirodhagāminī patipadā ariyasaccam[web 7]
- ^ Sanskrit: duḥkha-satya
- ^ Sanskrit: samudaya-satya
- ^ Sanskrit: nirodha-satya
- ^ Sanskrit: mārga-satya
- ^ The key terms in the longer version of this expression, Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Ariya Saccam, can be translated as follows:
- ^ '"Truth", satya (Sanskrit), sacca (Pali), derived from sat, being, how it is.[17]
- ^ Contemporary Buddhist teacher Mingyur Rinpoche describes the four arya satya as "Four Pure Insights into the Way Things Are".[18] Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey translates arya satya as "True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled".[19]
- ^ Ajahn Sucitto states: "So the four truths (ariya sacca) are generally called “noble” truths, although one might also translate ariya as “precious.” "[20]
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering: "The modifier noble means truth as perceived by arya beings, those beings who have had a direct realization of emptiness or selflessness. Noble means something seen by arya beings as it really is, and in this case it is four recognitions—suffering, origin, cessation, and path. Arya beings see all types of suffering—physical and mental, gross and subtle—exactly as they are, as suffering. For people like us, who do not have the direct realization of emptiness, although we may understand certain levels of physical and mental experiences as suffering, it is impossible for us to see all the levels of suffering for what they are. Instead we may see some things as desirable when in truth they are suffering.[22]
- ^ Gethin states: The word satya (Pali sacca) can certainly mean truth, but it might equally be rendered as 'real' or 'actual thing'. That is, we are not dealing here with propositional truths with which we must either agree or disagree, but with four 'true things' or 'realities' whose nature, we are told, the Buddha finally understood on the night of his awakening. [...] This is not to say that the Buddha's discourses do not contain theoretical statements of the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path to its cessation, but these descriptions function not so much as dogmas of the Buddhist faith as a convenient conceptual framework for making sense of Buddhist thought.[23]
- ^ Patrick Olivelle: "Moksha, also spelled mokṣa, also called mukti, in Indian philosophy and religion, liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). Derived from the Sanskrit word muc ("to free"), the term moksha literally means freedom from samsara. This concept of liberation or release is shared by a wide spectrum of religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.[web 4]
- ^ Melvin E. Spiro: "Desire is the cause of suffering because desire is the cause of rebirth; and the extinction of desire leads to deliverance from suffering because it signals release from the Wheel of Rebirth."[4]
- ^ "suffering", "anxiety", "uneasiness", "dissatisfaction", "unsatisfactoriness", etc. See Dukkha etymology
- ^ This explanation is more common in commentaries on the Four Noble Truths within the Theravada tradition: e.g. Ajahn Sucitta (2010); Ajahn Sumedho (ebook); Rahula (1974); etc.
- ^ Another variant, which may be condensed to the eightfold or tenfold path, starts with a Tathagatha entering this world. A layman hears his teachings, decides to leave the life of a householder, starts living according to the moral precepts, guards his sense-doors, practices mindfulness and the four jhanas, gains the three knowledges, understands the Four Noble Truths and destroys the taints, and perceives that he's liberated.[36]
- ^ Anderson: "However, the four noble truths do not always appear in stories of the Buddha's enlightenment where we might expect to find them. This feature may indicate that the four noble truths emerged into the canonical tradition at a particular point and slowly became recognized as the first teaching of the Buddha. Speculations about early and late teachings must be made relative to other passages in the Pali canon because of a lack of supporting extratextual evidence. Nonetheless, it is still possible to suggest a certain historical development of the four noble truths within the Pali canon. What we will find is a doctrine that came to be identified as the central teaching of the Buddha by the time of the commentaries in the fifth century C.E."[41]
- ^ Anderson refers to Bareau, who noticed the consistency between the two versions in the Mahavagga, part of the Vinaya, and the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta of the Buddha's enlightenment: "As Bareau noted, the consistency between these two versions of the Buddha's enlightenment is an indication that the redactors of the Theravada canon probably brought the two accounts into agreement with each other at a relatively late point in the formation of the canon.
Leon Feer had already suggested in 1870 that the versions of the four noble truths found in the sutras and suttas were derived from the vinaya rescensions in the larger body of Buddhist literature; Bareau's conclusion builds on this claim."[46] - ^ Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism, notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[48][24][49]
- ^ Anderson refers to reseacrh by K.R. Norman, Bareau, Skilling, Schmithausen and Bronkhorst.[51]
- ^ "Enlightenment" is a typical western term, which bears its own, specific western connotations, meanings and interpretations.[53][54][55]
- ^ Majjhima Nikaya 26
- ^ Anguttara Nikaya II.45 (PTS)
- ^ Samyutta Nikaya III.140-142 (PTS)
- ^ Which keep one trapped in samsara.
- ^ For example, Ajahn Sumedho states: "The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the Buddha's teaching on the Four Noble Truths, has been the main reference that I have used for my practice over the years. It is the teaching we used in our monastery in Thailand. The Theravada school of Buddhism regards this sutta as the quintessence of the teachings of the Buddha. This one sutta contains all that is necessary for understanding the Dhamma and for enlightenment."[81]
References
- ^ a b c Nyanatiloka 1980, p. 65.
- ^ a b c d e Williams 2002, p. 74-75.
- ^ a b c Lopez 2009, p. 147.
- ^ a b c d e f g Spiro 1982, p. 42.
- ^ a b Anderson 2003, p. 162 with note 38, for context see pages 1-3.
- ^ Paul Williams, Anthony Tribe & Alexander Wynne 2012, pp. 30–42.
- ^ Paul Williams, Anthony Tribe & Alexander Wynne 2012, pp. 32–34.
- ^ Perry Schmidt-Leukel (2006). Understanding Buddhism. Dunedin Academic Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-1-903765-18-0., Quote: Thirst can be temporarily quenched but never brought to final stillness. It is in this sense that thirst is the cause of suffering, duhkha. And because of this thirst, the sentient beings remain bound to samsara, the cycle of constant rebirth and redeath: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence as the Second Noble Truth (...)
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2003, p. 304.
- ^ P. T. Raju (1985). Structural Depths of Indian Thought. State University of New York Press. pp. 147–151. ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4.
- ^ Charles Eliot (2014). Japanese Buddhism. Routledge. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-1-317-79274-1.
- ^ a b Bronkhorst 1993, p. 99-100, 102-111. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ a b c d e f Anderson 1999. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, pp. 223–231. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 56. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Brazier 2001.
- ^ a b c d e f Williams 2002, p. 41.
- ^ a b Mingyur Rinpoche 2007, p. 70.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 52.
- ^ Ajahn Sucitto 2010, Kindle Location 122.
- ^ Williams 2002, p. 52.
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, p. 349-350.
- ^ a b c Gethin 1998, p. 60.
- ^ a b c Bronkhorst 1993. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Walpola Rahula 2007, Kindle loc. 514-524.
- ^ Kingsland 2016, p. 286.
- ^ Samuel 2008, p. 136.
- ^ Batchelor 2012, p. 94.
- ^ Kingsland 2016, p. 280.
- ^ a b Walpola Rahula 2007, loc. 791-809.
- ^ Gethin 1998, p. 70.
- ^ Ajahn Sucitto 2010, Kindle loc. 943-946.
- ^ Walpola Rahula 2007, loc. 904-923.
- ^ Gethin 1998, p. 75.
- ^ a b Goldstein 2002, p. 158.
- ^ a b c d e Bucknell 1984.
- ^ Keown 2000, Kindle Locations 909-911.
- ^ Lopez 2001, p. 52.
- ^ Williams 2002, p. 42.
- ^ Gethin 1998, pp. 63–64.
- ^ a b Anderson 1999, p. 55-56. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. viii. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 21. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Batchelor 2012, p. 91.
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 74, 77. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 74. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 148. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Schmithausen 1981.
- ^ a b Vetter 1988. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFVetter1988 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 17. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 19-20. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Batchelor 2012, p. 92.
- ^ Cohen 2006.
- ^ Sharf 1995.
- ^ Sharf 2000.
- ^ Bhikkhu Nanamoli (translator) 1995, p. 268.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 107. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ a b c Bronkhorst 1993, p. 110. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 108. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 100-101. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 101. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ a b Bronkhorst 1993, p. 102-103. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 55. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ a b Anderson 1999, p. 230-231. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 86. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 86-87. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Anderson 1999, p. 68. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFAnderson1999 (help)
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 106. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Walpola Rahula 2007, Kindle loc. 3935-3939.
- ^ Ajahn Succito 2010, pp. 99-100.
- ^ Ajahn Sumedho 2002, p. 9.
- ^ Phillip Moffitt 2002, Kindle loc. 225-226.
- ^ a b Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 303-306.
- ^ Thich Nhat Hahn 1999, pp. 28–46.
- ^ Bhikkhu Nanamoli (translator) 1995.
- ^ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 103-104. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBronkhorst1993 (help)
- ^ Bhikkhu Nanamoli (translator) 1995, p. 1137.
- ^ Rockhill, William. The Life of Buddha And the Early History of His Order Derived from Tibetan. pp. 187-188
- ^ Potter, Karl. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD. 2004. p. 106
- ^ a b Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 275-280.
- ^ Ajahn Sumedho 2002, p. 5.
- ^ a b McDermott 1975, pp. 426–427.
- ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism. 1989. p. 103
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 2187-2190.
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 741-743.
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 241.
- ^ Ringu Tulku 2005, pp. 36–54.
- ^ Lama Surya Das 1997.
- ^ http://www.nichiren-shu.org.uk/septoctnewsletter.html
Sources
Printed sources
- Ajahn Sumedho (2002), The Four Noble Truths, Amaravati Publications
- Ajahn Sucitto (2010), Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching, Shambhala
- Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
- Anderson, Carol (2003). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.
- Barber, Anthony W. (2008), Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley
- Batchelor, Stephen (2012), "A Secular Buddhism", Journal of Global Buddhism 13 (2012): 87-107
- Bhikkhu Bodhi (translator) (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications, ISBN 0-86171-331-1
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has generic name (help) - Bhikkhu Bodhi (2011), The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering (Kindle ed.), Independent Publishers Group
- Bhikkhu Nanamoli (translator) (1995), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications, ISBN 0-86171-072-X
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has generic name (help) - Bhikkhu Thanissaro (translator) (1997), Tittha Sutta: Sectarians (AN 3.61), retrieved 2007-11-12
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has generic name (help) (See also Anguttara Nikaya) - Brazier, David (2001), The Feeling Buddha, Robinson Publishing
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- Bucknell, Rod (1984), "The Buddhist to Liberation: An Analysis of the Listing of Stages", The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 7 (2)
- Buswell, Robert E. JR; Gimello, Robert M. (editors) (1994), Paths to Liberation. The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
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has generic name (help) - Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald Jr. (2003), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton University Press
- Chogyam Trungpa (2009), Leif, Judy (ed.), The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation, Shambhala
- Cohen, Robert S. (2006), Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity, Routledge
- Dalai Lama (1992), The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect, Translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins, Wisdom
- Dalai Lama (1998), The Four Noble Truths, Thorsons
- Dhamma, Ven. Dr. Rewata (1997), The First Discourse of the Buddha, Wisdom, ISBN 0-86171-104-1
- Duff, Tony (2008), Contemplation by way of the Twelve Interdependent Arisings, Padma Karpo Translation Committee, archived from the original on 2008-01-23, retrieved 2008-08-19
- Epstein, Mark (2004), Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective (Kindle ed.), Basic Books
- Feer, Leon (editor) (1976), The Samyutta Nikaya, vol. 5, London: Pali Text Society
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has generic name (help) - Fronsdal, Gil (2001), The Issue at Hand (Kindle ed.), self-published
- Geshe Tashi Tsering (2005), The Four Noble Truths: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume I (Kindle ed.), Wisdom
- Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Buddhist Psychology: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume III (Kindle ed.), Perseus Books Group
- Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press
- Goenka, S.N. (2000), The Discourse Summaries, Pariyatti
- Goldstein, Joseph (2002), One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism, HarperCollins
- Goldstein, Joseph (2013), Mindfulness: A Practical Guide to Awakening (Kindle ed.), Sounds True
- Harvey, Peter (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press
- Kalupahana, David J. (1992-B), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
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(help) - Keown, Damien (2000), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (Kindle ed.), Oxford University Press
- Khunu Rinpoche (2012), Vast as the Heavens, Deep as the Sea: Verses in Praise of Bodhicitta, Translated by Thubten Thardo (Gareth Sparham) (Kindle ed.), Wisdom
- Kingsland, James (2016), Siddhartha's Brain: Unlocking the Ancient Science of Enlightenment, HarperCollins
- Lama Surya Das (1997), Awakening the Buddha Within (Kindle ed.), Broadway Books
- Leifer, Ron (1997), The Happiness Project, Snow Lion
- Lopez, Donald S. (2001), The Story of Buddhism, HarperCollins
- Lopez, Donald, jr. (2009), Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed, University of Chicago Press
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - McDermott, James Paul (1975), "The Kathāvatthu Kamma Debates", Journal of the American Oriental Society, no. Vol. 95, No. 3, Jul. - Sep., 1975
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has extra text (help) - Mingyur Rinpoche (2007), The Joy of Living: Unlocking the Secret and Science of Happiness (Kindle ed.), Harmony
- Moffitt, Philip (2008), Dancing with Life: Buddhist Insights for Finding Meaning and Joy in the Face of Suffering (Kindle ed.), Rodale
- Monier-Williams (1899, 1964), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (PDF), London: Oxford University Press, retrieved 27 December 2008
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(help) - Nyanatiloka (1980), Buddhist Dictionary, Buddhist Publication Society
- Pema Chodron (2010), Comfortable with Uncertainty: 108 Teachings on Cultivating Fearlessness and Compassion, Shambhala
- Potter, Karl (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. IX: Buddhist philosophy from 350 to 600 AD
- Rahula, Walpola (2007), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press
- Ringu Tulku (2005), Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism, Snow Lion
- Rockhill, William (1992), The Life of Buddha And the Early History of His Order Derived from Tibetan, Asian Educational Services
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
- Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism". In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf), hrsg. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler, Wiesbaden
- Sharf, Robert H. (1995-B), "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF), NUMEN, vol.42 (1995)
{{citation}}
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(help) - Sharf, Robert H. (2000), The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion. In: Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, No. 11-12, 2000, pp. 267-87 (PDF)
- Smith, Huston; Novak, Philip (2009), Buddhism: A Concise Introduction (Kindle ed.), HarperOne
- Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, London: Century Paperbacks
- Spiro, Melford E. (1982), Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes, University of California Press
- Thich Nhat Hanh (1991), Old Path White Clouds, Parallax Press
- Thich Nhat Hanh (1999), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Three River Press
- Traleg Kyabgon (2001), The Essence of Buddhism, Shambhala
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
- Walpola Rahula (2007), What the Buddha Taught (Kindle ed.), Grove Press
- Walsh, Maurice (1995), The Long Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya, Wisdom Publications
- Wardner, A.K. (1970), Indian Buddhism, Delhi
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Watson, Burton (1993), The Lotus Sutra, Columbia University Press
- Williams, Paul (2002), Buddhist Thought (Kindle ed.), Taylor & Francis
- Williams, Paul (2008), Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge
- Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe; Alexander Wynne (2012), Buddhist Thought, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-136-52088-4
Web-sources
- ^ a b c d e f g Donald Lopez, Four Noble Truths, Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, The Truth of Rebirth And Why it Matters for Buddhist Practice
- ^ Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha, translated by Sister Vajira & Francis Story
- ^ a b c Patrick Olivelle (2012), Encyclopædia Britannica, Moksha (Indian religions)
- ^ Mahasi Sayadaw, Discourse on the Wheel of Dharma, part 5
- ^ John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism
- ^ Bhikkhu Pesala: An Exposition of the Dhammacakka Sutta
- ^ Digital Library & Museum of Buddhist Studies, College of liberal Arts, Taiwan University: Samudaya
- ^ Sanskrit Dictionary for spoken Sanskrit, samudaya
- ^ Access to Insight Glossary - m
- ^ Pali Text Society Dictionary
- ^ Access to Insight Glossary - pq
- ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion - Majjhima Nikaya 56.11
- ^ Bikkhu Bodhi (translator), Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta. Samyutta Nikaya LVI, 11. "Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dhamma."
- ^ Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha, translated by Sister Vajira & Francis Story
- ^ The Four Noble Truths - By Bhikkhu Bodhi
- ^ Expounding the Law, The Walters Art Museum
- ^ Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha, translated by Sister Vajira & Francis Story
- ^ Quote from Watson (1993), The Lotus Sutra
- ^ Four Noble truths for Voice Hearers, see "Background" section
Further reading
Historical background and development
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, chapter 8
- Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
Theravada commentaries
- Ajahn Sucitto (2010), Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha's First Teaching, Shambhala.
- Ajahn Sumedho (2002), The Four Noble Truths, Amaravati Publications.
- Bhikkhu Bodhi (2006), The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering, Pariyatti Publishing.
Tibetan Buddhism
- Chögyam Trungpa (2009), The Truth of Suffering and the Path of Liberation, Shambhala.
- Dalai Lama (1998), The Four Noble Truths, Thorsons.
- Geshe Tashi Tsering (2005), The Four Noble Truths: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, Volume I, Wisdom, Kindle Edition
- Ringu Tulku (2005), Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism, Snow Lion. (Part 1 of 3 is a commentary on the four truths)
Modern interpretations
- Epstein, Mark (2004), Thoughts Without A Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. Basic Books. Kindle Edition. (Part 1 examines the four truths from a Western psychological perspective)
- Moffitt, Phillip (2008), Dancing with Life: Buddhist Insights for Finding Meaning and Joy in the Face of Suffering, Rodale, Kindle Edition. (An explanation of how to apply the Four Noble Truths to daily life)
- Thich Nhat Hanh (1999), The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Three Rivers Press
Other commentaries
- Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, (Chapter 3 is a commentary of about 25 pages.)
- Lopez, Donald S. (2001), The Story of Buddhism, HarperCollins. (pp. 42–54)
- Walpola Rahula (1974), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press
External links
Introductory material and study guides - Theravada tradition
- The Four Noble Truths - Ajahn Chah
- The Buddha's Ancient Path - Piyadassi Thera
- The Four Noble Truths (brief overview) - Bhikkhu Bodhi
- Study Guide on the Eightfold Path - Bhikkhu Bodhi, Richard Blumberg (a study guide on Bhikkhu Bodhi's text)
- Lecture on the Four Noble Truths by Bhikkhu Bodhi
- The Four Noble Truths: A Study Guide - Thanissaro Bhikkhu
- The Four Noble Truths - Wings to Awakening - excerpts from suttas translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
- DharmaNet - Four Noble Truths - links to several online sources
Introductory material and study guides - Mahayana tradition
- Four Noble Truths - Dalai Lama (A brief overview)
- Four Noble Truths - Thrangu Rinpoche (A brief overview)
- Overview of Four Noble Truths - Alexander Berzin
- Sixteen Aspects of the Four Noble Truths - Alexander Berzin
Chinese
- 轉法輪經 ChineseBodhiDhammacakka at CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka As of 28 October 2008