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The emphasis shifted, as Richard Taylor said, "from the archaeological excavation to [[Post-excavation analysis|laboratory analysis]]."<ref name="Guardian13Sep2012" /> There were several lines of enquiry. In 2004 the British historian John Ashdown-Hill used [[genealogy|genealogical research]] to track down [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] descendants of [[Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter]], Richard's older sister, whose matrilineal line of descent is extant, through her daughter [[Anne St Leger]], Richard's only sororal niece. A British-born woman who migrated to Canada after [[World War II]], Joy Ibsen (née Brown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line.<ref>{{cite web|title=Family tree: Cecily Neville (1415–1495) Duchess of York|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/familytree.html|publisher=University of Leicester|accessdate=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Richard III dig: 'It does look like him'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21319332|accessdate=7 February 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Joy Ibsen's mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to [[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup J]], which by deduction should be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III.<ref>Joy Ibsen's mtDNA sequence: 16069T, 16126C, 73G, 146C, 185A, 188G, 263G, 295T, 315.1C in {{cite book|last=Ashdown-Hill|first=John|title=The Last Days of Richard III|year=2010|publisher=The History Press|location=Stroud|isbn=9780752454047}}</ref> Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the University of Leicester research team on 24 August 2012. His [[mitochondrial DNA#Female inheritance|mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line]] was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle|author=Randy Boswell|url=http://www.canada.com/technology/Canadian+family+holds+genetic+Richard+puzzle/7151179/story.html|newspaper=Postmedia News|date=27 August 2012|accessdate=30 August 2012}}</ref> Analysts found a mitochondrial DNA match between the skeleton and that of Michael Ibsen and a second unnamed direct maternal line descendant who shares a relatively rare mitochondrial DNA sequence in mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J1c2c.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/resultsofdna.html|title=Results of the DNA analysis|publisher=University of Leicester|date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Geneticist Dr Turi King and genealogist Professor Kevin Schürer give key evidence on the DNA testing|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/media-centre/richard-iii/press-conference-4-february/presentations-by-speakers-at-the-press-conference-monday-4-february-1/geneticist-dr-turi-king-and-genealogist-professor-kevin-schurer-give-key-evidence-on-the-dna-testing|publisher=University of Leicester|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Burns|first=John F|title=Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/05/world/europe/richard-the-third-bones.html|accessdate=6 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="Science News">{{cite web|last=Rachel|first=Ehrenberg|title=A king's final hours, told by his mortal remains|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/348102/description/A_kings_final_hours_told_by_his_mortal_remains|work=[[Science News]]|publisher=Society for Science & the Public|accessdate=8 February 2013|date=6 February 2013}}</ref> |
The emphasis shifted, as Richard Taylor said, "from the archaeological excavation to [[Post-excavation analysis|laboratory analysis]]."<ref name="Guardian13Sep2012" /> There were several lines of enquiry. In 2004 the British historian John Ashdown-Hill used [[genealogy|genealogical research]] to track down [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] descendants of [[Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter]], Richard's older sister, whose matrilineal line of descent is extant, through her daughter [[Anne St Leger]], Richard's only sororal niece. A British-born woman who migrated to Canada after [[World War II]], Joy Ibsen (née Brown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line.<ref>{{cite web|title=Family tree: Cecily Neville (1415–1495) Duchess of York|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/familytree.html|publisher=University of Leicester|accessdate=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Richard III dig: 'It does look like him'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21319332|accessdate=7 February 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> Joy Ibsen's mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to [[Haplogroup J (mtDNA)|mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup J]], which by deduction should be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III.<ref>Joy Ibsen's mtDNA sequence: 16069T, 16126C, 73G, 146C, 185A, 188G, 263G, 295T, 315.1C in {{cite book|last=Ashdown-Hill|first=John|title=The Last Days of Richard III|year=2010|publisher=The History Press|location=Stroud|isbn=9780752454047}}</ref> Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the University of Leicester research team on 24 August 2012. His [[mitochondrial DNA#Female inheritance|mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line]] was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle|author=Randy Boswell|url=http://www.canada.com/technology/Canadian+family+holds+genetic+Richard+puzzle/7151179/story.html|newspaper=Postmedia News|date=27 August 2012|accessdate=30 August 2012}}</ref> Analysts found a mitochondrial DNA match between the skeleton and that of Michael Ibsen and a second unnamed direct maternal line descendant who shares a relatively rare mitochondrial DNA sequence in mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J1c2c.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/resultsofdna.html|title=Results of the DNA analysis|publisher=University of Leicester|date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Geneticist Dr Turi King and genealogist Professor Kevin Schürer give key evidence on the DNA testing|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/media-centre/richard-iii/press-conference-4-february/presentations-by-speakers-at-the-press-conference-monday-4-february-1/geneticist-dr-turi-king-and-genealogist-professor-kevin-schurer-give-key-evidence-on-the-dna-testing|publisher=University of Leicester|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Burns|first=John F|title=Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/05/world/europe/richard-the-third-bones.html|accessdate=6 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="Science News">{{cite web|last=Rachel|first=Ehrenberg|title=A king's final hours, told by his mortal remains|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/348102/description/A_kings_final_hours_told_by_his_mortal_remains|work=[[Science News]]|publisher=Society for Science & the Public|accessdate=8 February 2013|date=6 February 2013}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Dr Turi King, a geneticist working on the remains, continues to pursue a link between the paternally-descended Y-DNA and that of descendants of [[John of Gaunt]]. Four living descendants of Gaunt have been located, and their results are a match to each other. Although the Y-DNA from the skeleton is somewhat degraded, Dr King said she hoped to amplify it enough to get a match to the four men.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wade|first=Nicholas|title=Tracing a Royal Y Chromosome|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/12/science/more-dna-tests-to-confirm-skeleton-is-richard-iiis.html?_r=1&|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 11, 2013}}</ref> |
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===Bones=== |
===Bones=== |
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Professor Caroline Wilkinson, Professor of Craniofacial Identification at the [[University of Dundee]], led the project to reconstruct the face with a commission from the Richard III Society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/05/world/europe/richard-iii-reconstruction/index.html |title=Richard III: Is this the face that launched 1,000 myths? |first=Susannah |last=Cullinane |work=CNN.com |date=5 February 2013 |accessdate=7 February 2013}}</ref> |
Professor Caroline Wilkinson, Professor of Craniofacial Identification at the [[University of Dundee]], led the project to reconstruct the face with a commission from the Richard III Society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/05/world/europe/richard-iii-reconstruction/index.html |title=Richard III: Is this the face that launched 1,000 myths? |first=Susannah |last=Cullinane |work=CNN.com |date=5 February 2013 |accessdate=7 February 2013}}</ref> |
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⚫ | |||
==Plans for reinterment== |
==Plans for reinterment== |
Revision as of 06:43, 12 February 2013
The exhumation of Richard III of England in September 2012 was the result of an archaeological excavation in the English city of Leicester by a team led by the University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS). The last king of the Plantagenet dynasty, Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. His body was brought to the house of the Greyfriars in Leicester where it was buried in a crude grave. In August 2012, a dig was initiated on the Greyfriars site by the Richard III Society and funded by them in partnership with the University of Leicester, Leicester City Council, Leicestershire Promotions, Leicester Adult Schools and individual donors. The dig was carried out by University of Leicester archaeologists, who uncovered a human skeleton on the first day of work. It soon became apparent that the body was that of a man in his thirties who had suffered multiple wounds from a variety of weapons and had been hurriedly buried in a grave that was too small. The skeleton had a number of unusual physical features, most notably a severe curvature of the back that caused the right shoulder to be higher than the left.[1]
Scientific analysis showed that the man had probably been killed either by a blow from a large bladed weapon that cut off the back of his skull, or by a halberd thrust that penetrated his brain. There were signs of other wounds on the body, which had probably been inflicted as "humiliation injuries" on a corpse that had been stripped of its armour. The bones' age at death matched the age at which Richard died; they were dated to approximately the period of his death and were mostly consistent with physical descriptions of him. DNA analysis also showed that mitochondrial DNA extracted from the bones matched that of two 17th-generation matrilineal descendants of Richard's niece Anne St Leger. On the basis of these points and other historical, scientific and archaeological evidence, the University of Leicester announced on 4 February 2013 that the skeleton had been positively identified as that of Richard III.[2][3]
The Mayor of Leicester, Sir Peter Soulsby, has announced that Richard III will be reinterred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014.
Death and burial
In the last major battle of the Wars of the Roses, Richard III fought Henry Tudor at Bosworth Field near Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Although his army outnumbered that of Henry, he was defeated and killed in a cavalry charge when he was dismounted from his horse. According to the Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet, writing in 1490,
His horse leapt into a marsh from which it could not retrieve itself. One of the Welshmen then came after him, and struck him dead with a halberd, and another took his body and put it before him on his horse and carried it, hair hanging as one would bear a sheep. And so he who miserably killed numerous people, ended his days iniquitously and filthily in the dirt and mire, and he who had despoiled churches was displayed to the people naked and without any clothing, and without any royal solemnity was buried at the entrance to a village church.[4]
Polydore Vergil, Henry Tudor's official historian, described how Richard was buried:
The body of King Richard, naked of all clothing, and laid upon a horse's back, with the arms and legs hanging down on both sides, was brought to the abbey of Franciscan monks at Leicester, a miserable spectacle in good truth, but not unworthy for the man's life, and there was buried two days after without any pomp or solemn funeral.[5]
The anonymous author of the Great Chronicle of London also described the undignified treatment of Richard's body:
And Richard late king, his body despoiled to the skin and nought being left about him so much as would cover his privy member, was trussed behind a pursuivant [heraldic officer] called Norroy as a hog or other vile beast, and so, all bespattered with mire and filth, was brought to a church in Leicester for all men to wonder upon, and there lastly irreverently buried. And thus ended this man with dishonour as he that sought it.[6]
Burial site
Richard was buried in the monastic community of Greyfriars in Leicester, which was founded around 1255. In 1495, Henry VII paid £50 for a marble and alabaster monument to mark the grave.[7] The monument was destroyed when Greyfriars was demolished after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the late 1530s under Henry VIII. According to tradition, Richard's body was said to have been "carried out of the city, and to have been thrown off Bow Bridge" into the River Soar. His coffin was reputed to have been given or sold to an innkeeper who used it as a drinking trough for horses. Some local people believed the king's body remained in the place where it was buried. According to the antiquary Christopher Wren,[note 1] after the monastery was dissolved, the place where it stood was incorporated into the garden of a local houseowner which was subsequently purchased by Robert Herrick, the Mayor of Leicester. Herrick erected a monument on the site of the grave, in the form of a stone pillar three feet (1 m) high carved with the words "Here lies the body of Richard III, some time King of England." The pillar was visible in 1612 but had disappeared by 1844 and there was no sign of where the grave had been.[8]
The site was divided in 1740 and New Street was built across the western part of the Greyfriars site. Many burials were discovered when houses were laid out along the street. A banker, William Bentley, built a house at 17 Friar Lane on the eastern part of the site in 1759. In 1863 the Alderman Newton’s Boys’ School built a schoolhouse on the site. Leicester Corporation purchased the property, including 17 Friar Lane, in 1866, and it was acquired by Leicestershire County Council in 1920. The council built offices on the site in 1936, which were in use until 1965. Leicester City Council subsequently used the offices while the rest of the site where Herrick's garden had once been, was turned into a car park for council staff.[9]
Greyfriars Project and excavations
In March 2011, the Richard III Society and the University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS) began an assessment of the Greyfriars site to identify where the monastery had stood and which land might be available for excavation. Three sites were identified: the staff car park of Leicester City Council Social Services, the playground of the former Alderman Newton’s School and a public car park on New Street. A survey was carried out in August 2011 using ground-penetrating radar. It was decided to open two trenches in the Social Services car park, with an option for a third in the playground.[10]
The excavation was announced on 24 August 2012 at a press conference in Leicester. Philippa Langley of the Richard III Society commented, "so much dirt has been thrown at Richard; his burial represents one of the worst injustices of all time. The history of the time was written by the Tudors, who could say whatever they wanted. Whatever we find, it will tell us a huge amount about his true nature." The author Philippa Gregory noted that "finding Richard III's body could be extremely important archeologically – I imagine there will be talk of a proper burial, perhaps in Westminster Abbey or Fotheringhay Castle, where he was born." Richard Buckley of the University of Leicester admitted the project was a long shot: "We don't know precisely where the church is, let alone where the burial site is. It has the potential to be very exciting – Richard III is the only king of England whose burial place remains elusive."[11]
Digging began the next day, the first trench measuring 1.6 metres (5.2 ft) wide by 30 metres (98 ft) long along a roughly north-south alignment was cut. A layer of modern building debris was removed before the level of the former monastery was reached. Two parallel human leg bones were discovered about 5 metres (16 ft) from the north end of the trench at a depth of about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) indicating an undisturbed burial.[12] The bones were covered temporarily to protect them while excavations continued further along the trench. A second parallel trench was dug the following day to the south-west.[13] Over the following days, a series of medieval walls and rooms were uncovered, allowing the archaeologists to pinpoint the area of the friary.[14] It became clear that the bones found on the first day lay inside the eastern part of the church, possibly the choir, where Richard III was said to have been buried.[15] On 31 August, The University of Leicester applied for a licence from the Ministry of Justice to permit the exhumation of up to six sets of human remains. To narrow the search, it was planned that only the remains of men in their 30s, buried within the church, would be exhumed.[14]
The bones found on 25 August were uncovered on 4 September and the grave soil dug back further over the next two days. The feet were missing; and the skull found in an unusual propped position, consistent with the body being put into a grave that was slightly too small.[16] The spine was curved in an S-shape. No sign of a coffin was found; the body's posture suggested it had not been put in a shroud, but been hurriedly dumped into the grave and buried. As it was lifted from the ground, a piece of rusted iron was found underneath the vertebrae.[17][18] The skeleton's hands were in an unusual position, crossed over the right hip, suggesting they were tied together at the time of burial, though this could not be established definitively.[19] After the exhumation, work continued in the trenches over the following week, before the site was covered with soil to protect it from damage and re-surfaced to restore the car park and the playground to their former condition.[20]
Analysis of the discovery
On 12 September, the University of Leicester team announced the human remains were a possible candidate for the body of Richard III. Speaking on behalf of the research team, Richard Taylor, deputy registrar of the University, emphasised the need for caution, noting that "we are not saying today that we have found Richard III," but highlighted points he felt were suggestive. The body was of an adult male; it was buried beneath the choir of the church; there was severe scoliosis of the spine, possibly making one shoulder higher than the other (to what extent would depend on the severity of the condition). There was an object that appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were severe injuries to the skull.[21][22]
DNA evidence
The emphasis shifted, as Richard Taylor said, "from the archaeological excavation to laboratory analysis."[22] There were several lines of enquiry. In 2004 the British historian John Ashdown-Hill used genealogical research to track down matrilineal descendants of Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Richard's older sister, whose matrilineal line of descent is extant, through her daughter Anne St Leger, Richard's only sororal niece. A British-born woman who migrated to Canada after World War II, Joy Ibsen (née Brown), was found to be a 16th-generation great-niece of the king in the same direct maternal line.[23][24] Joy Ibsen's mitochondrial DNA was tested and belongs to mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup J, which by deduction should be the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup of Richard III.[25] Joy Ibsen died in 2008. Her son Michael Ibsen gave a mouth-swab sample to the University of Leicester research team on 24 August 2012. His mitochondrial DNA passed down the direct maternal line was compared to samples from the human remains found at the excavation.[26] Analysts found a mitochondrial DNA match between the skeleton and that of Michael Ibsen and a second unnamed direct maternal line descendant who shares a relatively rare mitochondrial DNA sequence in mitochondrial DNA haplogroup J1c2c.[27][28][29][30]
Dr Turi King, a geneticist working on the remains, continues to pursue a link between the paternally-descended Y-DNA and that of descendants of John of Gaunt. Four living descendants of Gaunt have been located, and their results are a match to each other. Although the Y-DNA from the skeleton is somewhat degraded, Dr King said she hoped to amplify it enough to get a match to the four men.[31]
Bones
Osteology was employed to analyse the condition of the bones. They are generally in good condition and largely complete, apart from the missing feet, which may been destroyed by Victorian building work. It was immediately apparent the body had suffered major injuries, and further evidence of wounds was found as the skeleton was cleaned.[19] The skull shows signs of two lethal injuries; the base of the back of the skull had been completely cut away by a bladed weapon, exposing the brain, and another bladed weapon had been thrust through the right side of the skull to impact the inside of the left side through the brain.[32] Elsewhere on the skull, a blow from a pointed weapon had penetrated the crown of the head. Bladed weapons had clipped the skull and sheared off layers of bone, without penetrating it.[33] The chin and cheek show injuries consistent with dagger wounds.[34] The body bears marks of violence. One of the right ribs had been cut by a sharp implement, as had the pelvis.[35] The arms bear no sign of the description of one of them being withered.[36]
Taken together, the injuries appear to be a combination of battle wounds, which were the cause of death, followed by post-mortem "humiliation wounds" inflicted on the corpse. Notably, the skull wounds would have been prevented if the person had been wearing a helmet. It had been lost by the time he received his head injuries. The body wounds indicate the corpse had been stripped of its armour, as the stabbed torso would have been protected by a backplate while the pelvis would have been protected by armour. The wounds were made from behind on the back and buttocks while they were exposed to the elements, consistent with the contemporary descriptions of Richard's naked body being tied across a horse with the legs and arms dangling down on either side.[34][35] There may have been further flesh wounds but these are not apparent from the bones.[36]
The severe curvature of the spine was evident as the skeleton was excavated. It has been attributed to adolescent-onset scoliosis. Although it was probably visible in making one shoulder higher than the other and reducing the person's apparent height, it did not preclude an active lifestyle.[37] The bones are those of a male aged in his late twenties to thirties, consistent with Richard III, who was 32 when he died.[36]
Radiocarbon dating and other scientific analyses
Radiocarbon dating was used to determine the age of the bones. Analyses were carried out by the University of Glasgow's Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC) and University of Oxford's Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit. The results came out at between 1430–1460 (SUERC) and 1412–1449 (Oxford) – both too early for Richard's death in 1485. However, mass spectrometry carried out on the bones found that their owner had eaten a good deal of seafood. This is known to distort the apparent age of a sample because marine organisms absorb carbon-14 at a different rate from terrestrial creatures, skewing the dating of any terrestrial organism that consumes a significant proportion of seafood. A Bayesian analysis found that there was a 68.2% probability that the true date of the bones was between 1475 and 1530, rising to 95.4% for between 1450 and 1540. This does not prove by itself that the skeleton is that of Richard III, but it is consistent with the date of his death.[38]
An X-ray analysis performed on the corroded metal found under the vertebrae and thought to be an arrowhead, revealed it was a nail, probably Roman, that had been in the ground immediately under the grave by coincidence and had nothing to do with the body.[36]
Identification of Richard III
On 4 February 2013, the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was that of King Richard III. Richard Buckley of ULAS told a press conference: "It is the academic conclusion of the University of Leicester that beyond reasonable doubt, the individual exhumed at Grey Friars in September 2012 is indeed Richard III, the last Plantagenet King of England." Buckley's announcement was greeted with applause.[39] The wounds on the skull were consistent with the medieval chroniclers' description of Richard being killed by blows from a sword and a halberd. The identification was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence, soil analysis, and dental tests, as well as physical characteristics of the skeleton which are highly consistent with contemporary accounts of Richard's appearance. Osteoarchaeologist Dr. Jo Appleby commented: "The skeleton has a number of unusual features: its slender build, the scoliosis, and the battle-related trauma. All of these are highly consistent with the information that we have about Richard III in life and about the circumstances of his death. Taken as a whole, the skeletal evidence provides a highly convincing case for identification as Richard III."[2]
Professor Caroline Wilkinson, Professor of Craniofacial Identification at the University of Dundee, led the project to reconstruct the face with a commission from the Richard III Society.[40]
Plans for reinterment
The Mayor of Leicester, Sir Peter Soulsby, announced the king's skeleton would be reinterred at Leicester Cathedral in early 2014 in a "Christian-led but ecumenical service". David Monteith, Canon Chancellor of the cathedral, said it would not be a formal reburial but rather a service of remembrance, as the king would already have had a funeral service at the time of burial. The choice of burial site is controversial, as there are proposals for Richard to be buried at Westminster Abbey alongside 17 other English and British kings, or in York Minster, which some claim was Richard's preferred burial site.[41] The Conservative MP and historian Chris Skidmore proposed a state funeral should be held for the deceased king, while John Mann, the Labour MP for Bassetlaw, suggested the body should be buried in Worksop in his constituency—halfway between York and Leicester. Sir Peter Soulsby has said: "Those bones leave Leicester over my dead body."[42] No will or documentation of Richard's wishes survives, so the Ministry of Justice licence leaves the decision to Leicester City Council and Leicester University. The Richard III Society has suggested burying the body in York but its secretary, Sandra Wadley, said: "We thought it was worth putting a try in for York, but it was always an optimistic shout. As long as he receives a proper interment, Leicester is fine by us."[41]
Reactions
Richard Buckley, who had previously said that he would "eat his hat" if Richard was discovered, fulfilled his promise by eating a hat-shaped cake baked by a colleague.[41]
Leicester City Council has spent £850,000 to buy the freehold of St Martin's Place, formerly part of Leicester Grammar School, in Peacock Lane, across the road from the cathedral. The site adjoins the car park where the body was found, and overlies the chancel of the Greyfriars Friary Church. The council intends to convert the building into a Richard III museum.[42][43]
In Norway, archaeologist Øystein Ekroll hoped that the interest after the discovery of the English king would spill over to Norway. In contrast to England where all the kings since the 11th century have now been discovered, in Norway around twenty-five medieval kings are buried in unmarked graves around the country. Ekroll proposed to start with Harald Hardrada, who is most probably buried anonymously in Trondheim, beneath what is today a public road. A previous attempt to exhume Harald in 2006 was blocked by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage (Riksantikvaren).[44]
Notes
- ^ Not to be confused with the later architect of the same name.
References
- ^ "Richard III Society pays tribute to exemplary archaeological research". University of Leicester. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
- ^ a b "University of Leicester announces discovery of King Richard III". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "The search for Richard III - completed". University of Leicester. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- ^ Bennett, p. 161.
- ^ Hipshon, p. 25.
- ^ Rhodes, p. 45
- ^ Bennett, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Halsted, p. 401.
- ^ "Previously at this address". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Where we dug". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ Rainey, Sarah (25 August 2012). "Digging for dirt on the Hunchback King". The Daily Telegraph.
- ^ "Saturday 25 August 2012". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Sunday 26 August 2012". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Monday 27 to Friday 31 August 2012". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "1 September". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ University of Leicester: Lead archaeologist Richard Buckley gives key evidence from the dig site. Accessed 11 February 2013
- ^ "Wednesday 5 September 2012". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Wednesday 5 September 2012 (continued)". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Osteology". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Saturday 8 to Friday 14 September 2012". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Richard III dig: Eyes of world on Leicester as Greyfriars skeleton find revealed". Leicester Mercury. 13 September 2012.
- ^ a b Wainwright, Martin (13 September 2012). "Richard III: Could the skeleton under the car park be the king's?". The Guardian.
- ^ "Family tree: Cecily Neville (1415–1495) Duchess of York". University of Leicester. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Richard III dig: 'It does look like him'". BBC News. 4 February 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ Joy Ibsen's mtDNA sequence: 16069T, 16126C, 73G, 146C, 185A, 188G, 263G, 295T, 315.1C in Ashdown-Hill, John (2010). The Last Days of Richard III. Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 9780752454047.
- ^ Randy Boswell (27 August 2012). "Canadian family holds genetic key to Richard III puzzle". Postmedia News. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
- ^ "Results of the DNA analysis". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Geneticist Dr Turi King and genealogist Professor Kevin Schürer give key evidence on the DNA testing". University of Leicester. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Burns, John F (4 February 2013). "Bones Under Parking Lot Belonged to Richard III". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
- ^ Rachel, Ehrenberg (6 February 2013). "A king's final hours, told by his mortal remains". Science News. Society for Science & the Public. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (11 February 2013). "Tracing a Royal Y Chromosome". The New York Times.
- ^ "Injuries to the skull 1 – 2". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Injuries to the skull 3 – 6". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Injuries to the skull 7 – 8". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Injuries to the body 9 – 10". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b c d "What the bones can and can't tell us". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Spine". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.
- ^ "Radiocarbon dating and analysis". University of Leicester. 4 February 2013.[dead link]
- ^ "Richard III dig: DNA confirms bones are king's". BBC. 4 February 2013.
- ^ Cullinane, Susannah (5 February 2013). "Richard III: Is this the face that launched 1,000 myths?". CNN.com. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Britten, Nick; Hough, Andrew (4 February 2013). "Richard III to be re-interred in major ceremony at Leicester Cathedral". The Daily Telegraph.
- ^ a b Brown, John Murray (3 February 2013). "Tug-of-war brews over 'king in car park'". Financial Times.
- ^ Warzynski, Peter (3 December 2012). "Leicester City Council buys the site of its Richard III centre for £850,000". Leicester Mercury.
- ^ Landrø, Juliet; Zahl, Hilde (5 February 2013). "Ønsker å grave opp de norske «asfaltkongene»". NRK (in Norwegian).
Bibliography
- Baldwin, David (1986). "King Richard's Grave in Leicester" (PDF). Transactions. 60. Leicester: Leicester Archaeological and Historical Society. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
- Bennett, Michael John (1985). The Battle of Bosworth. Alan Sutton. ISBN 978-0-8629-9053-4.
- Halsted, Caroline Amelia (1844). Richard III, as Duke of Gloucester and King of England. Volume 2. Carey and Hart.
- Hipshon, David (2009). Richard III and the Death of Chivalry. History Press. ISBN 978-0750950749.
- Penn, Thomas (2011). Winter King – Henry VII and The Dawn of Tudor England. Simon & Schuster. ISBN ISBN 978-1-4391-9156-9.
{{cite book}}
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value: invalid character (help) - Rhodes, Neil (1997). English Renaissance Prose: history, language, and politics. Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies. ISBN 978-0-8669-8205-4.
External links
- Videos and links about the discovery of Richard III's body (University of Leicester)
- About the facial reconstruction (University of Dundee)