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{{Short description|First satellite launched by the United States (1958)}} |
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{{about|the US satellite|the Iranian space rocket Explorer-1|Kavoshgar-1|the Web browser|Internet Explorer 1}} |
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{{About|the U.S. satellite|other uses|Explorer One (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Infobox spacecraft |
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{{Other uses|Explorer (disambiguation)}} |
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| Name = Explorer 1<br/>{{Small|1958 Alpha 1}} |
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{{Use American English|date=February 2021}} |
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| Image = [[File:Explorer1.jpg|250px]] |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} |
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| Caption = |
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{{Infobox spaceflight |
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| Organization = [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] |
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| name = Explorer 1 |
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| Major_Contractors = [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] |
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| names_list = Explorer I<br/>1958 Alpha 1 |
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| image = Explorer1.jpg |
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| image_caption = Explorer 1 in its orbital configuration, with the launch vehicle's fourth stage attached |
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| Flyby_Of = |
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| image_size = |
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| Orbital_Insertion_Date = |
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| mission_type = [[Earth science]] |
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| operator = [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]] / [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] |
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| Harvard_designation = 1958 Alpha 1 |
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| Launch = 1958-02-01 03:48 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] |
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| COSPAR_ID = 1958-001A |
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| SATCAT = 00004 |
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| mission_duration = 120 days (planned)<br/>111 days (achieved) |
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| Launch_Site = [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral Missile Annex]], Florida |
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| Mission_Duration = 111 days |
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| spacecraft = Explorer I |
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| spacecraft_type = Science Explorer |
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| Webpage = [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/masterCatalog.do?sc=1958-001A NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] |
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| spacecraft_bus = Explorer 1 |
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| manufacturer = [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] |
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| launch_mass = {{cvt|13.97|kg}} |
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| dimensions = {{cvt|203|cm}} length<br/>{{cvt|15.2|cm}} diameter |
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| Orbit_regime = |
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| power = 60 [[watt]]s |
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| Longitude = |
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| launch_date = 1 February 1958, 03:47:56 [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |
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| Semimajor_Axis = 7,832.2 km (4,866.6 miles) |
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| launch_rocket = [[Juno I]] (RS-29) |
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| launch_site = [[Eastern Range|Atlantic Missile Range]], [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26|LC-26A]] |
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| Inclination = 33.24° |
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| launch_contractor = [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] |
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| Orbital_Period = 114.8 minutes |
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| Apoapsis = 2,550 km (1,585 miles) |
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| entered_service = 1 February 1958 |
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| last_contact = 23 May 1958 |
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| destroyed = |
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| decay_date = 31 March 1970 |
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| Transponders = |
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| orbit_reference = [[Geocentric orbit]]<ref name="Trajectory"/> |
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| Coverage = |
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| orbit_regime = [[Medium Earth orbit]] |
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| orbit_periapsis = {{cvt|358|km}} |
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| orbit_apoapsis = {{cvt|2550|km}} |
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| orbit_inclination = 33.24° |
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| orbit_period = 114.80 minutes |
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| orbit_rev_number = 58402 |
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| apsis = gee |
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| Refs = <ref name="ExplorerInformation">{{Cite web| url=http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html |title=Explorer-I and Jupiter-C |publisher=NASA |first=Steve |last=Garber |date=October 10, 2007 |accessdate=November 16, 2009}}</ref><ref name="facts">{{cite web | url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/explorer/facts/ | title=Explorer 1 First U.S. Satellite - Fast Facts | accessdate=2008-02-06 | publisher=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]], [[NASA]] }}</ref><ref name="trajectory">{{cite web | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftOrbit.do?id=1958-001A | title=Trajectory Details | accessdate=2008-02-06 | work=NSSDC Master Catalog | publisher=[[NASA]] }}</ref><ref name="solarsystem">{{cite web | url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Explorer_01 | title=Solar System Exploration Explorer 1 | publisher=NASA | accessdate=2008-02-06}}</ref> |
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| instruments = Cosmic-Ray Detector<br/>Micrometeorite Detector<br/>Resistance Thermometers<br/>Satellite Drag Atmospheric Density |
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| programme = '''Explorer program''' |
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| previous_mission = |
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| next_mission = [[Explorer 2]] |
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}} |
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'''Explorer 1''' was the first satellite launched by the United States in 1958 and was part of the U.S. participation in the International Geophysical Year ([[International Geophysical Year|IGY]]). The mission followed the first two satellites, both launched by the Soviet Union during the previous year, [[Sputnik 1]] and [[Sputnik 2]]. This began a Space Race during the Cold War between the two nations. |
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Explorer 1 was launched on 1 February 1958 at 03:47:56 GMT (or 31 January 1958 at 22:47:56 Eastern Time) atop the first [[Juno I|Juno]] booster from [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26|LC-26A]] at the [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral Missile Test Center]] of the Atlantic Missile Range (AMR), in Florida. It was the first spacecraft to detect the [[Van Allen radiation belt]],<ref>Paul Dickson, ''Sputnik: The Launch of the Space Race'', Toronto: MacFarlane Walter & Ross, 2001, p. 190</ref> returning data until its batteries were exhausted after nearly four months. It remained in orbit until 1970. |
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Explorer 1 was given Satellite Catalog Number 00004 and the Harvard designation 1958 Alpha 1,<ref name="Yost">{{cite book|url=http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/pdf/inf044E.pdf |
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==Background== |
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|title=Registration data for United States Space Launches|last=Yost|first=Charles W.|publisher=United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs|date=1963|access-date=2009-02-19}}</ref> the forerunner to the modern International Designator. |
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The U.S. Earth satellite program began in 1954 as a joint [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy]] proposal, called [[Project Orbiter]], to put a scientific satellite into [[orbit]] during the International Geophysical Year. The proposal, using a military [[Redstone (rocket)|Redstone]] missile, was rejected in 1955 by the [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower administration]] in favor of the U.S. Navy's [[Project Vanguard]], using a booster produced for civilian space launches.<ref name="time">{{cite web | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,937919-1,00.html | title=Project Vanguard - Why It Failed to Live Up to Its Name | accessdate=2008-02-12 | date=October 21, 1957 | publisher=[[Time (magazine)]]}}</ref> Following the launch of the Soviet satellite ''Sputnik 1'' on October 4, 1957, the initial Project Orbiter program was revived as the Explorer program to catch up with the Soviet Union.<ref name="space age">{{cite web | url=http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/ | title=Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age | accessdate=2008-02-13 | work=NASA History | publisher=[[NASA]] }}</ref> |
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== Background == |
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''Explorer 1'' was designed and built by the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL), while a [[Jupiter-C]] rocket was modified by the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] (ABMA) to accommodate a satellite [[payload (air and space craft)|payload]]; the resulting rocket known as the [[Juno I]]. The Jupiter-C design used for the launch had already been flight-tested in [[nose cone]] [[Atmospheric reentry|reentry]] tests for the [[PGM-19 Jupiter|Jupiter]] [[intermediate-range ballistic missile|IRBM]] and was modified into Juno I. Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building ''Explorer 1'' in 84 days. However, before work was completed, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, ''Sputnik 2'', on November 3, 1957. The U.S. Navy's attempt to put the first U.S. satellite into orbit failed with the launch of the ''[[Vanguard TV3]]'' on December 6, 1957.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/cover.htm | title=Chapter 11: From Sputnik I to TV-3 | accessdate=2008-02-13 | last=McLaughlin Green | first=Constance | coauthors=Lomask, Milton | year=1970 | work=Vanguard - A History | publisher=[[NASA]] }}</ref> |
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The U.S. Earth satellite program began in 1954 as a joint U.S. Army and U.S. Navy proposal, called Project Orbiter, to put a scientific satellite into orbit during the [[International Geophysical Year]]. The proposal, using a military Redstone missile, was rejected in 1955 by the Eisenhower administration in favor of the Navy's [[Project Vanguard]], using a booster advertised as more civilian in nature.<ref>Matt Bille and Erika Lishock, The First Space Race: Launching the World's First Satellites, Texas A&M University Press, 2004, Chapter 5</ref><ref name="time">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,937919-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515162755/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,937919-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2008|title=Project Vanguard – Why It Failed to Live Up to Its Name|access-date=2008-02-12|date=21 October 1957|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> Following the launch of the Soviet satellite [[Sputnik 1]] on 4 October 1957, the initial [[Project Orbiter]] program was revived as the Explorer program to catch up with the Soviet Union.<ref name="space age">{{cite web|url=https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/|title=Sputnik and the Dawn of the Space Age|work=NASA History |publisher=NASA|access-date=2008-02-13}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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Explorer 1 was designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ([[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]]), while a [[Jupiter-C]] rocket was modified by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) to accommodate a satellite payload; the resulting rocket known as the [[Juno I]]. The Jupiter-C design used for the launch had already been flight-tested in nose cone reentry tests for the [[PGM-19 Jupiter|Jupiter]] intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), and was modified into Juno I. Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building Explorer 1 in 84 days. However, before work was completed, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, [[Sputnik 2]], on 3 November 1957. The U.S. Navy attempted to put the first U.S. satellite into orbit, but failed with the launch of the [[Vanguard TV-3]] on 6 December 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/cover.htm|title=Chapter 11: from Sputnik I to TV-3|access-date=2008-02-13|last=McLaughlin Green|first=Constance|author2=Lomask, Milton|year=1970|work=Vanguard, A History|publisher=NASA|archive-date=7 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007015322/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/cover.htm|url-status=dead}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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==Spacecraft design== |
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[[File:Explorer1 preparations.jpg|thumb|''Explorer 1'' is mated to its booster at LC-26]] |
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[[File:Launch of Jupiter C with Explorer 1.jpg|thumb|Launch of ''Explorer 1'' on January 31, 1958.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap080201.html | title=Astronomy Picture of the Day on January 31, 2008 | accessdate=2008-02-03 | date=2008-01-31 | publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]], [[NASA]] }}</ref>]] |
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== Spacecraft == |
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''Explorer 1'' was designed and built by the [[California Institute of Technology]]'s JPL under the direction of Dr. [[William Hayward Pickering|William H. Pickering]]. It was the second satellite to carry a mission payload (''Sputnik 2'' was the first). |
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[[File:Explorer1 preparations.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|The satellite Explorer 1 is mated to its booster at LC-26.]] |
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Explorer 1 was designed and built by the California Institute of Technology's JPL under the direction of Dr. [[William Hayward Pickering|William H. Pickering]]. It was the second satellite to carry a mission payload (Sputnik 2 was the first). |
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The total weight of the satellite was 13.97 kilograms (30.80 lb), of which 8.3 kg (18.3 lb) were instrumentation. In comparison the first Soviet satellite ''Sputnik 1'' weighed 83.6 kg (184 lb). The instrument section at the front end of the satellite and the empty scaled-down [[MGM-29 Sergeant|fourth-stage rocket casing]] orbited as a single unit, spinning around its long axis at 750 revolutions per minute. |
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The total mass of the satellite was {{cvt|13.97|kg}}, of which {{cvt|8.3|kg}} were instrumentation. In comparison, the mass of the first Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 was {{cvt|83.6|kg}}. The instrument section at the front end of the satellite and the empty scaled-down fourth-stage rocket casing orbited as a single unit, spinning around its long axis at 750 revolutions per minute. |
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Data from the scientific instruments was transmitted to the ground by two [[antenna (radio)|antennas]]. A 60 milliwatt [[dipole antenna]] consisting of two fiberglass slot antennas in the body of the satellite operating on 108.03 [[hertz|MHz]], and four flexible whips forming a 10 milliwatt [[turnstile antenna]] operating on 108.00 MHz.<ref name="data sheet"/><ref name="Williams">{{cite journal | last=Williams, Jr. | first=W.E. | year=1960 | month=April | title=Space Telemetry Systems | journal=Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers | volume=48 | issue=4 | pages=685–690 | publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] | doi=10.1109/JRPROC.1960.287448 | url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?isnumber=4066036&arnumber=4066076&count=63&index=39 | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-05 }}</ref> |
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Data from the scientific instruments was transmitted to the ground by two antennas. A 60 milliwatt transmitter fed a [[dipole antenna]] consisting of two fiberglass [[slot antenna]]s in the body of the satellite operating on 108.03 MHz, and four flexible whips forming a [[turnstile antenna]] were fed by a 10 milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.00 MHz.<ref name="data sheet"/><ref name="Williams">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=W.E. Jr.|date=April 1960|title=Space Telemetry Systems|journal=Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers|volume=48|issue=4 |pages=685–690|doi=10.1109/JRPROC.1960.287448|s2cid=51646193}}</ref> |
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Because of the limited space available and the requirements for low weight, the payload instrumentation was designed and built with simplicity and high reliability in mind, using used [[transistor]] electronics, consisting of both [[germanium]] and [[silicon]] devices. This was a very early time frame in the development of transistor technology, and was the first documented use of transistors in the U.S. Earth satellite program.<ref name="semiconductormuseum">{{cite web | url=http://semiconductormuseum.com/Transistors/LectureHall/Ludwig/Ludwig_Index.htm | title=The First Transistors in Space - Personal Reflections by the Designer of the Cosmic Ray Instrumentation Package for the Explorer I Satellite | accessdate=2008-02-25 | work=A Transistor Museum Interview with Dr. George Ludwig | publisher=The Transistor Museum}}</ref> A total of 29 transistors were used in Explorer 1, plus additional ones in the Army's micrometeorite amplifier. Electrical power was provided by [[mercury battery|mercury chemical batteries]] that made up approximately 40 percent of the payload weight. |
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Because of the limited space available and the requirements for low weight, the payload instrumentation was designed and built with simplicity and high reliability in mind, using germanium and silicon transistors in its electronics.<ref name="semiconductormuseum">{{cite web|url=http://semiconductormuseum.com/Transistors/LectureHall/Ludwig/Ludwig_Index.htm|title=The First Transistors in Space – Personal Reflections by the Designer of the Cosmic Ray Instrumentation Package for the Explorer I Satellite|access-date=2008-02-25|work=A Transistor Museum Interview with Dr. George Ludwig|publisher=The Transistor Museum}}</ref> A total of 20 transistors were used in Explorer 1, plus additional ones in the Army's micrometeorite amplifier. Electrical power was provided by [[mercury battery|mercury chemical batteries]] that made up approximately 40% of the payload weight. |
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The external skin of the instrument section was painted in alternate strips of white and dark green to provide passive temperature control of the satellite. The proportions of the light and dark strips were determined by studies of shadow-sunlight intervals based on firing time, [[trajectory]], [[orbit]], and [[inclination]].[[File:Explorer1 sketch.jpg|frame|center|300 px|''Explorer 1'' schematic]] |
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The external skin of the instrument section was sandblasted stainless steel with white stripes. Several other color schemes had been tested, resulting in backup articles, models, and photographs showing different configurations, including alternate white and green striping and blue stripes alternating with copper. The final color scheme was determined by studies of shadow–sunlight intervals based on firing time, trajectory, orbit, and inclination. |
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==Science payload== |
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[[File:Explorer1 sketch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|''Explorer 1 schematic'']] |
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The ''Explorer 1'' payload consisted of the Iowa [[Cosmic Ray]] Instrument without a tape data recorder which was not modified in time to make it onto the spacecraft. The real-time data received on the ground was therefore very sparse and puzzling showing normal counting rates and no counts at all. The later ''Explorer 3'' mission, which included a tape data recorder in the payload, provided the additional data for confirmation of the earlier Explorer 1 data. |
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== Science payload == |
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The scientific instrumentation of ''Explorer 1'' was designed and built under the direction of Dr. [[James Van Allen]] of the [[University of Iowa]] containing:<ref name="data sheet">{{cite web | url=http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html | title=Explorer-I and Jupiter-C | accessdate=2008-02-09 | work=Data Sheet | publisher=Department of Astronautics, [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Smithsonian Institution]]}}</ref> |
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[[File:1958-02-03 First US Satellite Launched.ogv|thumb|upright=1.0|right|thumbtime=3|[[Universal Newsreel]] about the satellite]] |
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The Explorer 1 payload consisted of the Iowa [[Cosmic ray|Cosmic Ray]] Instrument without a tape data recorder which was not modified in time to make it onto the spacecraft. The real-time data received on the ground was therefore very sparse and puzzling showing normal counting rates and no counts at all. The later Explorer 3 mission, which included a tape data recorder in the payload, provided the additional data for confirmation of the earlier Explorer 1 data. |
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* Anton 314 omnidirectional [[Geiger-Müller tube]], designed by Dr. George Ludwig of Iowa's Cosmic Ray Laboratory, to detect [[cosmic ray]]s. It could detect [[proton]]s with E > 30 [[electronvolt|MeV]] and [[electron]]s with E > 3 MeV. Most of the time the instrument was [[saturation|saturated]];<ref name="cosmic ray detector"> |
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{{cite web | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1958-001A-01 | title=Cosmic-Ray Detector | accessdate=2008-02-09 | work=NSSDC Master Catalog | publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> |
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* Five [[thermometer|temperature sensors]] (one internal, three external and one on the nose cone); |
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* Acoustic detector (crystal [[transducer]] and solid-state [[amplifier]]) to detect [[micrometeoroid|micrometeorite]] ([[cosmic dust]]) impacts. It responded to micrometeorite impacts on the spacecraft skin in such way that each impact would be a function of [[mass]] and [[velocity]]. Its effective area was 0.075 m<sup>2</sup> and the average threshold sensitivity was 2.5 × 10<sup>−3</sup> g cm/s;<ref name="micrometeorite detector">{{cite web | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1958-001A-02 | title=Micrometeorite Detector | accessdate=2008-02-09 | work=NSSDC Master Catalog | publisher=[[NASA]] |
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}}</ref><ref name="manring"> |
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{{cite journal | last=Manring | first=Edward R. | year=1959 | month=January | title=Micrometeorite Measurements from 1958 Alpha and Gamma Satellites | journal=Planetary and Space Science | volume=1 | pages=27–31 | publisher=[[Pergamon Press]] | location=Great Britain | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959P&SS....1...27M | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-11 | doi=10.1016/0032-0633(59)90019-4 }}</ref> and |
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* Wire grid detector, also to detect micrometeorite impacts. It consisted of 12 parallel connected cards mounted in a [[fiberglass]] supporting ring. Each card was wound with two layers of [[enameled wire|enameled]] [[nickel]] [[alloy]] wire with a diameter of 17 [[micrometre|µm]] (21 µm with the enamel insulation included) in such way that a total area of 1 cm by 1 cm was completely covered. If a micrometeorite of about 10 µm impacted, it would fracture the wire, destroy the electrical connection, and thus record the event.<ref name="micrometeorite detector"/><ref name="manring"/> |
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The scientific instrumentation of Explorer 1 was designed and built under the direction of Dr. [[James Van Allen]] of the [[University of Iowa]] containing:<ref name="data sheet">{{cite web |
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==Flight== |
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|url=https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html|title=Explorer-I and Jupiter-C|publisher=NASA|access-date=2008-02-09}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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The Juno I rocket was launched January 31, 1958, putting ''Explorer 1'' into orbit with a [[perigee]] of 358 kilometers (222 mi) and an [[apsis|apogee]] of 2,550 kilometers (1,585 mi) having a period of 114.8 minutes.<ref name="facts"/><ref name="trajectory"/><ref name="solarsystem"/> |
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At about 1:30 a.m. ET, after confirming that that ''Explorer 1'' was indeed in orbit, a news conference was held in the Great Hall at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, DC to announce it to the world.<ref name="Discovering Earth's Radiation Belts: Remembering Explorer 1 and 3">{{cite web | url=http://www.agu.org/eos_elec/ | title=Discovering Earth's Radiation Belts: Remembering Explorer 1 and 3 | accessdate=2008-10-14 | work=NASA History | publisher=American Geological Union | coauthors=McDonald, Naugle | year=2008 | volume=89 | number=39 }}</ref> |
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* Anton 314 omnidirectional [[Geiger–Müller tube]], designed by [[George H. Ludwig|Dr. George Ludwig]] of Iowa's Cosmic Ray Laboratory, to detect [[cosmic ray]]s. It could detect protons with E>30 MeV and electrons with E>3 MeV. Most of the time the instrument was saturated.<ref name="cosmic ray detector">{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1958-001A-01|title=Cosmic-Ray Detector|publisher=NASA|date=14 May 2020|access-date=12 February 2021}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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Mercury batteries powered the high-power transmitter for 31 days and the low-power transmitter for 105 days. ''Explorer 1'' stopped transmission of data on May 23, 1958<ref name="Zadunaisky">{{cite paper | first=Pedro E. | last=Zadunaisky | title=The Orbit of Satellite 456 Alpha (Explorer I) during the First 10500 Revolutions | publisher=[[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory]] | date=October 1960 | url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960SAOSR..50.....Z | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-04}}</ref> when its batteries died, but remained in orbit for more than 12 years. It [[orbital decay|reentered]] the Earth atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean on March 19, 1970 after more than 58,000 orbits. |
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* Five temperature sensors (one internal, three external and one on the nose cone); |
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==Results== |
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* Acoustic detector (crystal [[transducer]] and solid-state [[amplifier]]) to detect [[micrometeoroid|micrometeorite]] ([[cosmic dust]]) impacts. It responded to micrometeorite impacts on the spacecraft skin in such a way that each impact would be a function of mass and velocity. Its effective area was 0.075 m<sup>2</sup> and the average threshold sensitivity was 2.5{{e|−3}} g cm/s;<ref name="micrometeorite detector">{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1958-001A-02|title=Micrometeorite Detector|publisher=NASA|date=14 May 2020|access-date=12 February 2021}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="manring">{{cite journal|last=Manring|first=Edward R.|date=January 1959|title=Micrometeorite Measurements from 1958 Alpha and Gamma Satellites|journal=Planetary and Space Science|volume=1 |issue=1|pages=27–31|bibcode=1959P&SS....1...27M|doi=10.1016/0032-0633(59)90019-4}}</ref> |
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[[File:Explorer 1 conference.jpg|thumb|Pickering, Van Allen, and von Braun display a full-scale model of ''Explorer 1'' at a crowded news conference in Washington, DC after confirmation the satellite was in orbit.]] |
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To the surprise of mission experts, ''Explorer 1'' changed [[rotation|rotation axis]] after launch. The elongated body of the spacecraft had been designed to spin about its long (least-[[inertia]]) axis but refused to do so, and instead started [[precession|precessing]] due to energy [[dissipation]] from flexible structural elements. Later it was understood that on general grounds, the body ends up in the spin state that minimizes the [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] [[rotational energy]] (this being the maximal-inertia axis). This motivated the first further development of the [[Leonhard Euler|Eulerian]] theory of [[rigid body kinetics|rigid body dynamics]] after nearly 200 years - to address this kind of energy and momentum dissipation.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Efroimsky | first=Michael | year=2001 | month=August | title=Relaxation of wobbling asteroids and comets - theoretical problems, perspectives of experimental observation | journal=Planetary and Space Science | volume=49 | issue=9 | pages=937–955 | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00051-4 | url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6T-43GH08G-5&_user=499905&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000024538&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499905&md5=8414f735d59d3603c9ee3dd8baa09db2 | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Efroimsky | first=Michael | year=2002 | month=March | title=Euler, Jacobi, and missions to comets and asteroids | journal=Advances in Space Research | volume=29 | issue=5 | pages=725–734 | publisher=[[Elsevier]] | doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00017-0 | url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/02731177/2002/00000029/00000005/art00017 | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-05 }}</ref> |
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* Wire grid detector, also to detect micrometeorite impacts. It consisted of 12 parallel connected cards mounted in a fiberglass supporting ring. Each card was wound with two layers of enameled [[Cupronickel|nickel alloy]] wire with a diameter of 17 μm (21 μm with the enamel insulation included) in such way that a total area of {{cvt|1|xx|1|cm}} was completely covered. If a micrometeorite of about 10 μm impacted, it would fracture the wire, destroy the electrical connection, and thus record the event.<ref name="micrometeorite detector"/><ref name="manring"/> |
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Sometimes the instrumentation would report the expected cosmic ray count (approximately thirty counts per second) but sometimes it would show a peculiar zero counts per second. The University of Iowa (under Van Allen) noted that all of the zero counts per second reports were from an altitude of 2,000+ km (1,250+ miles) over South America, while passes at 500 km (310 miles) would show the expected level of cosmic rays. Later, after ''[[Explorer 3]]'', it was concluded that the original Geiger counter had been overwhelmed ("saturated") by strong radiation coming from a belt of charged particles trapped in space by the [[Earth's magnetic field]]. This belt of charged particles is now known as the Van Allen radiation belt. The discovery was considered to be one of the outstanding discoveries of the International Geophysical Year. |
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== Flight == |
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The acoustic micrometeorite detector detected 145 impacts of cosmic dust in 78,750 seconds. This calculates to an average impact rate of 8.0 × 10<sup>-3 </sup> impacts per m<sup>−2</sup> s<sup>−1</sup> over the twelve-day period (29 impacts per hour per square meter).<ref name="dubin">{{cite journal | last=Dubin | first=Maurice | year=1960 | month=January | title=IGY Micrometeorite Measurements | journal=Space Research - Proceedings of the First International Space Science Symposium | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=1042–1058 | publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company | location=Amsterdam | url=http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA285101 | format=fee required | accessdate=2008-02-11 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Explorer 1 launch control console Huntsville Space museum.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Explorer 1 launch control console on display at Huntsville Space museum|Explorer 1 launch control console on display at Huntsville Space and Rocket Center. The red arrow points to the manually turned launch key switch.]] |
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After a jet stream-related delay on 28 January 1958, at 03:47:56 GMT on 1 February 1958 <ref name="ley196810">{{cite magazine|url=https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v27n03_1968-10#page/n93/mode/2up |title=The Orbit of Explorer 1|magazine=[[Galaxy Science Fiction]]|last=Ley|first=Willy|pages=93–102|date=October 1968}}</ref> the [[Juno I]] rocket was launched, putting Explorer 1 into orbit with a [[Apsis|perigee]] of {{cvt|358|km}} and an [[Apsis|apogee]] of {{cvt|2550|km}} having a period of 114.80 minutes, and an [[Orbital inclination|inclination]] of 33.24°.<ref name="Trajectory">{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/displayTrajectory.action?id=1958-001A|title=Trajectory: Explorer-1 1958-001A|publisher=NASA|date=14 May 2020|access-date=12 February 2021}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="solarsystem">{{cite web|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Explorer_01|title=Solar System Exploration Explorer 1|publisher=NASA|access-date=2008-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108105558/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Explorer_01|archive-date=2008-01-08|url-status=dead}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone Tracking Station]] could not report after 90 minutes as planned whether the launch had succeeded because the orbit was larger than expected.{{r|ley196810}} At about 06:30 GMT, after confirming that Explorer 1 was indeed in orbit, a news conference was held in the Great Hall at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. to announce it to the world.<ref name="Discovering Earth's Radiation Belts: Remembering Explorer 1 and 3">{{cite journal|title=Discovering Earth's Radiation Belts: Remembering Explorer 1 and 3|journal=NASA History|author=McDonald, Naugle |
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|year=2008|volume=89|pages=361–363|number=39|doi=10.1029/2008EO390001|bibcode=2008EOSTr..89..361M|doi-access=|publisher=NASA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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[[File:Explorer 1 launch control manual mission plot Huntsville Space museum.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Hand drawn Explorer 1 mission plot.|Hand drawn Explorer 1 mission plot.]] |
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The original expected lifetime of the satellite before [[orbital decay]] was three years.{{r|ley196810}} [[Mercury battery|Mercury batteries]] powered the high-power transmitter for 31 days and the low-power transmitter for 105 days. Explorer 1 stopped transmission of data on 23 May 1958,<ref name="Zadunaisky">{{cite journal|first=Pedro E.|last=Zadunaisky|title=The Orbit of Satellite 456 Alpha (Explorer 1) during the First 10500 Revolutions|date=October 1960|bibcode=1960SAOSR..50.....Z|journal=SAO Special Report|volume=50}}</ref> when its batteries died, but remained in orbit for more than 12 years.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=October 1968|url=http://archive.org/details/Galaxy_v27n03_1968-10 |author-link=Willy Ley|last=Ley|first=Willy|title=The Orbit of Explorer-1|department=For Your Information|magazine=[[Galaxy Science Fiction]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/Galaxy_v27n03_1968-10/page/n93/mode/2up?view=theater 93] –102|volume=27|issue=3 |quote=[T]he original estimate of the lifetime of Explorer-1, made a week or so after firing, was three years. It has been orbiting for ten years by now and the estimate of its remaining lifetime is again three years, but this time surrounded by careful explanations about the factors we don’t know.}}</ref> It reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean on 31 March 1970 after more than 58,400 orbits. |
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==Legacy== |
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== Results == |
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''Explorer 1'' was the first of the long-running [[Explorer program]]. A follow-up to the first mission, [[Explorer-1'|Explorer-1 [PRIME]]], built using modern satellite construction techniques, is scheduled for launch in 2011. |
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Explorer 1 changed rotation axis after launch. The elongated body of the spacecraft had been designed to spin about its long (least-inertia) axis but refused to do so, and instead started [[precession|precessing]] due to energy [[dissipation]] from flexible structural elements. Later it was understood that on general grounds, the body ends up in the spin state that minimizes the kinetic rotational energy for a fixed angular momentum (this being the maximal-inertia axis). This motivated the first further development of the [[Leonhard Euler|Eulerian]] theory of rigid body dynamics after nearly 200 years – to address this kind of momentum-preserving energy dissipation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Efroimsky|first=Michael|date=August 2001|title=Relaxation of wobbling asteroids and comets – theoretical problems, perspectives of experimental observation|journal=Planetary and Space Science|volume=49|issue=9|pages=937–955|doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00051-4 |bibcode=2001P&SS...49..937E|arxiv=astro-ph/9911072|citeseerx=10.1.1.256.6140|s2cid=14114765}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Efroimsky|first=Michael|date=March 2002|title=Euler, Jacobi, and missions to comets and asteroids|journal=Advances in Space Research|volume=29|issue=5|pages=725–734|doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00017-0|arxiv=astro-ph/0112054|bibcode=2002AdSpR..29..725E|citeseerx=10.1.1.192.380|s2cid=1110286}}</ref> |
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Sometimes the instrumentation reported the expected cosmic ray count (approximately 30 counts per second) but other times it would show a peculiar zero counts per second. The University of Iowa (under [[James Van Allen]]) observed that all of the zero counts per second reports were from an altitude of more than {{cvt|2000|km}} over South America, while passes at {{cvt|500|km}} would show the expected level of cosmic rays. Later, after [[Explorer 3]], it was concluded that the original Geiger counter had been overwhelmed ("saturated") by strong radiation coming from a belt of charged particles trapped in space by the Earth's magnetic field. This belt of charged particles is now known as the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]. The discovery was considered to be one of the outstanding discoveries of the [[International Geophysical Year]]. |
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An identically-constructed flight backup of ''Explorer 1'' is on display in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[National Air and Space Museum]], Milestones of Flight Gallery in Washington, DC. |
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The acoustic micrometeorite detector detected 145 impacts of cosmic dust in 78,750 seconds. This calculates to an average impact rate of 8.0<sup>−3</sup> impacts per second per square meter, or 29 impacts per hour per square meter, over the twelve-day period.<ref name="dubin">{{cite journal|last=Dubin|first=Maurice|date=January 1960|title=IGY Micrometeorite Measurements|journal=Space Research – Proceedings of the First International Space Science Symposium|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1042–1058|bibcode=1960spre.conf.1042D|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA285101.pdf|access-date=2023-02-09}}</ref> |
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==Gallery== |
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{{Gallery |
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|width=300 |
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|File:Explorer I Characteristics.jpg|''Explorer 1'' statistics and orbit |
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|File:Explorer I 02.jpg|Officials with full-scale ''Explorer 1'' model at Redstone Arsenal, including Maj. Gen. John Medaris (3rd from l) and Werner von Braun (5th from l) |
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|File:Explorer 1 During the Installation to Jupiter-C.jpg|''Explorer 1'' mated to Juno 1 booster |
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|File:Jupier c explorer1 pad.jpg|''Explorer 1'' and Juno 1 booster in gantry at LC-5 |
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|File:Explorer 1 in Gantry.jpg| Close-up of ''Explorer 1'' atop Juno 1 booster |
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|File:Jupiter c explorer1.jpg|''Explorer 1'' fueled for launch |
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}} |
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== |
== Legacy == |
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Explorer 1 was the first of the long-running Explorers program. Four follow-up satellites of the Explorer series were launched by the [[Juno I]] launch vehicle in 1958, of these, Explorer 3 and 4 were successful, while Explorer 2 and 5 failed to reach orbit. The final flight of the Juno I booster, the satellite [[Project Beacon|Beacon-1]], also failed.<ref>J. Boehm, H.J. Fichtner, and Otto A. Hoberg, [https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/explorer_i_boehm_document.pdf EXPLORER SATELLITES LAUNCHED BY JUNO 1 AND JUNO 2 VEHICLES], NASA {{PD-notice}}</ref> The Juno I vehicle was replaced by the [[Juno II]] launch vehicle in 1959. |
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{{Reflist| 2}} |
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A follow-up to the first mission, Explorer-1 [PRIME], was successfully launched aboard a [[Delta II]] launch vehicle in late October 2011. The PRIME was built using modern satellite construction techniques. The orbiting satellite was a backup, because the initial Explorer-1 PRIME, launched on 4 March 2011, did not reach orbit due to a launch vehicle failure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://ssel.montana.edu/msus-twin-satellite-to-launch-oct-28-on-nasa-rocket/|title=MSU's twin satellite to launch October 28 on NASA rocket|access-date=1 October 2013|date=23 October 2011|work=Space Science and Engineering Laboratory|author=Evelyn Boswell|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005021134/https://ssel.montana.edu/msus-twin-satellite-to-launch-oct-28-on-nasa-rocket/ |archive-date=5 October 2013}}</ref> |
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==External links== |
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An identically constructed flight backup of Explorer 1 is on display in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[National Air and Space Museum]], Milestones of Flight Gallery in Washington, D.C. [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 26|LC-26]] was deactivated in 1963, and was designated for use as a museum in 1964, the [[Air Force Space and Missile Museum]].<ref>[http://www.afspacemuseum.org/displays/LC26blockhouse/ Launch Complex 26 Blockhouse] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425064750/http://www.afspacemuseum.org/displays/LC26blockhouse/ |date=25 April 2016 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Here too, a full-scale Explorer 1 is on display, but this one is a mockup.<ref>[http://www.afspacemuseum.org/displays/ExplorerI/ Explorer I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526205044/http://afspacemuseum.org/displays/ExplorerI/ |date=26 May 2016 }} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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== Gallery == |
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<gallery mode=packed heights=180px> |
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Explorer I Characteristics.jpg |Explorer 1 statistics and orbital diagram |
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Explorer I 02.jpg|Officials with Explorer 1 model at [[Redstone Arsenal]], including Maj. Gen. [[John Bruce Medaris|John Medaris]] (3rd from left), [[Walter Haeussermann]], [[Wernher von Braun]] and [[Ernst Stuhlinger]] |
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Explorer1 people.jpg|[[William Hayward Pickering]], [[James Van Allen]], and [[Wernher von Braun]] display a full-scale model of Explorer 1 at a crowded news conference in Washington, D.C. after confirmation the satellite was in orbit. |
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Explorer 1 During the Installation to Jupiter-C.jpg|Explorer 1 in spin test facility |
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Jupier c explorer1 pad.jpg|Explorer 1 and Juno I booster in gantry at LC-26A |
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Explorer 1 in Gantry.jpg|Close-up of Explorer 1 atop Juno I booster |
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Launch of Jupiter C with Explorer 1.jpg|Launch of Explorer 1 on 1 February 1958 <ref>{{cite APOD|title=The First Explorer|access-date=2008-02-03|date=2008-01-31}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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207457main antenna-331-2426a-516.jpg|Preliminary satellite tracking tests in a field near [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/antenna.html|title=NASA / JPL - Ground Antenna |publisher=NASA|access-date=2012-03-30}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> |
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207469main_computers-p-163-500.jpg|Trajectory calculations were done by hand by this group of women. |
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</gallery> |
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== See also == |
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{{Portal|Spaceflight}} |
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* [[Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes]] |
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* [[Explorer program]] |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== Bibliography == |
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{{cite book|last=West|first=Doug|title=Dr Wernher von Braun: A Short Biography|location=U.S.|year=2017|isbn=978-1-9779279-1-0}} |
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== External links == |
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{{Commons category|Explorer 1}} |
{{Commons category|Explorer 1}} |
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* [https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/index.html NASA images and videos of Explorer 1 and other early satellites] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114184520/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/explorer/index.html |date=14 November 2021 }} |
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* [http://www.ispyspace.com/Explorer_1.html ''Explorer 1'' page on ispyspace.com] |
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* [https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html Data Sheet], Department of Astronautics, [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Smithsonian Institution]] |
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* [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Explorer_01 ''Explorer 1'' Mission Profile on NASA's Solar System Exploration site] |
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* [http://libarchstor.uah.edu:8081/repositories/2/resources/161 Explorer I Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/SpaceAge/index.html NASA's 50th Anniversary of the Space Age including ''Explorer 1'' - Interactive Media] |
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* {{Internet Archive film clip|id=arspace1958|description="Army Explorers in Space (1958)"}} |
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* [http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html Data Sheet], Department of Astronautics, [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Smithsonian Institution]] |
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* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569665|name=Big Picture: Army Satellites}} |
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* {{YouTube|aGxPSlCcIjI|X-minus 80 Days - JPL-Army Ballistic Missile Agency}} |
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* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdDJtUxLwqQ Lecture with detailed evaluation of the Explorer 1 rotation anomaly] |
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{{Explorer program}} |
{{Explorer program}} |
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Latest revision as of 16:45, 11 May 2024
Names | Explorer I 1958 Alpha 1 |
---|---|
Mission type | Earth science |
Operator | JPL / Army Ballistic Missile Agency |
Harvard designation | 1958 Alpha 1 |
COSPAR ID | 1958-001A |
SATCAT no. | 00004 |
Mission duration | 120 days (planned) 111 days (achieved) |
Spacecraft properties | |
Spacecraft | Explorer I |
Spacecraft type | Science Explorer |
Bus | Explorer 1 |
Manufacturer | Jet Propulsion Laboratory |
Launch mass | 13.97 kg (30.8 lb) |
Dimensions | 203 cm (80 in) length 15.2 cm (6.0 in) diameter |
Power | 60 watts |
Start of mission | |
Launch date | 1 February 1958, 03:47:56 GMT |
Rocket | Juno I (RS-29) |
Launch site | Atlantic Missile Range, LC-26A |
Contractor | Army Ballistic Missile Agency |
Entered service | 1 February 1958 |
End of mission | |
Last contact | 23 May 1958 |
Decay date | 31 March 1970 |
Orbital parameters | |
Reference system | Geocentric orbit[1] |
Regime | Medium Earth orbit |
Perigee altitude | 358 km (222 mi) |
Apogee altitude | 2,550 km (1,580 mi) |
Inclination | 33.24° |
Period | 114.80 minutes |
Revolution no. | 58402 |
Instruments | |
Cosmic-Ray Detector Micrometeorite Detector Resistance Thermometers Satellite Drag Atmospheric Density | |
Explorer program |
Explorer 1 was the first satellite launched by the United States in 1958 and was part of the U.S. participation in the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The mission followed the first two satellites, both launched by the Soviet Union during the previous year, Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2. This began a Space Race during the Cold War between the two nations.
Explorer 1 was launched on 1 February 1958 at 03:47:56 GMT (or 31 January 1958 at 22:47:56 Eastern Time) atop the first Juno booster from LC-26A at the Cape Canaveral Missile Test Center of the Atlantic Missile Range (AMR), in Florida. It was the first spacecraft to detect the Van Allen radiation belt,[2] returning data until its batteries were exhausted after nearly four months. It remained in orbit until 1970.
Explorer 1 was given Satellite Catalog Number 00004 and the Harvard designation 1958 Alpha 1,[3] the forerunner to the modern International Designator.
Background
The U.S. Earth satellite program began in 1954 as a joint U.S. Army and U.S. Navy proposal, called Project Orbiter, to put a scientific satellite into orbit during the International Geophysical Year. The proposal, using a military Redstone missile, was rejected in 1955 by the Eisenhower administration in favor of the Navy's Project Vanguard, using a booster advertised as more civilian in nature.[4][5] Following the launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957, the initial Project Orbiter program was revived as the Explorer program to catch up with the Soviet Union.[6]
Explorer 1 was designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), while a Jupiter-C rocket was modified by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) to accommodate a satellite payload; the resulting rocket known as the Juno I. The Jupiter-C design used for the launch had already been flight-tested in nose cone reentry tests for the Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), and was modified into Juno I. Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building Explorer 1 in 84 days. However, before work was completed, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. The U.S. Navy attempted to put the first U.S. satellite into orbit, but failed with the launch of the Vanguard TV-3 on 6 December 1957.[7]
Spacecraft
Explorer 1 was designed and built by the California Institute of Technology's JPL under the direction of Dr. William H. Pickering. It was the second satellite to carry a mission payload (Sputnik 2 was the first).
The total mass of the satellite was 13.97 kg (30.8 lb), of which 8.3 kg (18 lb) were instrumentation. In comparison, the mass of the first Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 was 83.6 kg (184 lb). The instrument section at the front end of the satellite and the empty scaled-down fourth-stage rocket casing orbited as a single unit, spinning around its long axis at 750 revolutions per minute.
Data from the scientific instruments was transmitted to the ground by two antennas. A 60 milliwatt transmitter fed a dipole antenna consisting of two fiberglass slot antennas in the body of the satellite operating on 108.03 MHz, and four flexible whips forming a turnstile antenna were fed by a 10 milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.00 MHz.[8][9]
Because of the limited space available and the requirements for low weight, the payload instrumentation was designed and built with simplicity and high reliability in mind, using germanium and silicon transistors in its electronics.[10] A total of 20 transistors were used in Explorer 1, plus additional ones in the Army's micrometeorite amplifier. Electrical power was provided by mercury chemical batteries that made up approximately 40% of the payload weight.
The external skin of the instrument section was sandblasted stainless steel with white stripes. Several other color schemes had been tested, resulting in backup articles, models, and photographs showing different configurations, including alternate white and green striping and blue stripes alternating with copper. The final color scheme was determined by studies of shadow–sunlight intervals based on firing time, trajectory, orbit, and inclination.
Science payload
The Explorer 1 payload consisted of the Iowa Cosmic Ray Instrument without a tape data recorder which was not modified in time to make it onto the spacecraft. The real-time data received on the ground was therefore very sparse and puzzling showing normal counting rates and no counts at all. The later Explorer 3 mission, which included a tape data recorder in the payload, provided the additional data for confirmation of the earlier Explorer 1 data.
The scientific instrumentation of Explorer 1 was designed and built under the direction of Dr. James Van Allen of the University of Iowa containing:[8]
- Anton 314 omnidirectional Geiger–Müller tube, designed by Dr. George Ludwig of Iowa's Cosmic Ray Laboratory, to detect cosmic rays. It could detect protons with E>30 MeV and electrons with E>3 MeV. Most of the time the instrument was saturated.[11]
- Five temperature sensors (one internal, three external and one on the nose cone);
- Acoustic detector (crystal transducer and solid-state amplifier) to detect micrometeorite (cosmic dust) impacts. It responded to micrometeorite impacts on the spacecraft skin in such a way that each impact would be a function of mass and velocity. Its effective area was 0.075 m2 and the average threshold sensitivity was 2.5×10−3 g cm/s;[12][13]
- Wire grid detector, also to detect micrometeorite impacts. It consisted of 12 parallel connected cards mounted in a fiberglass supporting ring. Each card was wound with two layers of enameled nickel alloy wire with a diameter of 17 μm (21 μm with the enamel insulation included) in such way that a total area of 1 × 1 cm (0.39 × 0.39 in) was completely covered. If a micrometeorite of about 10 μm impacted, it would fracture the wire, destroy the electrical connection, and thus record the event.[12][13]
Flight
After a jet stream-related delay on 28 January 1958, at 03:47:56 GMT on 1 February 1958 [14] the Juno I rocket was launched, putting Explorer 1 into orbit with a perigee of 358 km (222 mi) and an apogee of 2,550 km (1,580 mi) having a period of 114.80 minutes, and an inclination of 33.24°.[1][15] Goldstone Tracking Station could not report after 90 minutes as planned whether the launch had succeeded because the orbit was larger than expected.[14] At about 06:30 GMT, after confirming that Explorer 1 was indeed in orbit, a news conference was held in the Great Hall at the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C. to announce it to the world.[16]
The original expected lifetime of the satellite before orbital decay was three years.[14] Mercury batteries powered the high-power transmitter for 31 days and the low-power transmitter for 105 days. Explorer 1 stopped transmission of data on 23 May 1958,[17] when its batteries died, but remained in orbit for more than 12 years.[18] It reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean on 31 March 1970 after more than 58,400 orbits.
Results
Explorer 1 changed rotation axis after launch. The elongated body of the spacecraft had been designed to spin about its long (least-inertia) axis but refused to do so, and instead started precessing due to energy dissipation from flexible structural elements. Later it was understood that on general grounds, the body ends up in the spin state that minimizes the kinetic rotational energy for a fixed angular momentum (this being the maximal-inertia axis). This motivated the first further development of the Eulerian theory of rigid body dynamics after nearly 200 years – to address this kind of momentum-preserving energy dissipation.[19][20]
Sometimes the instrumentation reported the expected cosmic ray count (approximately 30 counts per second) but other times it would show a peculiar zero counts per second. The University of Iowa (under James Van Allen) observed that all of the zero counts per second reports were from an altitude of more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) over South America, while passes at 500 km (310 mi) would show the expected level of cosmic rays. Later, after Explorer 3, it was concluded that the original Geiger counter had been overwhelmed ("saturated") by strong radiation coming from a belt of charged particles trapped in space by the Earth's magnetic field. This belt of charged particles is now known as the Van Allen radiation belt. The discovery was considered to be one of the outstanding discoveries of the International Geophysical Year.
The acoustic micrometeorite detector detected 145 impacts of cosmic dust in 78,750 seconds. This calculates to an average impact rate of 8.0−3 impacts per second per square meter, or 29 impacts per hour per square meter, over the twelve-day period.[21]
Legacy
Explorer 1 was the first of the long-running Explorers program. Four follow-up satellites of the Explorer series were launched by the Juno I launch vehicle in 1958, of these, Explorer 3 and 4 were successful, while Explorer 2 and 5 failed to reach orbit. The final flight of the Juno I booster, the satellite Beacon-1, also failed.[22] The Juno I vehicle was replaced by the Juno II launch vehicle in 1959.
A follow-up to the first mission, Explorer-1 [PRIME], was successfully launched aboard a Delta II launch vehicle in late October 2011. The PRIME was built using modern satellite construction techniques. The orbiting satellite was a backup, because the initial Explorer-1 PRIME, launched on 4 March 2011, did not reach orbit due to a launch vehicle failure.[23]
An identically constructed flight backup of Explorer 1 is on display in the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, Milestones of Flight Gallery in Washington, D.C. LC-26 was deactivated in 1963, and was designated for use as a museum in 1964, the Air Force Space and Missile Museum.[24] Here too, a full-scale Explorer 1 is on display, but this one is a mockup.[25]
Gallery
-
Explorer 1 statistics and orbital diagram
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Officials with Explorer 1 model at Redstone Arsenal, including Maj. Gen. John Medaris (3rd from left), Walter Haeussermann, Wernher von Braun and Ernst Stuhlinger
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William Hayward Pickering, James Van Allen, and Wernher von Braun display a full-scale model of Explorer 1 at a crowded news conference in Washington, D.C. after confirmation the satellite was in orbit.
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Explorer 1 in spin test facility
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Explorer 1 and Juno I booster in gantry at LC-26A
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Close-up of Explorer 1 atop Juno I booster
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Launch of Explorer 1 on 1 February 1958 [26]
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Trajectory calculations were done by hand by this group of women.
See also
References
- ^ a b "Trajectory: Explorer-1 1958-001A". NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Launch of the Space Race, Toronto: MacFarlane Walter & Ross, 2001, p. 190
- ^ Yost, Charles W. (1963). Registration data for United States Space Launches (PDF). United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. Retrieved 19 February 2009.
- ^ Matt Bille and Erika Lishock, The First Space Race: Launching the World's First Satellites, Texas A&M University Press, 2004, Chapter 5
- ^ "Project Vanguard – Why It Failed to Live Up to Its Name". Time. 21 October 1957. Archived from the original on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2008.
- ^ "Sputnik and the Dawn of the Space Age". NASA History. NASA. Retrieved 13 February 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ McLaughlin Green, Constance; Lomask, Milton (1970). "Chapter 11: from Sputnik I to TV-3". Vanguard, A History. NASA. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b "Explorer-I and Jupiter-C". NASA. Retrieved 9 February 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Williams, W.E. Jr. (April 1960). "Space Telemetry Systems". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 48 (4): 685–690. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1960.287448. S2CID 51646193.
- ^ "The First Transistors in Space – Personal Reflections by the Designer of the Cosmic Ray Instrumentation Package for the Explorer I Satellite". A Transistor Museum Interview with Dr. George Ludwig. The Transistor Museum. Retrieved 25 February 2008.
- ^ "Cosmic-Ray Detector". NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b "Micrometeorite Detector". NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b Manring, Edward R. (January 1959). "Micrometeorite Measurements from 1958 Alpha and Gamma Satellites". Planetary and Space Science. 1 (1): 27–31. Bibcode:1959P&SS....1...27M. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(59)90019-4.
- ^ a b c Ley, Willy (October 1968). "The Orbit of Explorer 1". Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 93–102.
- ^ "Solar System Exploration Explorer 1". NASA. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ McDonald, Naugle (2008). "Discovering Earth's Radiation Belts: Remembering Explorer 1 and 3". NASA History. 89 (39). NASA: 361–363. Bibcode:2008EOSTr..89..361M. doi:10.1029/2008EO390001. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Zadunaisky, Pedro E. (October 1960). "The Orbit of Satellite 456 Alpha (Explorer 1) during the First 10500 Revolutions". SAO Special Report. 50. Bibcode:1960SAOSR..50.....Z.
- ^ Ley, Willy (October 1968). "The Orbit of Explorer-1". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. Vol. 27, no. 3. pp. 93 –102.
[T]he original estimate of the lifetime of Explorer-1, made a week or so after firing, was three years. It has been orbiting for ten years by now and the estimate of its remaining lifetime is again three years, but this time surrounded by careful explanations about the factors we don't know.
- ^ Efroimsky, Michael (August 2001). "Relaxation of wobbling asteroids and comets – theoretical problems, perspectives of experimental observation". Planetary and Space Science. 49 (9): 937–955. arXiv:astro-ph/9911072. Bibcode:2001P&SS...49..937E. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.256.6140. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00051-4. S2CID 14114765.
- ^ Efroimsky, Michael (March 2002). "Euler, Jacobi, and missions to comets and asteroids". Advances in Space Research. 29 (5): 725–734. arXiv:astro-ph/0112054. Bibcode:2002AdSpR..29..725E. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.192.380. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00017-0. S2CID 1110286.
- ^ Dubin, Maurice (January 1960). "IGY Micrometeorite Measurements" (PDF). Space Research – Proceedings of the First International Space Science Symposium. 1 (1): 1042–1058. Bibcode:1960spre.conf.1042D. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ J. Boehm, H.J. Fichtner, and Otto A. Hoberg, EXPLORER SATELLITES LAUNCHED BY JUNO 1 AND JUNO 2 VEHICLES, NASA This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Evelyn Boswell (23 October 2011). "MSU's twin satellite to launch October 28 on NASA rocket". Space Science and Engineering Laboratory. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
- ^ Launch Complex 26 Blockhouse Archived 25 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Explorer I Archived 26 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (31 January 2008). "The First Explorer". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. Retrieved 3 February 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "NASA / JPL - Ground Antenna". NASA. Retrieved 30 March 2012. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Bibliography
West, Doug (2017). Dr Wernher von Braun: A Short Biography. U.S. ISBN 978-1-9779279-1-0.{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
External links
- NASA images and videos of Explorer 1 and other early satellites Archived 14 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Data Sheet, Department of Astronautics, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution
- Explorer I Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections
- A film clip "Army Explorers in Space (1958)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
- The short film Big Picture: Army Satellites is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- X-minus 80 Days - JPL-Army Ballistic Missile Agency on YouTube
- Lecture with detailed evaluation of the Explorer 1 rotation anomaly