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The Imperial Household Department managed eunuchs since the Kangxi reign.<ref>{{cite book |title=谢选骏全集126卷 |publisher=谢选骏 |page=375 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kig9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA375&dq=%E5%86%85%E5%8B%99%E5%BA%9C++%E9%98%89+%E5%B2%81+%E9%A9%AC&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWl4qfodfzAhU4mnIEHZ7lAFYQ6AF6BAgCEAI |quote=故在康熙朝后规定:宦官归内务府管辖,具体由敬事房管理。敬事房亦称宫殿监办处, ... 就阉割净了身,李莲英就是 8 岁净身,9 岁进宫的。民国初年,一个 13 岁的小太监马德清就被送进了溥仪的逊清皇室小朝廷当差。说到净身,清光绪年间,北京有专门干这种营生的, ...}}</ref> |
The Imperial Household Department managed eunuchs since the Kangxi reign.<ref>{{cite book |title=谢选骏全集126卷 |publisher=谢选骏 |page=375 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kig9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA375&dq=%E5%86%85%E5%8B%99%E5%BA%9C++%E9%98%89+%E5%B2%81+%E9%A9%AC&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWl4qfodfzAhU4mnIEHZ7lAFYQ6AF6BAgCEAI |quote=故在康熙朝后规定:宦官归内务府管辖,具体由敬事房管理。敬事房亦称宫殿监办处, ... 就阉割净了身,李莲英就是 8 岁净身,9 岁进宫的。民国初年,一个 13 岁的小太监马德清就被送进了溥仪的逊清皇室小朝廷当差。说到净身,清光绪年间,北京有专门干这种营生的, ...}}</ref> |
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Sons of rebels 15 and younger in the [[Lin Shuangwen rebellion]] were castrated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chuang |first1=Chi-fa |title=Review of Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China. The Formation of a Tradition by David Ownby |journal=T’oung Pao |date=2002 |volume=88 |issue=1/3 |page=196 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528897?seq=7#metadata_info_tab_contents |publisher=Brill}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=QIANLONG BATTLE PRINTS |url=http://www.battle-of-qurman.com.cn/listlit/MeijeringArtBooks-2016.pdf |website=Battle of Qurman - Painting from 1760 - Lost Fragment from ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=李 |first1=怡芸 |title=首批台灣太監 淨身事件簿重現 |url=https://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20140621001069-260306?chdtv|agency=中時新聞網 |date=2014-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=林爽文事件經過 原文網址 |url=https://kknews.cc/history/59xno3l.html |website=kknews.cc |date=2016-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=林爽文領導的台灣人民起義失敗後結局都悲慘,最慘的竟還這么小 原文網址 |url=https://kknews.cc/history/jz6n8rq.html |website=kknews.cc |date=2017-07-10}}</ref> The boys who were castrated were aged 4 to 15 years old and 40 of them were named on one memorial. This new policy of castrating sons of killers of 3 or more people |
Sons of rebels 15 and younger in the [[Lin Shuangwen rebellion]] were castrated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chuang |first1=Chi-fa |title=Review of Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China. The Formation of a Tradition by David Ownby |journal=T’oung Pao |date=2002 |volume=88 |issue=1/3 |page=196 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528897?seq=7#metadata_info_tab_contents |publisher=Brill}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=QIANLONG BATTLE PRINTS |url=http://www.battle-of-qurman.com.cn/listlit/MeijeringArtBooks-2016.pdf |website=Battle of Qurman - Painting from 1760 - Lost Fragment from ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=李 |first1=怡芸 |title=首批台灣太監 淨身事件簿重現 |url=https://www.chinatimes.com/newspapers/20140621001069-260306?chdtv|agency=中時新聞網 |date=2014-06-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=林爽文事件經過 原文網址 |url=https://kknews.cc/history/59xno3l.html |website=kknews.cc |date=2016-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=林爽文領導的台灣人民起義失敗後結局都悲慘,最慘的竟還這么小 原文網址 |url=https://kknews.cc/history/jz6n8rq.html |website=kknews.cc |date=2017-07-10}}</ref> The boys who were castrated were aged 4 to 15 years old and 40 of them were named on one memorial. This new policy of castrating sons of killers of 3 or more related people and rebels helped solve the supply of young eunuchs for the Qing Summer Palace.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=169 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169&lpg=PA169&dq=bonanza+lin+shuangwen+sons&source=bl&ots=u4qAi9a0Bs&sig=ACfU3U28nSbEzwMRFhNCJiV3xEdnCX0rqg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKt4bzwtXzAhU1knIEHW6IB5UQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=bonanza%20lin%20shuangwen%20sons&f=false}}</ref> The Qing were willing to lower their normal age limit for castration all the way to 4 when using castration as punishment for sons of rebels when it normally wanted eunuchs castrated after 9.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dale |first1=Melissa S. |title=Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China |date=2018 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=9888455753 |page=34, 35 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzqbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34&dq=%22thirty-seven+young+boys+(sons+of+bandits+from+Taiwan+who+were+under+the+age+of%22&source=bl&ots=i0y2w8AF1M&sig=ACfU3U2cHRQyJGaSY2_QKRpnmQg11itFgw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiXkLD1xNXzAhUBmnIEHbNoBHcQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=%22thirty-seven%20young%20boys%20(sons%20of%20bandits%20from%20Taiwan%20who%20were%20under%20the%20age%20of%22&f=false |archive-url=https://dokumen.pub/inside-the-world-of-the-eunuch-a-social-history-of-the-emperors-servants-in-qing-china-9789888455607-9888455605.html |archive-date=2019}}</ref> Other times, the Qing Imperial Household Department waited until the boys reached 11 years old before castrating them, like when they waited for the 2 young imprisoned sons of executed murderer Sui Bilong from Shandong to grow up. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 11 year old Hunanese boy Fang Mingzai to become a eunuch slave in the Qing palace after his father was executed for murder.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=275, 169|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> The Qing Summer palace, due to this policy of castrating sons of mass murderers and rebels received many young healthy eunuchs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=231|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231&lpg=PA231&dq=%22healthy+young+eunuchs%22&source=bl&ots=u4qAi9bYAx&sig=ACfU3U3_2PMR4WYyNYzdyxDmbQZOz2bybQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir0-eOxdXzAhWcj3IEHaLYA-AQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22healthy%20young%20eunuchs%22&f=false}}</ref> 130 sons of rebels 15 and younger were taken into custody by the Qing. The rebel leader [[Zhuang Datian]]'s 4 year old grandson Zhuang Amo was one of those castrated. There was another Lin family who joined the Lin Shuangwen rebellion. Lin Da was ordered to lead 100 people by Lin Shuangwen and given the title "general Xuanlue". Lin Da was 42 when he was executed by Lingchi. He had 6 sons, the 2 older ones died before and his 3rd son Lin dou passed away from sickness before he could be castrated in Beijing while hi's fourth and fifth sons were castrated, the 11 year old Lin Biao and 8 year old Lin Xian. However his 6th and youngest son, 7 year old Lin Mading was given away to a relative (uncle) named Lin Qin for adoption, and Lin Qin did not join the rebellion so Lin Mading was not castrated. Lin Mading had 2 children after marrying his wife in 1800 when he was 20.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=陈 |first1=孔立 |title=1815 年台湾籍太监林表之死 |journal=25 周年学术研讨会论文 |page=1, 2 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/41346979.pdf |archive-url=https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c0ea161f650e52ea551898a9.html |archive-date=2015|publisher=厦门大学台湾研究院}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=林 |first1=育德 |title=一個臺灣太監之死:清代男童集體閹割事件簿 |date=2014-06-05 |publisher=啟動文化 |url=https://www.books.com.tw/web/sys_serialtext/?item=0010637159 |archive-url=https://okplaymayday.pixnet.net/blog/post/41185837-評介林德育,《一個臺灣太監之死:清代男童 |archive-date=2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Han Cheung |first1=Cheung |title=Taiwan in Time: Rebels of heaven and earth |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2016/04/17/2003644127 |agency=Taipei Times |date=Apr 17, 2016 |page=12}}</ref> |
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Descriptions of fingerprints were recorded for castrated sons of criminals and rebels,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=277|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=%22Sons+of+rebels+and+criminals+selected+for+castration+did+often+have+their+fingerprints+analyzed+and+reported.%22&source=bl&ots=u4qAihf2Bz&sig=ACfU3U1xDEXyT3wr4zO1bEWbtOvhCepT-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnmeiogNjzAhUxmeAKHfCxD78Q6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Sons%20of%20rebels%20and%20criminals%20selected%20for%20castration%20did%20often%20have%20their%20fingerprints%20analyzed%20and%20reported.%22&f=false}}</ref> but it was barely used for other eunuchs when trying to find escapee eunuchs and only a written description of the fingerprints was taken, not an actual print. Fingerprints were used in the Qing bureacracy in other instances to identify people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=178|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Sometimes castrations were not fully done since an [[Cryptorchidism|undescended testicle]] would not be removed and it was only found out when puberty brought out the "secondary sex characteristics". If they were found out then they would be sent back to their hometowns and out of the palace. They would still be called eunuchs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520969847 |page=20|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=Boys+born+with+an+undescended+testicle+were+sometimes+accidentally+incompletely+castrated.+Once+the+error+was+discovered+(because+secondary+sex+characteristic+emerged),+they+were+released+from+service+and+sent+back+to+their+villages.&source=bl&ots=u4qAihgXsr&sig=ACfU3U20YZHLWxVrfdb-YnNxYfG9pBSOYA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjQ3MWIgdjzAhXoYt8KHRkwDhMQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=Boys%20born%20with%20an%20undescended%20testicle%20were%20sometimes%20accidentally%20incompletely%20castrated.%20Once%20the%20error%20was%20discovered%20(because%20secondary%20sex%20characteristic%20emerged)%2C%20they%20were%20released%20from%20service%20and%20sent%20back%20to%20their%20villages.&f=false}}</ref> In one case reviewed by the Qianlong emperor, a man was innocent of all crime but his father had murdered 6 people who were related to each other and then slept with his son's wife. Qianlong decided that the son was to be sentenced to castration, since he deserved death under Qing law because he was the son of a murderer but "commuted" his sentence to castration as a mercy because he was personally victimized when his father slept with his wife.<ref>{{cite book |last1=WALEY-COHEN |first1=JOANNA |editor1-last=Turner |editor1-first=Karen G. |editor2-last=Feinerman |editor2-first=James V. |editor3-last=Guy |editor3-first=R. Kent |title=The Limits of the Rule of Law in China |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295803894 |page=124, 125|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_kUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125&dq=1791+eleven+twelve+sons+castrated&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0sXMhNvzAhXimHIEHdyYAJgQ6AF6BAgFEAI |series=Asian Law Series |chapter=5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law}}</ref> There was also a mass murder incident where a murderer injured 12 and murdered 11 unrelated people in 1791. The Qing law on mass murdering said that castration was to be done on sons of murderers who mass murdered against one family and killed 3 or more members of it, but nevertheless the Qing emperor ordered the sons of this mas murdered be castrated as well.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martini |first1=Remo |title=Studi in onore di Remo Martini |volume=2|date=2009 |publisher=Giuffrè Editore |isbn=8814145490 |page=552|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf5dEPXpuVUC&pg=PA552&dq=1791+eleven+twelve+sons+castrated&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0sXMhNvzAhXimHIEHdyYAJgQ6AF6BAgIEAI}}</ref> |
Descriptions of fingerprints were recorded for castrated sons of criminals and rebels,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=277|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=%22Sons+of+rebels+and+criminals+selected+for+castration+did+often+have+their+fingerprints+analyzed+and+reported.%22&source=bl&ots=u4qAihf2Bz&sig=ACfU3U1xDEXyT3wr4zO1bEWbtOvhCepT-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnmeiogNjzAhUxmeAKHfCxD78Q6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Sons%20of%20rebels%20and%20criminals%20selected%20for%20castration%20did%20often%20have%20their%20fingerprints%20analyzed%20and%20reported.%22&f=false}}</ref> but it was barely used for other eunuchs when trying to find escapee eunuchs and only a written description of the fingerprints was taken, not an actual print. Fingerprints were used in the Qing bureacracy in other instances to identify people.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=178|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Sometimes castrations were not fully done since an [[Cryptorchidism|undescended testicle]] would not be removed and it was only found out when puberty brought out the "secondary sex characteristics". If they were found out then they would be sent back to their hometowns and out of the palace. They would still be called eunuchs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520969847 |page=20|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20&lpg=PA20&dq=Boys+born+with+an+undescended+testicle+were+sometimes+accidentally+incompletely+castrated.+Once+the+error+was+discovered+(because+secondary+sex+characteristic+emerged),+they+were+released+from+service+and+sent+back+to+their+villages.&source=bl&ots=u4qAihgXsr&sig=ACfU3U20YZHLWxVrfdb-YnNxYfG9pBSOYA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjQ3MWIgdjzAhXoYt8KHRkwDhMQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=Boys%20born%20with%20an%20undescended%20testicle%20were%20sometimes%20accidentally%20incompletely%20castrated.%20Once%20the%20error%20was%20discovered%20(because%20secondary%20sex%20characteristic%20emerged)%2C%20they%20were%20released%20from%20service%20and%20sent%20back%20to%20their%20villages.&f=false}}</ref> In one case reviewed by the Qianlong emperor, a man was innocent of all crime but his father had murdered 6 people who were related to each other and then slept with his son's wife. Qianlong decided that the son was to be sentenced to castration, since he deserved death under Qing law because he was the son of a murderer but "commuted" his sentence to castration as a mercy because he was personally victimized when his father slept with his wife.<ref>{{cite book |last1=WALEY-COHEN |first1=JOANNA |editor1-last=Turner |editor1-first=Karen G. |editor2-last=Feinerman |editor2-first=James V. |editor3-last=Guy |editor3-first=R. Kent |title=The Limits of the Rule of Law in China |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295803894 |page=124, 125|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_kUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125&dq=1791+eleven+twelve+sons+castrated&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0sXMhNvzAhXimHIEHdyYAJgQ6AF6BAgFEAI |series=Asian Law Series |chapter=5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law}}</ref> There was also a mass murder incident where a murderer injured 12 and murdered 11 unrelated people in 1791. The Qing law on mass murdering said that castration was to be done on sons of murderers who mass murdered against one family and killed 3 or more members of it, but nevertheless the Qing emperor ordered the sons of this mas murdered be castrated as well.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martini |first1=Remo |title=Studi in onore di Remo Martini |volume=2|date=2009 |publisher=Giuffrè Editore |isbn=8814145490 |page=552|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf5dEPXpuVUC&pg=PA552&dq=1791+eleven+twelve+sons+castrated&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiR0sXMhNvzAhXimHIEHdyYAJgQ6AF6BAgIEAI}}</ref> After one boy was injured severely and his three brothers were killed in Henan by a murderer surnamed Zhang who was a tenant farmer in 1788, the emperor ordered castration for the 2 sons of Zhang while a lingchi sentenced was passed for Zhang himself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Xiaoqun |title=Heaven Has Eyes: A History of Chinese Law |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0190060050 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1AAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=%22Upon+reviewing+the+case,+Emperor+Qianlong+opined+that+Zhang%27s+two+sons+should+be+castrated.%22&source=bl&ots=AbyHgt3vvv&sig=ACfU3U2_MCJvYwgCFg19jDBrh3ZID-ZH2w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjfpO6Ng9vzAhVAgXIEHatzCKUQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22Upon%20reviewing%20the%20case%2C%20Emperor%20Qianlong%20opined%20that%20Zhang's%20two%20sons%20should%20be%20castrated.%22&f=false}}</ref> |
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The Qing passed a law that castration was the punishment for grandsons and sons of rebels by the Imperial Household Department after changing a death sentence to a castration sentence in the case of an 18 year old who was a nephew of a rebel in 1781, however despite the law being inspired by this case, nephews weren't covered in the people to be castrated in the law and only the direct sons and grandsons of the rebels were.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martini |first1=Remo |title=Studi in onore di Remo Martini |volume=2|date=2009 |publisher=Giuffrè Editore |isbn=8814145490 |page=548 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf5dEPXpuVUC&pg=PA548&lpg=PA548&dq=des+successively+reproduced+the+Ming+article+on+plotting+rebellion+(mou+fan).+...+department+(neiwufu)67+for+castration.+after+this+case+a+substatute+was+promulgated,+which+referred+not+to+nephews+but+only+to+the+sons+and+grandsons+of+.&source=bl&ots=81NJuSLFiS&sig=ACfU3U0k0bHTri0Rsens3CCuLMwgLNdE-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj79MaxxdXzAhXooXIEHW38ClkQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=des%20successively%20reproduced%20the%20Ming%20article%20on%20plotting%20rebellion%20(mou%20fan).%20...%20department%20(neiwufu)67%20for%20castration.%20after%20this%20case%20a%20substatute%20was%20promulgated%2C%20which%20referred%20not%20to%20nephews%20but%20only%20to%20the%20sons%20and%20grandsons%20of%20.&f=false}}</ref> Qianlong reintroduced castration of relatives of those who murdered multiple people or rebelled. The Ming code and Tang code both do not have such a law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=WALEY-COHEN |first1=JOANNA |editor1-last=Turner |editor1-first=Karen G. |editor2-last=Feinerman |editor2-first=James V. |editor3-last=Guy |editor3-first=R. Kent |title=The Limits of the Rule of Law in China |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295803894 |page=119 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_kUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119&lpg=PA119&dq=%22In+neither+the+Tang+nor+the+Ming+Code+was+there+any+stipulation+for+castrating+the+relatives+of+rebels;+the+statutory+provision+appears+to+have+been%22&source=bl&ots=k6GJZawH4o&sig=ACfU3U0FQCW7FT5psAcNu1q9o_pkJxjBtw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjCj7yv-9XzAhUZmnIEHTE2CYcQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22In%20neither%20the%20Tang%20nor%20the%20Ming%20Code%20was%20there%20any%20stipulation%20for%20castrating%20the%20relatives%20of%20rebels%3B%20the%20statutory%20provision%20appears%20to%20have%20been%22&f=false |series=Asian Law Series |chapter=5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law}}</ref> Qianlong and the Imperial Household Department later decreed that sons of murderers who were 16 years old and older would be exiled as slaves to the frontier after castration while the sons 15 and younger would be kept as eunuchs in the Imperial palace since the younger sons could be controlled while the older sons were uncontrollable.<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacCormack |first1=Geoffrey |series=Spirit of the laws|title=The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Law |date=1996 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=0820317225 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKN1Ku7YvpsC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22The+Board+also+quoted+a+memorial+of+1793+from+the+Imperial+Household+Department+,+which+suggested+that+sons+aged+15+or%22&source=bl&ots=OvtZe-s8KW&sig=ACfU3U1Zu4OLs6gGMC-wG44_e9kyTDRIiA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmveaV5dXzAhU0gnIEHe_6CNcQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Board%20also%20quoted%20a%20memorial%20of%201793%20from%20the%20Imperial%20Household%20Department%20%2C%20which%20suggested%20that%20sons%20aged%2015%20or%22&f=false}}</ref> Imposing a penalty of castration upon the sons of rebels and murderers of 3 or more people |
The Qing passed a law that castration was the punishment for grandsons and sons of rebels by the Imperial Household Department after changing a death sentence to a castration sentence in the case of an 18 year old who was a nephew of a rebel in 1781, however despite the law being inspired by this case, nephews weren't covered in the people to be castrated in the law and only the direct sons and grandsons of the rebels were.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martini |first1=Remo |title=Studi in onore di Remo Martini |volume=2|date=2009 |publisher=Giuffrè Editore |isbn=8814145490 |page=548 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf5dEPXpuVUC&pg=PA548&lpg=PA548&dq=des+successively+reproduced+the+Ming+article+on+plotting+rebellion+(mou+fan).+...+department+(neiwufu)67+for+castration.+after+this+case+a+substatute+was+promulgated,+which+referred+not+to+nephews+but+only+to+the+sons+and+grandsons+of+.&source=bl&ots=81NJuSLFiS&sig=ACfU3U0k0bHTri0Rsens3CCuLMwgLNdE-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj79MaxxdXzAhXooXIEHW38ClkQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q=des%20successively%20reproduced%20the%20Ming%20article%20on%20plotting%20rebellion%20(mou%20fan).%20...%20department%20(neiwufu)67%20for%20castration.%20after%20this%20case%20a%20substatute%20was%20promulgated%2C%20which%20referred%20not%20to%20nephews%20but%20only%20to%20the%20sons%20and%20grandsons%20of%20.&f=false}}</ref> Qianlong reintroduced castration of relatives of those who murdered multiple people or rebelled. The Ming code and Tang code both do not have such a law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=WALEY-COHEN |first1=JOANNA |editor1-last=Turner |editor1-first=Karen G. |editor2-last=Feinerman |editor2-first=James V. |editor3-last=Guy |editor3-first=R. Kent |title=The Limits of the Rule of Law in China |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0295803894 |page=119 |edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_kUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119&lpg=PA119&dq=%22In+neither+the+Tang+nor+the+Ming+Code+was+there+any+stipulation+for+castrating+the+relatives+of+rebels;+the+statutory+provision+appears+to+have+been%22&source=bl&ots=k6GJZawH4o&sig=ACfU3U0FQCW7FT5psAcNu1q9o_pkJxjBtw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjCj7yv-9XzAhUZmnIEHTE2CYcQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22In%20neither%20the%20Tang%20nor%20the%20Ming%20Code%20was%20there%20any%20stipulation%20for%20castrating%20the%20relatives%20of%20rebels%3B%20the%20statutory%20provision%20appears%20to%20have%20been%22&f=false |series=Asian Law Series |chapter=5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law}}</ref> Qianlong and the Imperial Household Department later decreed that sons of murderers who were 16 years old and older would be exiled as slaves to the frontier after castration while the sons 15 and younger would be kept as eunuchs in the Imperial palace since the younger sons could be controlled while the older sons were uncontrollable.<ref>{{cite book |last1=MacCormack |first1=Geoffrey |series=Spirit of the laws|title=The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Law |date=1996 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=0820317225 |page=207 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKN1Ku7YvpsC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22The+Board+also+quoted+a+memorial+of+1793+from+the+Imperial+Household+Department+,+which+suggested+that+sons+aged+15+or%22&source=bl&ots=OvtZe-s8KW&sig=ACfU3U1Zu4OLs6gGMC-wG44_e9kyTDRIiA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmveaV5dXzAhU0gnIEHe_6CNcQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Board%20also%20quoted%20a%20memorial%20of%201793%20from%20the%20Imperial%20Household%20Department%20%2C%20which%20suggested%20that%20sons%20aged%2015%20or%22&f=false}}</ref> Imposing a penalty of castration upon the sons of rebels and murderers of 3 or more related people was part of a new Qing policy to ensure a supply of young boy eunuchs since the Qianlong emperor ordered young eunuchs to be shifted towards the main imperial residence in the Summer Palace. Norman A. Kutcher connected the Qing policy on obtaining young eunuchs to the observation that young boy eunuchs were prized by female members of the Qing Imperial family as attendants, noted by the British George Carter Stent in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Unspoken Collusions: The Empowerment of Yuanming Yuan Eunuchs in the Qianlong Period |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |date=2010 |volume=70 |issue=2 |page=472, 473 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40930907?seq=24#metadata_info_tab_contents |publisher=Harvard-Yenching Institute}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=柯 |first1=启玄 |title=乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响 |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190622001600/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:d2hL4S3-wlQJ:www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id%3D11671 |website=中国人民大学清史研究所 |date=2017-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=简 |first1=体版 |title=清代皇家园林研究通讯 发布时间: |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190621232436/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:HjlCUSM_z2cJ:www.qinghistory.cn/shs/426058.shtml |website=中华文史网-清史百科 |date=2018-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=柯 |first1=启玄 |title=乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019015141/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3A0OJKEtQcR4gJ%3Aglqjsw.com%2Finfo%24column_id%3D11671.htm&hl=en&gl=us&strip=1&vwsrc=0 |website=官方网站hg622.com |date=2017-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=柯 |first1=启玄 |title=乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019030527/http://www.yczg168.com/info-1154.asp |website=赌博网址: 手机赌博网站 |date=2017-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=柯 |first1=启玄 |title=乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响 |url=http://www.qinghistory.cn/shs/426058.shtml |website=中华文史网 |publisher=清代皇家园林研究通讯 |date=2018-05-07}}</ref> Norman Kutcher noted that George Stent said young eunuchs were physically attractive and were used for "impossible to describe" duties by female imperial family members and they were considered "completely pure". Kutcher suggests the boys were used for sexual pleasure by Qing imperial women, connecting them to the boy eunuchs called "earrings" who were used for that purpose.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kutcher |first1=Norman A. |title=Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule |date=2018 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520969847 |page=12|edition=reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAFiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=%22reference+to+the+boy+eunuchs+dubbed+%E2%80%9Cearrings,%E2%80%9D+who+were+used+by+the+female+members+of+the+imperial+household+for+sexual+...%22&source=bl&ots=u4qAi9cYwx&sig=ACfU3U1vIHYKKgt1v-YxZ6cnX8bB9Vh5-Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3_arYyNXzAhWlpnIEHbHvC8AQ6AF6BAgCEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref><ref>清人查慎行 ([[Zha Shenxing]])《人海记》记载:明末崇祯皇帝的宠妃田贵妃利用宦官与宫女淫戏之</ref> George Carter Stent wrote "''All eunuchs are considered pure (chên, 貞 or ch'ing, 清,) but boys who are made eunuchs when under ten years of age are termed " thoroughly pure" (t'ung-chên, 通貞). These are specially prized, and are employed by the ladies of the palace with as much freedom as if they were girls; performing such offices as ought only to be done by women—some of them of a nature it would be impossible to describe here. These boy eunuchs are supposed to be free from the least licentiousness— even in thought;—in fact, they are considered to be devoid of all feeling of that kind whatever. They are commonly called "little eunuchs" (Hsiao-t'ai-chien, 小太监); as they grow up they are not allowed such freedom of intercourse, being replaced by others younger than themselves, while they are employed in such duties as do not bring them into the more private apartments of the ladies.''"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stent |first1=George Carter |title=Chinese Eunuchs |journal=Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=1877 |issue=11 |url=https://oregondigital.org/downloads/oregondigital:df72d604q|page=177|series=New Series |publisher=North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |location=Shanghai}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Section 1: Eunuchs are able to procreate |url=https://people.well.com/user/aquarius/section1.htm |website="Born Eunuchs" Home Page and Library}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |author=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai |date=1877 |publisher=Kelly & Walsh |page=177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgZB3cMK58sC&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dale |first1=Melissa S. |title=Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China |date=2018 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=9888455753 |page=67 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzqbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=These+are+especially+prized,+and+are+employed+by+the+ladies+of+the+palace+with+as+much+freedom+as+if+they+were+girls;+performing+such+offices+as+ought+only+to+be+done+by+women&source=bl&ots=i0y2w9yD1K&sig=ACfU3U1TGAzq2LTYz45aa-yxN1-4_Fuh_Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj126L74dXzAhXPl3IEHbR6D-IQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=These%20are%20especially%20prized%2C%20and%20are%20employed%20by%20the%20ladies%20of%20the%20palace%20with%20as%20much%20freedom%20as%20if%20they%20were%20girls%3B%20performing%20such%20offices%20as%20ought%20only%20to%20be%20done%20by%20women&f=false |archive-url=https://dokumen.pub/inside-the-world-of-the-eunuch-a-social-history-of-the-emperors-servants-in-qing-china-9789888455607-9888455605.html |archive-date=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doran |first1=Christine |title=Chinese Palace Eunuchs: Shadows of the Emperor. |journal=Nebula7.3 |date=September 2010 |url=http://002784d.netsolhost.com/images/Doran.pdf}}</ref> Boy eunuchs were used for intimate bathroom and bedroom duties by palace ladies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Mary M. |title=Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China |date=1990 |publisher=Prometheus Books |series=G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |isbn=0879755741 |page=308 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rX5wAAAAMAAJ&q=%22These+were+prized+by+palace+ladies+and+given+as+much+freedom+and+familiarity+as+if+they+were+girls,+and+allowed+to+perform+bedroom+and+bathroom+duties+of+the+most+intimate+nature.+Boy+eunuchs+were+supposedly+free+of+any+licentiousness,+even+in+thought.+As+they+grew+older+they+were+replaced+by+younger+eunuchs+and+given+duties+outside+the+ladies%27+quarters.%22&dq=%22These+were+prized+by+palace+ladies+and+given+as+much+freedom+and+familiarity+as+if+they+were+girls,+and+allowed+to+perform+bedroom+and+bathroom+duties+of+the+most+intimate+nature.+Boy+eunuchs+were+supposedly+free+of+any+licentiousness,+even+in+thought.+As+they+grew+older+they+were+replaced+by+younger+eunuchs+and+given+duties+outside+the+ladies%27+quarters.%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&printsec=frontcover&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjg947a5tXzAhWuoHIEHfISA8EQ6AF6BAgCEAI}}</ref> |
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An amusement part model peasant village with a complete market street (Maimaijie) in the Summer palace was staffed by eunuch actors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ringmar |first1=Erik |title=Liberal Barbarism |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |journal=Cultural Sociology |page=45, 46 |doi=10.1057/9781137031600_3 |series=Part of the Cultural Sociology book series (CULTSOC) |url=https://archive.org/details/ErikRingmarLiberalBarbarismTheEuropeanDestructionOfThePalaceOfTheEmperorOfChina/page/n43/mode/2up |archive-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137031600_3 |archive-date=2019}}</ref> |
An amusement part model peasant village with a complete market street (Maimaijie) in the Summer palace was staffed by eunuch actors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ringmar |first1=Erik |title=Liberal Barbarism |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |journal=Cultural Sociology |page=45, 46 |doi=10.1057/9781137031600_3 |series=Part of the Cultural Sociology book series (CULTSOC) |url=https://archive.org/details/ErikRingmarLiberalBarbarismTheEuropeanDestructionOfThePalaceOfTheEmperorOfChina/page/n43/mode/2up |archive-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057%2F9781137031600_3 |archive-date=2019}}</ref> |
Revision as of 08:10, 21 October 2021
A eunuch (/ˈjuːnək/ YOO-nək)[1] is a man who has been castrated.[2] Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.[3]
In China, castration included removal of the penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.[4]
Eunuchs have existed in China since about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty.[5][6] From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal.
It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials.[7] As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs."[8]
The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.[9]
The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last Imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting, died in December 1996.[10]
History
Qin dynasty
Men sentenced to castration were turned into eunuch slaves of the Qin dynasty state to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army.[11] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment.[12] Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[13]
Han dynasty
In Han dynasty China, castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offenses.[14][15] Sima Qian, the famous Chinese historian, was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent.[16] In another incident multiple people, including a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected to castration.[17]
Near the end of the Han dynasty in 189, a group of eunuchs known as the Ten Attendants managed to gain considerable power at the imperial court, so that several warlords decided they had to be eliminated to restore the Emperor's government.[18] However, the loyalist warlord, He Jin, was lured into a trap inside the palace and killed by the eunuchs.[18] The other warlords led by Yuan Shao then stormed the palace and massacred the Ten Attendants and many other eunuchs.[18][19] In the wake of the fighting, Dong Zhuo seized power.[19]
Northern Wei
Category:北魏宦官 (Northern Wei eunuchs)
In 446 an ethnic Qiang rebellion was crushed by the Northern Wei. Wang Yu was an ethnic Qiang eunuch and he may hav been castrated during the rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrated the rebel tribe's young elite. Fengyi prefecture's Lirun town according to the Weishu was where Wang Yu was born , Lirun was to Xi'ans's northeast by 100 miles and modern day Chengcheng stands at it's site. Wang Yu patronized Buddhism and in 488 had a temple constructed in his birth place.[20]
The Northern Wei had the young sons of rebels and traitors castrated and made them serve as eunuchs in the palace like Liu Siyi (Liu Ssu-i 留思逸), Yuwen Zhou (Yü-wen Chou 宇文冑), Duan Ba (Tuan Pa 段霸), Wang Zhi (Wang Chih 王質), Liu Teng (Liu T'eng 劉騰) and Sun Shao (孫少). Gao Huan of Northern Qi had Shu Lüè (Shu Lüeh 叔畧) castrated and become a messenger eunuch because his father Fan Guan (Fan Kuan 樊觀) remained loyal to Northern Wei .[21] The Northern Wei presented northern wives to Liu song generals Cui Mo (戲謨) and Shen Mo (申謨). Lingdu 靈度, a son was born to Shen Mo's northern wife. However Shen Mo fled back south to Liu Song when he had the opportunity and the Northern Wei castrated Lingdu in response. Cui Mo never went back south so his northern son would not be punished.[22] The rebels themselves and their sons above the age of 14 were executed by chopping at the waist while the sons below 14 were castrated and served in the palace as eunuchs.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]
Han Chinese eunuch Liu Teng, who was castrated as a child by Northern Wei for crimes, still maintained his sexual appetite and prowess and collected beautiful women to have sexual relations with them.[37][38][39][40][41][42][43]
The eunuch Zong Ai killed two Northern Wei Emperors and a Northern Wei prince.[44][45][46][47][48] Empress Dowager Hu mounred for the eunuch Meng Luan (孟欒).
Tang dynasty
Indigenous tribals from southern China were used as eunuchs during the Sui and Tang dynasties.[49]
The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu'er (李豬兒) (Li Chu-erh) who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager. An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died, losing multiple pints of blood. An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhu'er was An Lushan's eunuch after this and was highly used and trusted by him. Li Zhu'er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he dressed and undressed. Li Zhu'er also helped An Lushan dress at the Huaqing (Hua-ch'ing) steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang. Later, An Lushan was stricken with a skin disease and became blind and paranoid. He started flogging and murdering his subordinates, and Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan. An Lushan was stabbed in the stomach and disemboweled by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang (Yen Chuang) (嚴莊), another conspirator whom An Lushan had previously beaten. An Lushan screamed, "This is a thief of my own household!" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself.[50][51][52]
Liao dynasty
The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese, and the eunuchs were non-Khitan prisoners of war. When they founded the Liao dynasty, they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty. The Khitan Empress Dowager Chengtian led the Khitan to raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. Khitan . The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. She personally led her own army and defeated the Song in 986,[53] fighting the retreating Chinese army. The Empress then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en (王继恩 (辽朝)). The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks. Another Han Chinese eunuch who was castrated and captured by the Khitan as a boy was Zhao Anren (赵安仁)[54][55][56][57] The Han Chinese boys captured and castrated by Empress Chengtian became domestic slaves in the Liao palace and did not gain political power.[58][59][60][61][62][63] Khitan women, especially empresses and imperial concubines actively fought in war on the battlefield.[64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]
Jin dynasty
Eunuchs in the Jin dynasty were domestic slaves who served the women of the palace like the concubines and empresses and did not gain political power.[73][74][75][76][77][78][79] [80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93] Liang Chong 梁珫 was a eunuch in the Jin dynasty. Song Gui (宋珪) was another eunuch in the Jin dynasty.
Yuan dynasty
As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo (Korea) provided eunuchs to the Mongols.[94] One of them was Bak Bulhwa , who caused harm to Goryeo.[95] Other Korean eunuchs in the Yuan included Go Yongbo (, 高龍普) and Bang Sin-u (방신우, 方臣祐).
Ming dynasty
There were eunuchs from China's various ethnic tribes, Mongolia, Korea,[96][97] Vietnam,[98] Cambodia, Central Asia, Thailand, and Okinawa.[99]: 14–16
There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[100]: 36ff [101] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[102] Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were present in the Ming court,[99]: 14 such as the ones captured from Mongol-controlled Yunnan in 1381, and among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He,[99]: 14ff [103] who served Yongle.[104] Muslim eunuchs were sent as ambassadors to the Timurids.[105] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[106] During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors when their demands were not met.[107] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[108] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[107] Korea stopped sending human tribute after 1435.[107] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[109] The Ming eunuch hats were similar to the Korean royal hats, indicating the foreign origins of the Ming eunuchs, many of whom came from Southeast Asia and Korea.[110] Yishiha was a Jurchen eunuch in the Ming dynasty.
During the Miao Rebellions, the Ming Governor castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then gave them as slaves to various officials. The Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by the Ming Tianshun Emperor for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event.[99]: 16
Zhu Shuang (Prince of Qin), while he was high on drugs, had some Tibetan boys castrated, and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples. As a result he was denounced after he died from an overdose.[111]
On 30 January 1406, the Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to the emperor. The Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[112]
An anti-pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[113] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque.[114] It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[115]
At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huànguān, or 太監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor with some serving inside the imperial palace. There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming.[99]: 34ff [116][117][118] In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles (ca. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices.[119]
Path to the occupation
In Ming China, the royal palace acquired eunuchs from both domestic and foreign sources.[120]: 126–138 On the one hand, the eunuchs in Ming China came from foreign sources. The enemies of Ming China were castrated as a means of punishment when they are captured by the Ming army as prisoners.[120]: 127 For example, the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle's reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols.[120]: 127 The foreign eunuchs also came as tribute from many small countries around China.[120]: 127 On the other hand, eunuchs also came from indigenous Chinese. In Ming China, many men castrated themselves to be hired in the palace, when the only way for these men to enter into a life of privilege was through eunuchism.[120]: 128 Besides the royal palace, bureaucratic elites, such as mandarin officials, also hired eunuchs to be servants in their families.[120]: 131 With this demand, many men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs.
Daily functions of normal eunuchs
Eunuchs in Ming China also played a critical role in the operation of the imperial palace. Their responsibilities varied in significance with jobs that included almost every aspect of everyday routine in the imperial palace. Some of their responsibilities were procuring copper, tin, wood, and iron. Also, they had to repair and construct ponds, castle gates, and palaces in major cities like Beijing and Nanjing, and the mansions and mausolea in the living spaces of imperial relatives.[120]: 131 They prepared meals for a great number of people in the palace. Taking care of the animals in the palace was another one of their jobs. In a word, the eunuchs' work was the cornerstone of the palace's daily operation, and they were responsible for the Emperor and his relatives' comfortable life.[120]: 125
Relationship with other occupations in the royal palace
The eunuchs also highly associated with other lower ranking occupations in the royal palace. For example, some eunuchs would have special relationships with serving women in the palace. Some eunuchs would form a partnership with serving women to support each other, which was called a "vegetarian couple" (Duishi).[121]: 43 In this kind of relationship, both the eunuchs and serving women could be more secure when they encountered conflicts with the those of higher rank such as mandarin bureaucrats.[121]: 60
Power of eunuchs in the palace
The eunuchs also had an opportunity to rise to higher ranks. For example, the duties and jobs of eunuchs gradually changed in Ming dynasty. In the Hongwu Emperor's time, the Emperor decreed that the eunuchs were to be kept in small numbers and of minimal literacy to prevent them from seizing power.[100]: 64 However, in later generations, the Emperors began to train and educate the eunuchs and made them their personal secretaries.[100]: 65 The lack of the restrictions allowed some eunuchs to rise to great power, for example, Wang Zhen, Liu Jin, and Wei Zhongxian especially. There were even an eunuch supervised secret police, which worked for the emperor. It was known as the Eastern Depot and Western Depot.[100]: 65 Also, Zheng He, a famous eunuch in China's history, became an early pioneer of seafaring and spread Chinese influence around the world.[122]
Reputation of eunuchs in China
However, the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China, especially considering the way they had their eyes and ears everywhere. Since the eunuchs served both the harem and the emperors, it was believed that they were able to carry valuable information that could either break or create an emperor's status, so out of fear, Chinese bureaucrat-scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively as greedy, evil, cunning, and duplicitous.[120]: 121 The Chinese seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs. This bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs, to get employment in the royal palace or official houses, needed to be castrated. Castration gave the eunuchs the license to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and the Emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines.[120]: 133 However, in Chinese society, castration broke with conventional moral rules. A son who could not have a male heir to carry on the family name contradicted Confucian ideology.[120]: 132 The eunuchs, despite their awareness of losing the ability to have children, would get castrated to have better lives. Another stereotypical view of eunuchs in the palace was that they exceeded their power in areas they did not belong, or that they did unpleasant work. For example, they were spies for emperors or officials. The Yongle Emperor gave the eunuchs the authority to be in charge in the implementation of political tasks. As the eunuchs' presence and power grew, they gradually took over the duties of female palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace.[123] When they came to power, eunuchs would even interfere in politics such as the succession to the throne.[120]: 125
Qing dynasty
While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties, their number decreased significantly under the Qing, and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department.[124] At the beginning of the 20th century, there were about 2,000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City.[125][126] The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could.[127] The position of a eunuch in the Forbidden City offered opportunity for theft and corruption. China was such a poor country that countless men willingly became eunuchs to live a better life.[127] However, eunuchs as the Emperor's slaves had no rights and could be abused at the Emperor's whim. The Emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs of growing up in the Forbidden City that: "By the age of 11, flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine. My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me... Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble."[125][128]
The Imperial Household Department managed eunuchs since the Kangxi reign.[129]
Sons of rebels 15 and younger in the Lin Shuangwen rebellion were castrated.[130][131][132][133][134] The boys who were castrated were aged 4 to 15 years old and 40 of them were named on one memorial. This new policy of castrating sons of killers of 3 or more related people and rebels helped solve the supply of young eunuchs for the Qing Summer Palace.[135] The Qing were willing to lower their normal age limit for castration all the way to 4 when using castration as punishment for sons of rebels when it normally wanted eunuchs castrated after 9.[136] Other times, the Qing Imperial Household Department waited until the boys reached 11 years old before castrating them, like when they waited for the 2 young imprisoned sons of executed murderer Sui Bilong from Shandong to grow up. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 11 year old Hunanese boy Fang Mingzai to become a eunuch slave in the Qing palace after his father was executed for murder.[137] The Qing Summer palace, due to this policy of castrating sons of mass murderers and rebels received many young healthy eunuchs.[138] 130 sons of rebels 15 and younger were taken into custody by the Qing. The rebel leader Zhuang Datian's 4 year old grandson Zhuang Amo was one of those castrated. There was another Lin family who joined the Lin Shuangwen rebellion. Lin Da was ordered to lead 100 people by Lin Shuangwen and given the title "general Xuanlue". Lin Da was 42 when he was executed by Lingchi. He had 6 sons, the 2 older ones died before and his 3rd son Lin dou passed away from sickness before he could be castrated in Beijing while hi's fourth and fifth sons were castrated, the 11 year old Lin Biao and 8 year old Lin Xian. However his 6th and youngest son, 7 year old Lin Mading was given away to a relative (uncle) named Lin Qin for adoption, and Lin Qin did not join the rebellion so Lin Mading was not castrated. Lin Mading had 2 children after marrying his wife in 1800 when he was 20.[139][140][141]
Descriptions of fingerprints were recorded for castrated sons of criminals and rebels,[142] but it was barely used for other eunuchs when trying to find escapee eunuchs and only a written description of the fingerprints was taken, not an actual print. Fingerprints were used in the Qing bureacracy in other instances to identify people.[143] Sometimes castrations were not fully done since an undescended testicle would not be removed and it was only found out when puberty brought out the "secondary sex characteristics". If they were found out then they would be sent back to their hometowns and out of the palace. They would still be called eunuchs.[144] In one case reviewed by the Qianlong emperor, a man was innocent of all crime but his father had murdered 6 people who were related to each other and then slept with his son's wife. Qianlong decided that the son was to be sentenced to castration, since he deserved death under Qing law because he was the son of a murderer but "commuted" his sentence to castration as a mercy because he was personally victimized when his father slept with his wife.[145] There was also a mass murder incident where a murderer injured 12 and murdered 11 unrelated people in 1791. The Qing law on mass murdering said that castration was to be done on sons of murderers who mass murdered against one family and killed 3 or more members of it, but nevertheless the Qing emperor ordered the sons of this mas murdered be castrated as well.[146] After one boy was injured severely and his three brothers were killed in Henan by a murderer surnamed Zhang who was a tenant farmer in 1788, the emperor ordered castration for the 2 sons of Zhang while a lingchi sentenced was passed for Zhang himself.[147]
The Qing passed a law that castration was the punishment for grandsons and sons of rebels by the Imperial Household Department after changing a death sentence to a castration sentence in the case of an 18 year old who was a nephew of a rebel in 1781, however despite the law being inspired by this case, nephews weren't covered in the people to be castrated in the law and only the direct sons and grandsons of the rebels were.[148] Qianlong reintroduced castration of relatives of those who murdered multiple people or rebelled. The Ming code and Tang code both do not have such a law.[149] Qianlong and the Imperial Household Department later decreed that sons of murderers who were 16 years old and older would be exiled as slaves to the frontier after castration while the sons 15 and younger would be kept as eunuchs in the Imperial palace since the younger sons could be controlled while the older sons were uncontrollable.[150] Imposing a penalty of castration upon the sons of rebels and murderers of 3 or more related people was part of a new Qing policy to ensure a supply of young boy eunuchs since the Qianlong emperor ordered young eunuchs to be shifted towards the main imperial residence in the Summer Palace. Norman A. Kutcher connected the Qing policy on obtaining young eunuchs to the observation that young boy eunuchs were prized by female members of the Qing Imperial family as attendants, noted by the British George Carter Stent in the 19th century.[151][152][153][154][155][156] Norman Kutcher noted that George Stent said young eunuchs were physically attractive and were used for "impossible to describe" duties by female imperial family members and they were considered "completely pure". Kutcher suggests the boys were used for sexual pleasure by Qing imperial women, connecting them to the boy eunuchs called "earrings" who were used for that purpose.[157][158] George Carter Stent wrote "All eunuchs are considered pure (chên, 貞 or ch'ing, 清,) but boys who are made eunuchs when under ten years of age are termed " thoroughly pure" (t'ung-chên, 通貞). These are specially prized, and are employed by the ladies of the palace with as much freedom as if they were girls; performing such offices as ought only to be done by women—some of them of a nature it would be impossible to describe here. These boy eunuchs are supposed to be free from the least licentiousness— even in thought;—in fact, they are considered to be devoid of all feeling of that kind whatever. They are commonly called "little eunuchs" (Hsiao-t'ai-chien, 小太监); as they grow up they are not allowed such freedom of intercourse, being replaced by others younger than themselves, while they are employed in such duties as do not bring them into the more private apartments of the ladies."[159][160][161][162][163] Boy eunuchs were used for intimate bathroom and bedroom duties by palace ladies.[164]
An amusement part model peasant village with a complete market street (Maimaijie) in the Summer palace was staffed by eunuch actors.[165]
Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet noted on his visit to the Qing summer palace as part of the Macartney Embassy in 1793 that there were two kinds of Chinese eunuchs, the ones who only had their testicles cut off and whose job it was to inspect and maintain buildings, gardens and other works in the palaces, and the ones who were called rasibus by Catholic missionaries there and had all their genitals including penises and testicles cut off since they served in the interior of the palace and served and attended upon the women of the Qing imperial harem and they were as coquettish as the women they served and painted their faces like them. Barrow also noted all the Chinese eunuchs there including the rasibus had their own women slaves who were the daughters of poor people they purchased them from and they used these women for sex : "Of these eunuchs there are two kinds. The one is so far emasculated as never to have the consolation of being a father; the other must submit to lose every trace of manhood. The first are entrusted with the inspection and superintendence of the buildings, gardens, and other works belonging to the im- perial palaces, which they are required to keep in order. The Rasibus^ as the missionaries call them, are admitted into the in- terior of the palace. These creatures paint their faces, study their dress, and are as coquettish as the ladies, upon whom in- deed it is their chief business to attend. The greatest favourite sleeps in the same room with the Emperor, to be ready to ad- minister to his wishes ; and in this capacity he finds number- less opportunities to prejudice his master against those for whom he may have conceived a dislike ; and instances are not wanting where the first officers in the state have been disgraced by means of these creatures....The Chinese eunuchs are addicted to all the vices that distin- guish these creatures in other countries. There is scarcely one about the palace, whether of the class of porters and sweepers, or of that which is qualified for the inner apartments, but have women in their lodgings, who are generally the daughters of poor people, from whom they are purchased, and are conse- quently considered as their slaves. It is difficult to conceive a condition in life more humiliating, or more deplorable, than that of a female slave to an eunuch ; but happily for such females, in this country the mental powers are not very active. Several of the missionaries assured me of the truth of this fact:, which indeed I have strong reasons for believing even of the rasibus. The keeper of the hall of audience once took me to his lodg- ings, but on coming to the door he desired me to wait till he had made some arrangements within ; the meaning of which was, until he had removed his lady out of the way ; nor was he in the least displeased at my hinting this to him. Being one of the favourite attendants of the ladies of the court, he was of course a black eunuch."[166][167][168][169]
Sir George Staunton, 1st Baronet explained that the term "black eunuch" did not refer to skin colour but referred to the term used in the Ottoman empire for eunuchs who had their penis cut off along with their testicles. "The officers of the household and other attendants in the Imperial palaces, are all, or most of them, persons who, before the age of puberty, were deprived of the means of becoming men, or who, since that period, have ceased being such. Nothing assuredly but the tortures of a maddening jealousy could have first suggested the idea of mutilating one sex, in order to render it an unsus- pected guard upon the other ; and nothing less than the extreme abuse of unlimited authority, could effectuate so cruel and unnatural a purpose. Other motives, however, might have come in addition to give occasion to the con- tinuance and multiplication of such beings. No longer belonging to either sex, held in horror and contempt by both, without the possibility of offspring, unendearing and unendeared, and like no brother; they may be sup- posed to be the more bound by the fiictitious tie of ser- vitude, and devoted and attached without reserve to the prince by whom they are employed. Menial servants in the beginning, and pretending to no importance, they are the ready and servile ministers to the potentate's private pleasures and amusement, and creep gradually into familiarity and favour. From thence, as the an- nals of China in numberless instances testify, they have sometimes passed into situations of power and authority, in which once placed, they revenged themselves, as if it were on mankind, for the wrongs they had suffered in ' their persons ; and were often the causes of calamities ending almost in the ruin of the state. They had been driven, with a few exceptions, on several occasions, from . the court. Near six thousand of them were dismissed in the minority of Caung-shee, grandfather of Chen-lung; but they have been gradually increasing since that pe- riod, and hold at present most of the inferior offices at least in the palaces of Pekin and Yuen-min-yuen. The qualification for such offices, consists in that ope- ration, which in a few parts of Europe, is performed for meliorating the voice, and disqualifies for being a parent. But to be entrusted with the care of the ladies of the court, or to be allowed to approach to their apartments, it is necessary to be what, without reference to colour, the Turks are said to have termed a black eunuch, which means, that all traces of sex should completely be erased. It may appear surprising to the English reader, that the operations for this purpose, however delicate in themselves, are performed, even upon Chinese of an adult age, with little accident or peril in respect to life. Such a fact is the more extraordinary, as the art of sur- gery is so little known in China, that not even letting blood by opening a vein is attempted there, and anatomy is not only unknown, but held in horror. It is, how- ever, to be remarked, that the Chinese recover from all kinds of accidents more rapidly, and after fewer symp-toms of any kind of danojer, than most people do in Eu-rope. The constant and quick recovery from consider-able and alarming wounds, has been observed likewise to take place among the natives of Hindostan. The Euro- pean surgeons there, have often been surprised at the easy cure of sepoys in the English service, from accidents ac- counted extremely formidable. The clear and pure atmo- sphere of China and India, maybe indeed more favourable on such occasions, than the ccelum nebulis fadum of Taci- tus's description of Great Britain. But the habits of life contribute no doubt, most to determine the nature of the constitution ; and its propensity to inflame and mortify in consequence, as it is technically expressed of any solution of continuity. The Chinese and Hindoos arc not generally prone to excesses of any kind. The Hin- doos of the lowest and most numerous cast, are not re- stricted from eating any kind of meat, excepting beef; but they and the Chinese consume a much smaller pro- portion of animal food, and drink a much less quantity of spirituous and fermented liquors than the people, at least, of northern Europe."[170][171]
During the Qing, Chinese eunuchs who were fully castrated with their penises removed had to resort to either dildos, oral sex or foreplay to satisfy women during sex. Qing era writer Liang Zhangju (梁章鉅) (1775--1849) wrote in his sketches "Wandering Talk" (浪跡叢談浪跡叢談) that when palace eunuchs performed oral sex on the women and caressed them with their hands until the women were sexually satisfied and sweating. ("“閹人近女,每喜手撫口囓,緊張移時,至汗出即止。蓋性慾至此已發洩淨盡,亦變態也。”")[172][173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186]
Chinese eunuchs used dildos and hormone therapy to have a "dry-run orgasm with diminished sensation", and they could "to reduce the effects of castration" especially if they were past puberty when castrated. Eunuchs still had sexual urges after castration as well as libido. The eunuchs were sexually "frustrated". The eunuch Zhang Delang engaged in sexual acts with a prostitute in Tianjin's Japanese concession where he lived after the fall of the Qing and he also married three women. Another eunuch who worked for him, Yu Chunhe said he was "burning with fever and desire" as he watched the prostitute and Zhang. The Qing court and the eunuchs themselves considered eunuchs as male, not as female or a third sex.[187] The prostitute's body was kissed all over by Zhang Lande has he lifted her and "threw himself on her like a wolf".[188] It was also reported that the eunuch Xiao Dezhang (Hsiao Teh-chang) (Zhang Lande) was suggested by Cixi (Tsu-hsi) as a sexual partner for the Longyu empress (Lung-yu) since the Guangxi emperor (Kuang Hsu) suffered from impotence.[189] Zhang Lande (張蘭德) had the building later known as Qingwangfu (Prince Qing’s Mansion) in Tianjin built for himself before Zaizhen, Prince Qing bought it from him.[190][191][192][193][194]
The Manchu palace maid Ronger (榮兒) (born 1880) came from the Manchu Hešeri (赫舍里) clan. She later adopted the surname He (何) and became known as "He Rong'er". When Ronger turned 18 and retired as a palace maid, the Qing Dowager Empress Cixi married Ronger off to a Han Chinese eunuch surnamed Liu as a present to her. Liu was an adopted son of the eunuch Li Lianying. Ronger recounted in her memoir that the Qing court rules were that all eunuchs must be Han Chinese not from the Eight banners, while all palace maids must be Manchu bannerwomen from the three upper banners of the Eight Banners and Han Chinese girls were forbidden to become palace maids.[195][196][197][198][199][200][201][202][203][204][205][206][207][208] For 8 years Cixi had Ronger serving her as maid and Cixi gave her the name Ronger. She was 13 when she was recruited at palace maid during mandatory recruitment drives from the banners. She wrote the book "The Memoirs of a Palace Maid" about her life.[209]
When George N. Kates lived in Beijing in the 1930's, he lived in a dwelling he rented from a eunuch and his wife, who were given the abode by the Empress Dowager as a gift[210] and the eunuch's wife was a former handmaiden to the Empress Dowager.[211] During the Great Leap Forward the malnutrition caused the wife of the eunuch to pass away.[212][213]
Sexual relations and marriage between eunuchs and palace maids were referred to as "Duishi" (對食) or "Caihu" (菜戶).[214]
A yellow bag with bamboo sticks was kept in the Forbidden City and Empress Dowager Cixi once ordered the palace servant girls and court ladies to beat the eunuchs with them.[215] Eunuchs would be punished even more unless they begged their mistress or master for mercy when they were being beaten for infractions and rule breaking.[216] There was a difference between eunuchs who served the inner court of the palace and the outer court of the palace. There were fewer rules and restrictions on outer court eunuchs and they dwelled outside the palace and received less salary. They were the musicians, actors, taking care of the tombs and served as the Imperial Household Department's zongguan and maintained temples, altars, parks and gardens, belonging to 5 different sections. They were subject to the Jingshifang and did mostly menial work. The eunuchs of the inner court were higher in rank and received more salary. Out of the total eunuch population, one fifth to one fourth were from the inner court and they numbered 400 to 500. The inner court eunuchs were of 5 categories, those in the general service, those who serves princesses and princes, those who served the dowager empress, those who served the concubines and empress, and hose who served the emperor.[217]
When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源) in Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the rebel leaders were also enslaved.[218][219][220][221] Among the Muslim boys were Ma Sanhe (马三和), Ma Qishizi (马七十子), Ma Shaqiang (马沙枪), Ma Suo (马锁), Ma Youzong (马由宗), Ma Feifei (马飞飞), Ma Wushijiu (马五十九), Ma Wushiliu (马五十六).[222][223] Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated.[224][225] The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan (马侦源), Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan's (马桂源) wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed.[226][227] Ma Yulong (马玉龙) was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe (马三和) and Ma Jibang (继邦). Ma Dingbang (马定邦) was the father of Ma Qishi (马七十), Ma Shaba (马沙把), Ma Suo (马锁) and Ma Youzong (;马由宗). Ma Chenglong (马成龙) was the father of Ma Feifei (马飞). Their sons were all sentenced to castration.[228][229][230][231][232][233] The Muslim rebels themselves were subjected to execution by lingchi (slow slicing) while their sons were castrated and their female relatives enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons.[234] The children of the Muslim rebels who were under ten included 6 year old Ga Liu (尕六), 8 year old Ga Quan (尕全) and Ma Xier (马希儿) who were imprisoned until they reached 11 and then castrated by the Imperial Household Department.[235]
The sons and grandsons of the Central Asian Muslim conqueror, Yaqub Beg, in China were all castrated. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included 4 sons, 4 grandchildren (2 grandsons and 2 granddaughters), and 4 wives. They either mostly died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed. However, his sons, Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson, Aisan Ahung, were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their fathers' crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serve as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old. They were handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[236][237][238] In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out; Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace.[239] Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju (爱散阿洪俱), Kadihuli (卡底胡里) and 10 year old Imahuli (依玛胡里).[240]
A man in Shaanxi had his penis cut off by his daughter in law, surnamed Xie during the Qing dynasty[241]
In 1872 boy named Liu Ch'ang-yu from Henan was taken by the Imperial Household Department for castration when he grew of age to be enslaved as a eunuch in a princely establishment since his father had murdered several relatives, the Peking Gazette reported : "(5) Li Ho-nien, Governor of Ho-nan, reports the murder of three persons in one family, and requests permission for the summary execution of those who had conspired to murder them. The murderers and their victims have the same family name, Liu, and in fact were related, but not within the degrees of mourning. The origin of the murder was as follows: Liu Yun-ni's burial ground was adjacent to that belonging to Liu Ch'iao, and, on the death of his father, he requested the latter to allow him a foot of land in his cemetery, since there not room for the whole of the grave in his own. Permission was obtained through the good offices of a kinsman, Liu Ku1o-t'ai, and a deed drawn up in witness. But after the interment, Liu Ch'iao and his nephew, Lin Fèng-mei, objected, and appealed to the District Magistrate. He advised the parties to settle it amicably, but as they would not, he finally ordered Liu Yun-ni to select a day for the disinterment of the corpse and its burial elsewhere. Yun-ni, however; continued to put off disinterring it, begging for time, until at last Ch'iao declared that if he did not do so by a certain date, he would dig up the corpse himself and throw the coffin away. Yun-ui then said he would come ou that evening and disinter it, but on his way home revengeful feelings at the pressure brought to bear on him took such possession of him that he determined to murder Ch'iao and his nephew, Fêng mei. He accordingly communicated his design to his uncle, Yuan-shih, and his brother Sŭ-ni, and two of his kinsmen, Chóun Ch'êng and San Ni, and by aryuments or threats induced them to assist him. About 10 o'clock on the night a reed upon, they went to the cemetery, where, as they well knew, Ch'iao and Fêng Mei would be waiting to see that the body was disinterred. Some of the conspirators were provided with weapons, others had none. Yuan Shih first felled Fêng Mei with an iron shovel, and then, as he lay on the ground, Yun Ni struck his head off with an adze. Ch'iao fled, but Yuan Shih overtook him, and hewing at his legs with the spade brought him down, and then while Chiunch'eng and San-ni held his hands and feet, Yun-ni cut his throat with the adze. The murder finished, Yun-ni proposed that they should complete their work by killing Fêng-mei's infant son Shuan-lao, and thus leave their victims without offspring. Accordingly they went to the murdered man's house, and when Fêng-mei's mother came to the door with the child in her arms, Yun ni snatched him away and flinging him to the ground, hacked at him with an axe till he was dead. He then wounded the child's mother and grandmother with the axe, but they managed to get away and shut the door. Their cries brought K110-t'ai, [the kinsman who had acted as arbitrator] to the house, and he went to the burial-ground where he discovered the bodies. Yun Ni and Yuan Shih gave themselves up; Ch'un Ch'êng is still at large. The first was sentenced to be put to death by slicing, as guilty in the first degree of the murder of three persons of the same family, (Ch'iao being reckoned as of one family with his nephew and grand-nephew), and his head to be exposed on the scene of his crime. His wife will be sent to the nearest military convict station ; his son, Ch‘ang Yu, who is still of tender age, will be handed over to the Court of the Imperial Household to be castrated when of sufficient age, after which he will be assigned to some princely establishment as a eunuch. Yin Ni's daughter is already betrothed : she will therefore be handed over to the family of her future husband, and no further proceedinys taken against her : The rest of the criminals will, as accessories, be beheaded."[242]
After the execution of anti-Qing revolutionary Xu Xilin (Hsü Hsi-lin) in 1907, his family including his son Xu Xuewen (徐學文) (1906-1991) were arrested by the Qing. Under Qing law, his son under the age of 16 was supposed to be castrated to become a eunuch and serve in the Qing palace.[243] The Qing was overthrown in 1912 and the castration was not carried out. Xu Xuewen later married a German woman, Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan (徐曼麗) (1915-2003).[244][245] They had a daughter together named Xu Naijin (徐乃錦) (Nancy Zi) (1937-August 20, 2005) who married Chiang Hsiao-wen the son of the Republic of China President Chiang Ching-kuo and his wife, a Belarussian woman Chiang Fang-liang (Faina Ipat'evna Vakhreva).[246][247][248]
Empress Dowager Longyu wanted the imperial palace to have the right to make more eunuchs during the negotiations for abdication of the Qing in 1912 in the Articles of Favourable Treatment but she was forced to concede her demand.[249][250]
After the revolution of 1911–12 that toppled the Qing, the last emperor, Puyi, continued to live in the Forbidden City with his eunuchs as if the revolution had never happened while receiving financial support from the new Chinese republic until 1924 when the former Emperor and his entourage were expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord General Feng Yuxiang. In 1923, after a case of arson that Puyi believed was started to cover the theft of his Imperial treasures, Puyi expelled all of the eunuchs from the Forbidden City.[125]
Notable Chinese eunuchs
First millennium BC
- Zhao Gao: favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC).
- Sima Qian (old romanization Ssu-ma Chi'en; 2nd/1st century BC): the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources to write his monumental history of the Chinese Empire.
First millennium AD
- Cai Lun (old romanization Ts'ai Lun; 1st/2nd century AD): Former attribution to Lun as the inventor of paper has been rescinded following discovery of many earlier manuscripts written on paper. It is now highly questionable if he was directly involved in making paper.
Second millennium AD
- Jia Xian (c. 1010 – c. 1070): Chinese mathematician; invented the Jia Xian triangle for the calculation of square roots and cube roots.
- Zheng He (1371–1433): famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean.
- Huang Hao: eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
- Cen Hun: eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period.
- Gao Lishi: a loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong.
- Li Fuguo: Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule.
- Yu Chao'en: Tang eunuch who began his career as army supervisor.
- Wang Zhen: first Ming eunuch with much power; see Tumu Crisis.
- Gang Bing: patron saint of eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to the Yongle Emperor.
- Yishiha: admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors.
- Liu Jin: corrupt eunuch official of the Ming dynasty and de facto emperor, member of the Eight Tigers.
- Wei Zhongxian: eunuch of the Ming dynasty, considered the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history.
- Wu Rui: a Chinese eunuch in Lê Dynasty Annam (Vietnam).
- Li Lianying: a despotic eunuch of the Qing dynasty.
- Xin Xiuming (1878–1959): Entered Emperor Puyi's service in 1902; left palace service in 1911; became abbot of the Taoist temple at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery by 1930; wrote memoir Eunuch's Recollection (老太监的回忆).
- Sun Yaoting (1902–1996): last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history.
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- ^ "The eunuch institutions and responsibilities of the eunuchs in the Jin Dynasty. Why did the eunuchs have no monopoly in the Jin Yi Dynasty?". DayDayNews. 2019-10-09.
- ^ "金朝宦官機構及宦官的職責,有金一朝為何沒有出現宦官專權現象". 天天要聞. 2019年10月09日.
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- ^ "金朝宦官机构及宦官的职责,有金一朝为何没有出现宦官专权现象". 网易. 青竹探花. 2019-09-19.
- ^ "金朝后宫一样龌龊:金章宗的元妃李师儿之死是冤还是不冤?". 2017-12-31.
- ^ "正说李师儿:罪犯女强盗妹与六宫之主,金朝最励志宠妃的逆袭路". 163.com. 猴格大人. 2020-03-09.
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故在康熙朝后规定:宦官归内务府管辖,具体由敬事房管理。敬事房亦称宫殿监办处, ... 就阉割净了身,李莲英就是 8 岁净身,9 岁进宫的。民国初年,一个 13 岁的小太监马德清就被送进了溥仪的逊清皇室小朝廷当差。说到净身,清光绪年间,北京有专门干这种营生的, ...
- ^ Chuang, Chi-fa (2002). "Review of Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China. The Formation of a Tradition by David Ownby". T’oung Pao. 88 (1/3). Brill: 196.
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- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 169. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ Dale, Melissa S. (2018). Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 34, 35. ISBN 9888455753. Archived from the original on 2019.
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(help) - ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 275, 169. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 231. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ 陈, 孔立. "1815 年台湾籍太监林表之死". 25 周年学术研讨会论文. 厦门大学台湾研究院: 1, 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015.
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(help) - ^ 林, 育德 (2014-06-05). 一個臺灣太監之死:清代男童集體閹割事件簿. 啟動文化. Archived from the original on 2016.
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(help) - ^ Han Cheung, Cheung (Apr 17, 2016). "Taiwan in Time: Rebels of heaven and earth". Taipei Times. p. 12.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 277. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 178. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 20. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ WALEY-COHEN, JOANNA (2015). "5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law". In Turner, Karen G.; Feinerman, James V.; Guy, R. Kent (eds.). The Limits of the Rule of Law in China. Asian Law Series (reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 124, 125. ISBN 0295803894.
- ^ Martini, Remo (2009). Studi in onore di Remo Martini. Vol. 2 (reprint ed.). Giuffrè Editore. p. 552. ISBN 8814145490.
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- ^ Martini, Remo (2009). Studi in onore di Remo Martini. Vol. 2 (reprint ed.). Giuffrè Editore. p. 548. ISBN 8814145490.
- ^ WALEY-COHEN, JOANNA (2015). "5 / Collective Responsibility in Qing Criminal Law". In Turner, Karen G.; Feinerman, James V.; Guy, R. Kent (eds.). The Limits of the Rule of Law in China. Asian Law Series (reprint ed.). University of Washington Press. p. 119. ISBN 0295803894.
- ^ MacCormack, Geoffrey (1996). The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Law. Spirit of the laws. University of Georgia Press. p. 207. ISBN 0820317225.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2010). "Unspoken Collusions: The Empowerment of Yuanming Yuan Eunuchs in the Qianlong Period". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 70 (2). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 472, 473.
- ^ 柯, 启玄 (2017-02-22). "乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响". 中国人民大学清史研究所.
- ^ 简, 体版 (2018-05-07). "清代皇家园林研究通讯 发布时间:". 中华文史网-清史百科.
- ^ 柯, 启玄 (2017-02-22). "乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响". 官方网站hg622.com.
- ^ 柯, 启玄 (2017-02-22). "乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响". 赌博网址: 手机赌博网站.
- ^ 柯, 启玄 (2018-05-07). "乾隆朝太监的短缺及其影响". 中华文史网. 清代皇家园林研究通讯.
- ^ Kutcher, Norman A. (2018). Eunuch and Emperor in the Great Age of Qing Rule (reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 12. ISBN 0520969847.
- ^ 清人查慎行 (Zha Shenxing)《人海记》记载:明末崇祯皇帝的宠妃田贵妃利用宦官与宫女淫戏之
- ^ Stent, George Carter (1877). "Chinese Eunuchs". Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. New Series (11). Shanghai: North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: 177.
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- ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai (1877). Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Kelly & Walsh. p. 177.
- ^ Dale, Melissa S. (2018). Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 67. ISBN 9888455753. Archived from the original on 2019.
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(help) - ^ Doran, Christine (September 2010). "Chinese Palace Eunuchs: Shadows of the Emperor" (PDF). Nebula7.3.
- ^ Anderson, Mary M. (1990). Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Prometheus Books. p. 308. ISBN 0879755741.
- ^ Ringmar, Erik (2013). "Liberal Barbarism". Cultural Sociology. Part of the Cultural Sociology book series (CULTSOC). Palgrave Macmillan: 45, 46. doi:10.1057/9781137031600_3. Archived from the original on 2019.
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(help) - ^ Barrow, John (1804). Travels in China, containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton. T. Cadell and W. Davies. p. 230, 231, 232.
- ^ Zheng, Yangwen (2005). The Social Life of Opium in China. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 1139446177.
- ^ Proudfoot, William Jardine (1861). "Barrow's Travels in China." An investigation into the origin and authenticity of the "facts and observations" related in a work entitled "Travels in China, by John Barrow, F.R.S." (afterwards Sir J. Barrow Bart.) Proceded by a preliminary inquiry into the nature of the "powerful motive" of the same author, and its influence on his duties at the Chinese capital, as comptroller to the British Embassy, in 1793. G. Philip. p. 28, 29.
- ^ Barrow, John, Sir, 1764-1848 (1805). Travels in China, containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the imperial palace of Yuen-min-yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton. Philadelphia: Printed and sold by W.F. M'Laughlin, no. 28 North second-street. p. 90, 91.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Staunton, George; Macartney, George; Gower, Erasmus (1797). An authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China : including cursory observations made, and information obtained in travelling through that ancient empire, and a small part of Chinese Tartary ; together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on the occasion of His Majesty's ship the Lion, and the ship Hindostan, in the East India company's service, to the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pekin, as well as of their return to Europe ; taken chiefly from the papers of His Excellency the Earl of Macartney, Sir Erasmus Gower, and of other gentlemen in the several departments of the embassy. G. Nicol. p. 313, 314, 315.
- ^ Peyrefitte, Alain (2013). The Immobile Empire (illustrated, reprint ed.). Vintage Books. p. 260, 261. ISBN 0345803957.
- ^ "古代太监如何玩妃子和妃子发生关系吗,揭秘妃子与太监的真实生活". www.ttjiemeng.net. 星座解梦网. 2017-08-24.
- ^ 《伴随》编辑部编著 (2014). 历史的疤痕. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7531731886.
清人笔记《浪迹丛谈》云:"阉人近女,每喜手抚口啮,紧张移时,至汗出即止。盖性欲至此已发泄净尽,亦变态也。"明嘉靖年间田艺蘅认为,太监"虽去其势,男性犹在,必须近妇女乃安夜也",他举太监侯玉为例。侯玉有不少妻妾,而且个个年轻貌美。
- ^ 刘, 达临; 胡, 宏霞 (2007). 中国性文化史. 东方出版中心. p. 198. ISBN 7801866932.
"阉人近女,每喜手抚口喷,紧张移时,至汗出即止。盖性欲至此已发泄净尽,亦变态也。"他们的性行为,还常用"舌耕"、"具" , "舌耕"即口交, "具"即人造阴茎,这些做法盛行于宫中。如明末崇祯帝的宠妃田贵妃就曾利用宦官和宫女淫嬉一事,挑拨崇祯和周皇后的关系。
- ^ Liu 刘, Dalin 达临 (1999). 性与中国文化. 人民出版社. p. 383. ISBN 7010029059.
... 人笔记《浪迹从谈》云: "阉人近女,每喜手抚口,紧张移时,至汗出即止。盖性欲至此已发泄净尽,亦变态也。"他们的性行为,还常用"舌耕"、"狎具" , "舌耕"即口交, "具"即人造阴茎,这些做法盛行于宫中。如明末崇祯帝的宠妃田贵妃就曾利用宦官和宫女淫嬉一事, ...
- ^ 曲义伟 (2002). 中国禁史: 侍妾文化史. Vol. 3. 時代文艺出版社. p. 743. ISBN 7538716602.
清人笔记《浪迹丛谈》云: "阉人近女,每喜手抚口喷,紧张移时,至汗出即止。盖性欲至此已发泄净尽,亦变态也。"他们的性行为,还常用"舌耕"、"具"、"舌耕"即口交, "具"即人造阴茎,这些做法盛行于宫中。如明末崇祯帝的宠妃田贵妃就曾利用宦官和宫女淫嬉一事, ...
- ^ 丁, 小二 (2011). 小妖精时代. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7506357194.
... 双目无神,虚汗淋漓,最后语无伦次劝告泡妞者:泡妞有风险,上床须谨慎,切肤之痛啊。有人不懂,问他:你说的切肤之痛,是宫外孕手术吗?据说,蒋发行俨然当年蒋光头,坚持新生活,坚持不近女色,守身如玉,刀枪不入,不但光棍,而且和尚,而且太监,几乎一个阉人了。
- ^ 金, 易; 沈, 義羚 (1991). 宮女談往錄. 紫禁城出版社. ISBN 7800470555.
本书以叶赫那拉氏晚年生活为中心,对于慈禧的日常起居、燕游,以至于吃喝拉睡等,都作了叙述。
- ^ 唐, 魯孫 (2020). 天下味(新版). 大地出版社. ISBN 9864023330.
【暢銷數十年,全新改版】 歷史學者、美食評論家逯耀東先生作序推薦 本書蒐羅了作者對故都北平的懷念之作,除了清宮建築、宮廷生活、宮廷飲食介紹外,對平民生活的詳盡描述 ...
- ^ 新华通讯社 (1990). 环球, Issue 121; Issues 125-135; Issues 137-140. 新华出版社. p. 38.
《全书》接着还列了"阉人歌手"词条: "在青春期以前割过的男性女高音或男性女低音歌唱者,音域宽广、灵活、有力。 ... 还有不少同义词,例如净身(去除了性器官这个"不洁之物)、私白(无隐私血清白)、寺人(与和尚同类,不近女色)、宫人(受过宫刑之人)、腐 ...
- ^ 蒲, 松龄 (2016). 聊斋志异(注释本) (reprint ed.). Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7540337575.
见女啼泪未干,惊曰:"合卺之夕,悲啼不伦,将勿郎君粗暴耶?"女不言,益悲。妇欲捋衣视生,一振衣,书落榻上。妇取视,骇曰:"我女笔意也!"拆读叹咤。女问之。妇云:"是三姐家报,言吴郎已死,茕无所依,且为奈何? ... 没奔椓(zhuó)人(即阉人,旧以称宦官。椓,宫刑。) ...
- ^ 王, 伟; 高, 玉兰 (1991). 性爱的报告: 马克思主义两性观. 吉林人民出版社. p. 91. ISBN 7206011705.
女的奴隶地位。为此,倍倍尔对宗教所宣扬的两性观进行了猛烈的抨击。书中写道:我们现在要问,圣经和基督教对于妇女与婚姻如何说法? ... 因为有生来是阉人,也有被人阉的,并有为天国的缘故自阉的。 ... 在《哥林多书》中写着: "我说男不近女倒好。
- ^ "古代宦官泄欲三方法:歌妓,宫女,掠他人妻!". 风吹袜子飘. 03-09.
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(help) - ^ "古代宦官与宫女偷欢 性爱借助狎具(5)". 未解之谜. 2015-06-05.
- ^ "揭秘:古代的太监是如何伺候嫔妃". 中国历史 > 历史百科. 2017-02-07.
- ^ macai (2017-06-24). "揭秘太监和宫女的爱与性!". 灵异岛.
- ^ Dale, Melissa S. (2018). Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 61. ISBN 9888455753. Archived from the original on 2019.
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(help) - ^ Shi, Dan (1991). Shi, Dan (ed.). Mémoires d'un eunuque dans la Cité Interdite. Translated by Nadine Perront. Ph. Picquier. p. 186. ISBN 2877300986.
- Ca ne vous plait pas, demanda-l'ene d'une petite voix boudeuse.Pour toute reponse, Zhang Lande se jeta sur elle comme un loup ; il la souleva dans ses bras, puis en l'embarassant sur tout le corps, il alla s'asseoir sur le bord...petits gemissements qui me lacererent l'echine de decahrges electriques. moncorps etait comme paralyse ; paralyse et douloureaux. j'avais la sensation d'etre ecorche vif ; le contact de mas vetements semblait electriser mes nerfs affoles. J'étais brûlant de fièvre et de désir. J'enten
- ^ Anderson, Mary M. (1990). Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Prometheus Books. p. 294. ISBN 0879755741.
- ^ "About Qingwangfu". qingwangfu.
- ^ "Shan Yi Li Boutique Hotel". Tripadvisor.
- ^ Xu, Lin (July 6, 2016). "Top 20 fabulously wealthy people in ancient China". China.org.cn.
- ^ Dale, Melissa S. (January 2017). "Running Away from the Palace: Chinese Eunuchs during the Qing Dynasty". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 27 (1). Published online by Cambridge University Press: 43 - 164. doi:10.1017/S135618631600047X.
- ^ Chiang, Howard. "How China Became a "Castrated Civilization" and Eunuchs a "Third Sex"". Transgender China.
- ^ "她是慈禧貼身侍女、18歲嫁太監、30歲被日本人趕出家門、晚年悽慘". 每日頭條. 2017-09-14.
- ^ "慈禧貼身宮女何榮兒 伺候八年 從未吃過一頓飽飯". 每日頭條. 2018-05-12.
- ^ "歷史的棄兒1——慈禧貼身宮女榮兒傳(十三歲入宮)". 每日頭條. 2016-08-20.
- ^ "追书帮-乡村小说,乡村女教师,好看的小说在线阅读".
- ^ "他不仅有聪明的才智,但他在后宫的那些事,你们肯定不知道吧?". www.sohu.com. 2018-10-19.
- ^ 金, 易; 沈, 义玲 (March 2005). 宫女谈往录. 紫禁城出版社. ISBN 9787800470554.
- ^ 金, 易 (2013-05-06). "清朝内廷规矩:太监用汉人 宫女必须是旗人". www.chinawriter.com.cn.
- ^ 史, 海观 (2017-09-14). "她是慈禧贴身侍女、18岁嫁太监、后被日本人赶出家门".
- ^ 半, 床诗 (2017-09-02). "历史的弃儿:侍女荣儿,带你触摸慈禧最隐秘的历史细节01". 简书- 创作你的创作.
- ^ "慈禧为何将身边宫女指给一名太监 竟有这些考量". China Times. 2016-03-04.
- ^ "慈禧贴身宫女何荣儿 伺候八年 从未吃过一顿饱饭". 历史万年历. 2018-05-12.
- ^ 01:45慈禧贴身宫女何荣儿揭秘太后如何保养,起床要喝新鲜的母乳和牛奶. 2018-02-26.
- ^ 慈禧贴身宫女何荣儿揭秘太后如何保养,起床要喝新鲜的母乳和牛奶.
- ^ "宫女回忆录:慈禧太后处死珍妃前,有何反常举动?". 2017-04-08.
- ^ Hsieh, Bao Hua (2014). Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China. Lexington Books. p. 236. ISBN 0739145169.
- ^ Bordewich, Fergus M. (1991). Cathay: a journey in search of old China. The Destinations Bks (illustrated ed.). Prentice Hall Press. p. xxiv. ISBN 0132021366.
- ^ Bordewich, Fergus M. (1991). Cathay: a journey in search of old China. The Destinations Bks (illustrated ed.). Prentice Hall Press. p. 290. ISBN 0132021366.
- ^ Bordewich, Fergus M. (1991). Cathay: a journey in search of old China. The Destinations Bks (illustrated ed.). Prentice Hall Press. p. 292. ISBN 0132021366.
- ^ Kates, George N (1952). The Years That Were Fat Peking 1933 1940. Harper & Brothers Publishers.
- ^ Hsieh, Bao Hua (2014). Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China. Lexington Books. p. 199. ISBN 0739145169.
- ^ Princess Der Ling (1911). Two Years in The Forbidden City. Moffat, Yard. p. 116, 117.
- ^ Hsieh, Bao Hua (2014). Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China. Lexington Books. p. 212. ISBN 0739145169.
- ^ Dale, Melissa S. (2018). Inside the World of the Eunuch: A Social History of the Emperor’s Servants in Qing China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 78. ISBN 9888455753. Archived from the original on 2019.
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: Check date values in:|archive-date=
(help) - ^ (清)左, 宗棠 (2009). 左宗棠全集 五. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7999010804.
(清)左宗棠. 兹据布政使崇保、按察使杨重雅、署兰州道捧武会详:司道等遵即督同兰州府铁珊提讯该逆马桂源之妻马马氏,马本源之妻马王氏, ... 均解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处,给官兵为奴;如年在十岁以下者,牢固监禁,俟年届十一岁时,再行解交内务府照例办理; ...
- ^ (清)左, 宗棠 (2009). 左宗棠全集 七. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7999010820.
(清)左宗棠. 逼勉从,情尚可原。当饬传各该家属具领择配完聚。引上胡里之子年三岁,染患惊疯病症,医治无效,于上年三月二十四日在监身死。 ... 内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴;如年在十岁以下者,牢固监禁,俟年届十一岁时,再行解交内务府照例办理,等语。
- ^ (清)左, 宗棠 (2009). 左宗棠全集 一二. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 799901088X.
(清)左宗棠. 上年胪举四君子之疏,得邀俞允。史馆立传,应行知亲属将仕履存殁年月一切详明开示,以凭咨送。现惟王子寿世兄由本籍呈明申送来营,此外,寂无一字见复, ... 迨至十一岁,照例解交内务府阉割,将焉置此?如虑加刑无定例可援,则绝乳听其自毙,乃是正办, ...
- ^ 左, 宗棠 (1979). 左文襄公(宗棠)全集 (reprint ed.). 文海出版社. p. 71.
左宗棠, 楊書霖, 張亮基, 駱秉章. 御! 1 ?所冇錄抚南將? ?軍一一品顶带莂噢斓楚布政使近錢^餌,將^ 1 :难^ ^间餘^玖抆階州 I ! ^ ! ... 谷询有 1 #未除钓總兵觫家 81 ^ ^馬步分途拽脚 21 月十三日錄家一知戒胜涵任家莊山顶有赋筑 81 逑改講邾步圃 ...
- ^ 左, 宗棠 (1987). 左宗棠全集: 奏稿. Vol. 5. 岳麓书社. p. 42. ISBN 7805200726.
奏稿 左宗棠. 之犯,其子讯明实系不知谋逆情事者,无论已未成丁,均解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴例,解交内务府照例办理。马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙枪、马七十子、马三和,俱年在十岁以下,应照例牢固监禁,侯年十一岁时, ...
- ^ 左, 宗棠 (1987). 左宗棠全集: 奏稿. Vol. 5. 岳麓书社. p. 42. ISBN 7805200726.
之犯,其子讯明实系不知谋逆情事者,无论已未成丁,均解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴例,解交内务府照例办理。马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙枪、马七十子、马三和,俱年在十岁以下,应照例牢固监禁,侯年十一岁时,再行解交内务府照例 ...
- ^ Compiled by 王子华, 姚继德; 云南省少数民族古籍整理出版规划办公室 (2004). 云南回族人物碑传精选, Volume 1. 云南民族出版社. p. 417. ISBN 7536729790.
光绪十五年( 1889 年)十二月二十九日归真,时年 25 岁。马进城押解北京施行阉割酷刑后,不久几年他的弟弟马进西又从西安监狱押上北京大道施行阉割。马元章召集老何爷、杨云 鹤等吩咐说: "十三太爷三百余 《左宗棠全集》册七,同治十年十二月十二日。
- ^ Compiled by 王子华, 姚继德; 云南省少数民族古籍整理出版规划办公室 (2004). 云南回族人物碑传精选, Volume 1. 云南民族出版社. p. 417. ISBN 7536729790.
... 均交内务府陶割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴例,交内务府办理。马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子、马三和,俱年在十岁以下,应照例牢固监禁,侯年十一岁时再解交內务府照例办理。"光绪初年,监禁在西安的马化龙的孙子马进城(即马五 ...
- ^ 青海省地方志编纂委员会 (1993). 青海省志: 审判志. Vol. 55. 青海人民出版社. p. 129.
据左宗棠关于《叛逆马本源等讯明正法》的奏报称: "马桂源兄弟眷属解省,当即发交司道监禁会讯. ... 马桂源之妻马马氏,马本源之妻马王氏,马侦源之妻马马氏及犯妾马马氏、发各省驻防给官员兵丁为奴,马桂源子九个(年 12 岁)即行解交内务府阉割发往新疆等处给 ...
- ^ 张, 振佩 (1993). 左宗棠传. 海南国际新闻出版中心. p. 41. ISBN 780609072X.
而穷追汪海洋于南海,消灭洪、扬残余,结束太平军事,更是左氏一人之功。西抢的剿平,既是左、李二氏之功;闽、越的债事,则是张佩一人之责。治河导准,已开现在水利的嗜矢;首创船政,更为建立海军的始基。左宗棠 40 岁前,还是一个小城市里的穷教师。40 岁后的 30 ...
- ^ Compiled by 白寿彝; 杨怀中, 白崇人 (2000). 回族人物志, Volume 1. 宁夏人民出版社. p. 1578, 1579. ISBN 7227020061.
Page 1578 这时甘肃回民起义失败,金积堡于同治九年底被左宗棠攻陷,翌年正月十三日马化龙父子、亲属及起义骨干一千八百余人全被杀害,劫后子遗的老弱贬遣固原山区;十一年初,太子寺战役获胜后 ... 犯的男孩到十二岁要承受阉割酷刑,他们所犯的是他们祖辈们的死罪。左宗 ... Page 1579 飞系马成龙之子;马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子系马定邦之子;马继邦、马三和系马玉龙之子,均未成丁,讯明不知谋逆情事, ... 马进城押解北京施行阉割酷刑后,不久几年他的弟 弟马进西又从西安监狱押上北京大道 0 《左宗棠全集》册七,同治十年十二月十二日。
- ^ Compiled by 白寿彝; 杨怀中, 白崇人 (2000). 回族人物志, Volume 1. 宁夏人民出版社. p. 1578, 1579. ISBN 7227020061.
马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子、马三和,俱年在十岁以下,应照例牢固监禁,侯年十一岁时再解交内务府照例办理。"光绪初年,监禁在西安的马化龙的孙子马进城(即马五十六)将押赴北京内务府施行阉割。马元章派杨云鹤等人潜行囚车 ...
- ^ 宁夏审判志编纂委员会 (1998). 宁夏审判志. 宁夏人民出版社. p. 94, 95.
Page 94 左宗棠曾向朝廷上奏: '抚局'名为官抚回,实则回制官" ,为此,清政府决定实行先"抚"后"剿"的政策,于 1866 年 9 月任命左宗棠为 ... 交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴例" ,解交内务府照例办理,其中马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马 ... Page 95 1872 年 6 月经左宗棠奏准清政府,将马万选之子老哇子(一岁)、孙二虎子(一岁)、三虎子(一岁) ,纳万元之子古哇子(六岁)、勒芝子〈一岁)依照"叛逆子孙不知谋逆情事律" ,决定监禁至年满十一岁时解交内务府办理〈阉割后发往边疆给官兵为奴)。
- ^ 宁夏审判志编纂委员会 (1998). 宁夏审判志. 宁夏人民出版社. p. 94, 95.
... 无论已未成丁均交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴例" ,解交内务府照例办理,其中马五十六、马五十九、马飞飞、马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子、马三和等因年龄在十岁以下,予以牢固监禁,待年满十一岁时再行解交内务府照例办理。对马化凤、马阿 ...
- ^ ʻ̆£̄ø̄ơ̇ð̇ʹ̄̄ỡơ̇ð̇ (1989). Gansu Sheng zhi, Volume 7. ̇̈̇̄, ̇̈̇̄ʻ̆£̄ø̄ơ̇ð̇ʹ̄̄ỡơ̇ð̇. ̇̈ð̃ðʻ̆̄ð ̇ Þ̇. p. 39.
公元 1863 年(同治二年)四月,甘肃平凉、肃州等地回民群起响应陕西渭南回民起义,在金积堡大阿马化隆等人领导下,与清军抗争九年之久。 ... 宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子、马玉隆之子马继邦、马三和等未成年男丁,解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴。
- ^ 甘肃省志: 审判志. 第七卷, Volume 7. Compiled by 甘肃省地方史志编纂委员会, 甘肃省审判志编纂委员会. 甘肃文化出版社. 1995. p. 39. ISBN 7806081720.
公元 1863 年(同治二年)四月,甘肃平凉、肃州等地回民群起响应陕西渭南回民起义,在金积堡大阿马化隆等人领导下, ... 马定邦之子马由宗、马锁、马沙把、马七十子、马玉隆之子马继邦、马三和等未成年男丁,解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处给官兵为奴。
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ (清)左, 宗棠 (2009). 左宗棠全集 五. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7999010804.
查例载反逆案内,律应问拟凌迟之犯,其子讯明实系不知逆谋情事者,无论已未成丁,均解交内务府阉割,发往新疆等处,给官兵为奴;如年在十岁以下者,牢固监禁,俟年届十一岁时,再行解交内务府照例办理;缘坐妇女发各省驻防,给官员兵丁为奴。各等语。此案马格系马桂源 ...
- ^ 青海省地方志编纂委员会 (1993). 青海省志: 审判志. Vol. 55. 青海人民出版社. p. 129.
马桂源之妻马马氏,马本源之妻马王氏,马侦源之妻马马氏及犯妾马马氏、发各省驻防给官员兵丁为奴,马桂源子九个(年 12 岁)即行解交内务府阉割发往新疆等处给官兵为奴,马希儿 00 岁)、尕全( 8 岁)、尕六( 6 岁)均在 10 岁以下,暂行监禁,俟 11 岁再行解交内务 ...
- ^ Translations of the Peking Gazette. 1880. p. 83. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
- ^ The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4. D. Appleton and Company. 1888. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
- ^ Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19. Appleton. 1886. p. 145. Retrieved 12 May 2011.
- ^ Peter Tompkins (1963). The eunuch and the virgin: a study of curious customs. C. N. Potter. p. 32. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- ^ (清)左, 宗棠 (2009). 左宗棠全集 七. Beijing Book Co. Inc. ISBN 7999010820.
引上胡里之子年三岁,染患惊疯病症,医治无效,于上年三月二十四日在监身死。其引上胡里一名,桀骜异常,业经刘锦棠亲讯属实, ... 依玛胡里年甫十岁,卡底胡里、爱散阿洪俱(在年)〔年在〕十岁以下,均应照例牢固监禁,俟十一岁时再行解交内务府,照例办理,等情。
- ^ Pan, Ming-te. http://www.exeas.org/resources/pdf/your-honor-handout1.pdf ""Your Honor, I am Innocent": Law and Society in Late Imperial China" (PDF). columbia.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019.
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(help) - ^ Translations of the Peking Gazette for 1882. SHANGHAI: REPRINTED FROM THE "NORTH-CHINA HERALD AND SUPREME COURT AND CONSULAR GAZETTE.". 1883. p. 12, 13.
- ^ The Japan Weekly Mail. July 27, 1907. p. 90, 91.
- ^ "徐學文". geni.com.
- ^ "Maria Henriette Margarete Bordan". geni.com.
- ^ "Nancy Zi". geni.com.
- ^ "徐锡麟的孙女,为何嫁给了蒋介石的孙子?蒋经国亲自登门提亲". 163.com. 来源: 幽默海花英. 2021-01-21.
- ^ "辛亥后人徐乃达口述历史 一个家族的百年沧桑(图)". 杭州网. 2012-04-17.
- ^ Johnston, Reginald F. (2011). https://in.booksc.eu/book/70612993/7a8fd7 Twilight in the Forbidden City. illustrated, reprint, reissue (in Cambridge Library Collection - East and South-East Asian History). Cambridge University Press. p. 222. ISBN 1108029655. Archived from the original on 2017.
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(help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ McCormick, Frederick (1913). The Flowery Republic. D. Appleton. p. 402.
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- Mary M. Anderson, Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China (Prometheus Books, 1990)
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- In Our Time: The Eunuch. Presenter: Melvyn Bragg. Interviewed Guests: Karen Radner, Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London; Shaun Tougher, Reader in Ancient History at Cardiff University; Michael Hoeckelmann, British Academy Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of History at King's College London. Producer: Thomas Morris. Broadcaster: BBC Radio 4. Date: 26 February 2015
External links
Media related to Chinese eunuchs at Wikimedia Commons
- "38 rare pictures of eunuchs during Qing Dynasty". China Underground.
- "Born Eunuchs". Well.com.
- "The Eunuch Archive". eunuch.org.