Karabinier (talk | contribs) m Non-Estonians - people without ANY citizenships - are regarded as the citizens of the USSR - a state which doesnt exist anymore yet their last citizenship is-was USSR´s |
Staberinde (talk | contribs) Undid revision 1225194028 by 50.194.156.161 (talk) Tag: Undo |
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{{short description|Country in Northern Europe}} |
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{{otheruses}} |
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{{Other uses}} |
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{{Infobox Country |
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{{redirect|Eesti|the language|Estonian language}} |
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|native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">{{lang|et|''Eesti Vabariik''}}</span> |
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{{pp-move}} |
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|conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Republic of Estonia</span> |
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{{EngvarB|date=December 2019}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} |
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| common_name = Estonia |
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{{Infobox country |
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| national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]''<br /><small>([[English language|English]]: {{lang|en|"''My Fatherland, My Happiness and Joy''"}}) |
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| conventional_long_name = Republic of Estonia |
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| common_name = Estonia |
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| native_name = {{native name|et|Eesti Vabariik}} |
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|image_map = Estonia_EU_Europe.jpg |
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| image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg |
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|map_caption = {{map_caption|location_color=dark green|region=[[Europe]]|region_color=dark grey|subregion=the [[European Union]]|subregion_color=light green|legend=Estonia_EU_Europe.jpg}} |
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| image_coat = Coat of arms of Estonia.svg |
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| capital = [[Image:Tallinn greater coatofarms.png||20px]] [[Tallinn]] |
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| symbol_width = 88px |
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| latd=59 |latm=25 |latNS=N |longd=24 |longm=45 |longEW=E |
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| national_anthem = <br/>''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]''<br>(English: "My Fatherland, My Happiness and Joy"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/national-anthem-of-the-republic-of-estonia |title=National anthem of the Republic of Estonia |website=Eesti.ee |access-date=15 April 2024}}</ref>)<br>{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:US Navy band - National anthem of Estonia.ogg|alt=sound file of Estonian national anthem]]}} |
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| largest_city = capital |
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| image_map = EU-Estonia.svg |
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| official_languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]]<sup>1</sup> |
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| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[European Union]] |subregion_color=green |legend=EU-Estonia.svg}} |
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| government_type = [[Parliamentary republic]] |
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| capital = [[Tallinn]] |
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| leader_title1 = [[President of Estonia|President]] |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|59|25|N|24|45|E|type:city}} |
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| leader_name1 = [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] |
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| largest_city = capital |
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| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] |
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| languages_type = Official language |
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| leader_name2 = [[Andrus Ansip]] ([[Estonian Reform Party|RE]]) |
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| languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]]{{efn|name=language|Including both the official standard Estonian language and the [[South Estonian]] (spoken in southeast Estonia) which encompasses the Tartu, Mulgi, [[Võro language|Võro]]<ref>https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/vro</ref> and [[Seto dialect|Seto]] [[Dialect#Dialect or language|varieties]]. There is no academic consensus on the status of South Estonian as a dialect or language.<ref>{{cite book |title=Itämerensuomalaiset kielet ja niiden päämurteet. |last=Grünthal |first=Riho|author2=Anneli Sarhimaa|year=2004 |publisher=Finno-Ugrian Society |location=Helsinki }}</ref><ref name="Sammallahti 1977">{{citation|first=Pekka|last=Sammallahti|title=Suomalaisten esihistorian kysymyksiä|year=1977|journal=Virittäjä|pages=119–136|url=http://www.kotikielenseura.fi/virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/1977_119.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Johanna|last=Laakso|contribution=The Finnic Languages|year=2014|title=The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact|editor1-first=Östen|editor1-last=Dahl|editor2-first=Maria|editor2-last=Koptjevskaja-Tamm|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|location=Amsterdam}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Karl|last=Pajusalu |year=2009|title=The reforming of the Southern Finnic language area|journal=Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne|volume=258|pages=95–107|issn=0355-0230|url=http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust258/sust258_pajusalu.pdf|access-date=2015-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last = Salminen| first = Tapani| year = 2003| title = Uralic Languages| url = http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/fu.html|access-date = 2015-10-17}}</ref>}} |
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| sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]] |
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{{infobox|child=yes |
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| sovereignty_note = from [[Russian SFSR|Russia]] and [[German Empire|Germany]] |
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| label1 = [[Ethnic groups]] {{nobold|(2024<ref>{{cite web | url=https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV0222U/table/tableViewLayout2 | title=Rv0222U: Population by Sex, Ethnic Nationality and County, 1 January }}</ref>)}} |
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| established_event4 = [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|Autonomy declared]] |
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| data1 = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |67.8% [[Estonians]] |21.5% [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]] |5.0% [[Ukrainians]]<ref>Figures provided by Statistics Estonia correspond to number of official residents only (i.e include over 55,600 ethnic Ukrainians who are officially resident in Estonia); the figures do not include another estimated 50,000 people who, as Ukrainian war refugees, are staying in Estonia but have not registered a place of residence there.</ref> |5.7% [[Demographics of Estonia|other]]}} |
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| established_date4 = [[12 April]] [[1917]] |
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}} |
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| established_event5 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Independence declared]]<br />[[History of Estonia#Road to Republic|Officially recognised]] |
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| demonym = Estonian |
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| established_date5 = [[24 February]] [[1918]]<br />[[2 February]] [[1920]] |
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| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |58.4% [[Irreligion in Estonia|no religion]] |26.7% [[Christianity]]|12.7% [[Religion in Estonia|undeclared]]|2.2% [[Religion in Estonia|other]]}} |
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| established_event6 = [[History of Estonia#Soviet Occupation|1st Soviet occupation]] |
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| religion_year = 2021<ref>{{cite web|url= https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvaloendus__rel2021__rahvastiku-demograafilised-ja-etno-kultuurilised-naitajad__usk/RL21451|title= Estonia Census 2021|date= 29 April 2013|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]|archive-date= 24 November 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171124002736/https://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|url-status= dead}}</ref> |
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| established_date6 = [[1940]]-[[1941]] |
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| government_type = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]] |
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| established_event7 = [[Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany|German occupation]] |
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| leader_title1 = [[President of Estonia|President]] |
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| established_date7 = [[1941]]-[[1944]] |
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| leader_name1 = [[Alar Karis]] |
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| established_event8 = [[History of Estonia#Soviet Occupation|2nd Soviet occupation]] |
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| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] |
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| established_date8 = [[1944]]-[[1991]] |
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| leader_name2 = [[Kaja Kallas]] |
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| established_event9 = [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|Independence restored]] |
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| legislature = unicameral ''[[Riigikogu]]'' |
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| established_date9 = [[20 August]] [[1991]] |
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| sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]] |
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| accessionEUdate = [[May 1]], [[2004]] |
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| sovereignty_note = from [[Russian Republic|Russia]] and [[German Empire|Germany]] |
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| EUseats = |
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| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of independence]] |
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| area_km2 = 45,226 |
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| established_date1 = {{nowrap|23–24 February 1918}} |
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| area_sq_mi = 17,413<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |
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| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]] |
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| area_rank = 132nd<sup>2</sup> |
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| established_date2 = {{nowrap|22 September 1921}} |
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| area_magnitude = 1 E10 |
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| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states|German and Soviet occupations]] |
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| percent_water = 4.56% |
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| established_date4 = 1940–1991 |
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|population_estimate = 1,340,602<ref>http://www.stat.ee/main-indicators Estonian Statistics Byroo</ref> |
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| established_event5 = [[Restoration of Estonia|Independence restored]] |
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| population_estimate_year = Jan. 01, 2007 |
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| established_date5 = 20 August 1991 |
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| population_estimate_rank = 151th |
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| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[2004 enlargement of the European Union|Joined]] the [[European Union]]}} |
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| population_census = 1,376,743 |
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| established_date6 = 1 May 2004 |
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| population_census_year = 2000 |
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| area_km2 = 45,335<ref name="ERR_area">{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1609260713/estonia-gains-95-islands-but-loses-4-square-kilometers-with-updated-map |title=Estonia gains 95 islands, but loses 4 square kilometers with updated map |publisher=ERR |date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 }}</ref> |
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| population_density_km2 = 29 |
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| area_rank = 129th<sup>d</sup> |
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| area_sq_mi = 17,505<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |
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| percent_water = 4.6 |
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| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}}1,373,101<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.err.ee/1609210202/estonia-s-population-grew-in-2023 | title=Estonia's population grew in 2023 | date=2 January 2024 }}</ref> |
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| population_census = 1,331,824<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news |title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud |access-date=5 June 2022 |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref> |
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| population_estimate_year = 2024 |
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| population_estimate_rank = |
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| population_census_year = 2021 |
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| population_density_km2 = 30.3 |
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| population_density_sq_mi = 75 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |
| population_density_sq_mi = 75 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |
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| population_density_rank = |
| population_density_rank = 148th |
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| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $60.997 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.EE">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=939,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Estonia) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=12 October 2023}}</ref> |
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| GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |
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| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 |
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| GDP_PPP = $26.85 billion |
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| GDP_PPP_rank = |
| GDP_PPP_rank = 113th |
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| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $ |
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $47,383<ref name="IMFWEO.EE" /> |
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| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 41st |
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| GDP_nominal = $ |
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $41.799 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.EE" /> |
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| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 |
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| GDP_nominal_rank = 91st |
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| GDP_nominal_rank = 102nd |
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| GDP_nominal_year = 2006 |
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| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $ |
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $33,018<ref name="IMFWEO.EE" /> |
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| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 36th |
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| Gini = 30.6 <!-- number only --> |
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| HDI_year = 2007 |
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| Gini_year = 2021 |
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| HDI = {{increase}} 0.86 |
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| Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |
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| HDI_rank = 38th |
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| Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |title= Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income |work= EU-SILC survey |publisher= [[Eurostat]] |url= https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|access-date= 22 June 2022}}</ref> |
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| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> |
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| Gini_rank = |
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| Gini = 34 |
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| HDI = 0.899 <!--number only--> |
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| Gini_year = 2005 |
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| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> |
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| Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |
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| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> |
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| currency = [[Estonian kroon]] |
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| HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2024 |title=Human Development Report 2023/2024 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref> |
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| currency_code = EEK |
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| HDI_rank = 31st |
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| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
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| currency = [[Euro]] ([[€]]) |
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| utc_offset = +2 |
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| currency_code = EUR |
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| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |
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| drives_on = right |
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| utc_offset_DST = +3 |
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| time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
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| cctld = [[.ee]]<sup>3</sup> |
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| utc_offset = +02:00 |
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| calling_code = 372 |
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| utc_offset_DST = +03:00 |
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| ISO_3166-1_alpha2 = EE |
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| time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |
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| ISO_3166-1_alpha3 = EST |
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| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Estonia|+372]] |
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| ISO_3166-1_numeric = ? |
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| cctld = [[.ee]] |
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| alt_sport_code = EST |
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| footnote_a = {{note|chronology||Estonia regained its [[de facto]] independence in 1991. Throughout the 1940–1941 and 1944–1991 [[Soviet occupation]], Estonia's [[de jure]] state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile.}} |
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| vehicle_code = EST |
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| aircraft_code = EST |
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| demonym = Estonian |
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| footnote1 = [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]] in [[Võrumaa|southern counties]] are spoken along with [[Estonian Language|Estonian]]. [[Russian language|Russian]] is widely spoken in [[Ida-Virumaa]] due to the [[Demographics of Estonia|Soviet program promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers]] from [[USSR]] during the occupation. |
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| footnote2 = 47,549 km² were defined according to the [[Tartu Peace Treaty]] in [[1920]] between [[Estonia]] and [[Russia]]. Today the remaining 2,323 km² is still illegally annexed by [[Russia]].<br /> The ceded areas include the [[Pechory|Petserimaa county]] and the boundary in the north of [[Lake Peipus]] as the Lands behind the city of [[Narva]] including [[Ivangorod]] (Jaanilinn).<ref>[[Territorial_changes_of_the_Baltic_states#Actual territorial changes after World War II]] Soviet territorial changes against Estonia after World War II</ref>,<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechory Pechory under Russian control</ref> |
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| footnote3 = [[.eu]] is also shared with other member states of the [[European Union]]. |
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}} |
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'''Estonia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ɛ|s|ˈ|t|oʊ|n|i|ə}} {{respell|ess|TOH|nee|ə}}, {{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}}} officially the '''Republic of Estonia''', is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]].{{efn|name=location|Sometimes classified as part of [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts.Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web |title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU |url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en |website=op.europa.eu |access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of [[Northern Europe]], the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition|first=OECD Statistics|last=Directorate|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|title=Estonia|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe.<!--recent version of online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in northeastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Estonia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>--> Usage varies greatly in press sources.}} It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipus]] and [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,300 other islands and [[islet]]s on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref name="ERR_area" /> covering a total area of {{convert|45335|km2|sqmi}}. [[Tallinn]], the [[capital city]], and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|largest urban]] [[urban area|area]]s of the country. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[indigenous language|indigenous]] and [[official language]] of Estonia, and it is the [[first language]] of the [[Estonians|majority]] of the country's population of 1.4 million.<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news |title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud |access-date=5 June 2022 |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref> |
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'''Estonia''', officially the '''Republic of Estonia''' ({{lang-et|'''Eesti''' or '''Eesti Vabariik'''}}) is a [[country]] in [[Northern Europe]] in the [[Baltic region]]. It is bordered to the north by [[Finland]] across the [[Gulf of Finland]], to the west by [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by the [[Russia|Russian Federation]]. The territory of Estonia covers 45,226 km² and is influenced by a [[Temperate climate|temperate seasonal climate]]. |
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The [[Estonians]] are a [[Finnic people]] closely related to the [[Finns]], with the [[Estonian language]] sharing many similarities to [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. |
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The land of present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Pope|Papal]]-[[Non parum animus noster|sanctioned]] [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After centuries of successive rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening|Estonian national identity]] began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic|Russian]] and [[German Empire|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia also briefly experienced [[authoritarianism|rule]] [[rule by decree|by decree]] during the [[political violence|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–1938. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|1940]], then by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and was ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal | last=European Parliament | title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania | journal=Official Journal of the European Communities | volume=C 42/78 | date=January 13, 1983 | url=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]]. Following the bloodless Estonian "[[Singing Revolution]]" of 1988–1990, the nation's ''de facto'' independence from the Soviet Union was restored on [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|20 August 1991]]. |
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Estonia is a [[democratic]] [[parliamentary republic]] and is divided into [[fifteen]] [[Estonian counties|counties]] (''Maakonnad''). The capital and largest city is [[Tallinn]]. Estonia has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since [[17 September]] [[1991]],<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_member_states Estonian date of admission into the United Nations</ref> of the [[European Union]] since [[1 May]] [[2004]],<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_member_state Estonian date of admission into the European Union</ref> and of [[NATO]] since [[29 March]] [[2004]].<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nato#Membership Estonian date of admission into the NATO</ref> Estonia has also signed the [[Kyoto protocol]]. With only 1.3 million [[inhabitants]], it comprises one of the smallest populations of the [[European Union]] countries. |
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Estonia is a [[developed country]], with a [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] [[Economy of Estonia|advanced economy]], ranking 31st (out of 191) in the [[Human Development Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020|title=Human Development Report 2020: Estonia|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/EST.pdf|website=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref> The [[sovereign state]] of Estonia is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia|(counties)]]. With a population of just around 1.4 million, it is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]], the [[Eurozone]], the [[OECD]], the [[Schengen Area]], and [[NATO]]. Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia|title=Estonia (Ranked 21st)|website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index|education]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581|title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests| work=BBC News |date=2 December 2019}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]], digitalisation of public services<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/|title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020|date=24 July 2020|website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/|title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations|first=Theresa|last=Harold|work=Alphr|date=October 30, 2017|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309|title=Number of start-ups per capita by country|website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref> |
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The area was settled immediately after the [[Ice Age]], beginning from around [[8500 BC]]. After the [[Northern Crusades]], being conquered by [[Danes]] and [[Germans]] in [[1227]], Estonia was ruled by [[Denmark]] in the north and by [[Livonian Order]] in the south. From [[1228]]-[[1562]] the whole Estonia was a part of [[Livonian Confederation]]. Estonia became a part of the [[Swedish Empire]] from the [[16]]th century to [[1721]], when it was ceded to the [[Russian Empire]]. The [[Estophilia#Estophile Enlightenment Period|Estophile Enlightenment Period]] in [[1750]]-[[1840]] led to the [[Estonian national awakening]] in the mid-19th century. In [[1918]] the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] was issued. The [[Estonian War of Independence]] ensued on two fronts between the [[Bolshevist Russia]] and the [[United Baltic Duchy]], resulting in the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] recognising Estonian independence in perpetuity. Prior to the [[World War II]], Estonia was occupied, and according to the [[USA]],<ref name="USA">[http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/86539.htm U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship] at state.gov </ref> the [[EU]],<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+MOTION+B6-2007-0215+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN Motion for a resolution on the Situation in Estonia] by [[EU]]</ref> [[European Court of Human Rights]],<ref>[[European Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States]]</ref> illegally annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] as a result of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. During World War II, Estonia was occupied by [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]], then re-occupied by the Soviet Union in [[1944]]. It regained independence in [[1991]] after the collapse of the Soviet Union. |
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==Name== |
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The modern name of Estonia is thought to originate from the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]], who in his book ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' (ca. AD 98) described a people called the [[Aestii]]. Similarly, ancient [[Scandinavia]]n [[sagas]] refer to a land called ''Eistland''. Early [[Latin]] and other ancient versions of the name are ''Estia'' and ''Hestia''. Until the late 1930s, the name was often written as "Esthonia" in most western countries. |
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{{Main|Name of Estonia}} |
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The name ''Estonia'' ({{lang-et|Eesti}} {{IPA-et|ˈeːsʲti||Et-Eesti.ogg}}) has been connected to ''[[Aesti]]'', a people first mentioned by [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] historian [[Tacitus]] around 98 CE. Some modern historians believe he was referring to [[Balts]], while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mägi |first1=Marika |title=In ''Austrvegr'': The Role of the Eastern Baltic in Viking Age Communication across the Baltic Sea |date=2018 |pages=144–145 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] E|isbn=9789004363816}}</ref> [[Scandinavian sagas]] and [[Viking]] [[Viking runestones|runestones]]<ref>Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. {{ISBN|91-27-35725-2}}</ref> referring to ''Eistland'' are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tvauri |first1=Andres |title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia |date=2012 |editor1-last=Laneman |editor1-first=Margot |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |page=31 |publisher=[[Tartu University|Tartu University Press]] |isbn=9789949199365 |issn=1736-3810 |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> From [[Old Norse]] the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rätsep|first1=Huno|title=Kui kaua me oleme olnud eestlased? |journal=Oma Keel |year=2007|volume=14|url=http://www.emakeeleselts.ee/omakeel/2007_1/OK_2007-1_01.pdf |language=et |access-date=21 January 2020 |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tamm |first1=Marek |last2=Kaljundi |first2=Linda |last3=Jensen |first3=Carsten Selch |title=Crusading and Chronicle Writing on the Medieval Baltic Frontier: A Companion to the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317156796 |pages=94–96}}</ref> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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{{ |
{{Main|History of Estonia}} |
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Human settlement in Estonia became possible 11,000 to 13,000 years ago, when the ice from the last [[Ice age|glacial era]] melted away. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the [[Pulli settlement]], which was located on the banks of the [[Pärnu River|river Pärnu]], near the town of [[Sindi]], in southern Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating, it was settled around 11,000 years ago, at the beginning of the [[9th]] millennium BC. |
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===Prehistory=== |
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[[Image:Estonia-Ancient.jpg|270px|thumb|right|<small>[[Estonia|Estonian territory]] 13,000 years ago during the [[Ice Age]].</small>]] |
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Evidence has been found of hunting and fishing communities existing around 6500 BC near the town of [[Kunda]] in northern Estonia. Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern [[Lithuania]] and in southern [[Finland]]. The [[Kunda culture]] belongs to the middle stone age, or [[Mesolithic]] [[period]]. |
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===Prehistory and Viking Age=== |
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The end of the [[Bronze Age]] and the early [[Iron Age]] were marked by great cultural changes. The most significant was the transition to farming, which has remained at the core of Estonian economy and culture. From approximately the first to 5th centuries AD, resident farming was widely established, the population grew, and settlement expanded. Cultural influences from the [[Roman Empire]] reached Estonia, and this era is therefore also known as the [[Roman Iron Age]]. |
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{{Main|Ancient Estonia|Viking Age in Estonia}} |
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[[File:Kalmeväli .jpg|thumb|left|[[Bronze Age]] stone-cist graves in north Estonia]] |
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Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the ice from the last [[Ice age|glacial era]] melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the [[Pulli settlement]], on the banks of [[Pärnu River|Pärnu]] river in southwest Estonia. According to [[radiocarbon dating]], it was settled around 11,000 years ago.<ref name="Laurisaar">{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/arheoloogid-lammutavad-ajalooopikute-arusaamu?id=50989575 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=31 July 2004 |access-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> |
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The earliest human habitation during the [[Mesolithic]] period is connected to the [[Kunda culture]]. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in semi-nomadic communities near bodies of water. Subsistence activities consisted of hunting, gathering and fishing.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=23 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Around 4900 BCE, ceramics appear of the [[neolithic]] period, known as [[Narva culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=24 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Starting from around 3200 BC the [[Corded Ware culture]] appeared; this included new activities like primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=26 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> |
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A more troubled and war-ridden middle [[Iron Age]] followed with external dangers coming both from the [[Balts|Baltic tribes]], who attacked across the southern land border, and from overseas. Several [[Scandinavia]]n [[sagas]] refer to campaigns against Estonia. [[Estonian pirates]] conducted similar raids in the [[Viking]] age and sacked and burned the [[Sweden|Swedish]] town of [[Sigtuna]] in [[1187]].<ref>[http://heninen.net/sigtuna/english.htm Raid on Sigtuna<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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<!--[[File:KumnaHoardArtfs.jpg|thumb|left|[[Iron Age]] artefacts of a hoard from [[Kumna]]<ref>{{cite book|first1=Jüri|last1=Selirand|first2=Evald|last2=Tõnisson|title=Through past millennia: archaeological discoveries in Estonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mu9KAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Perioodika}}</ref>]]--> |
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The [[Bronze Age]] started around 1800 BCE, and saw the establishment of the first [[hillfort|hill fort]] settlements.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=4 |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] around 500 BC.<ref name="Laurisaar"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=5 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref> The large amount of bronze objects indicate the existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=28 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> |
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The [[Iron Age Europe|middle Iron Age]] produced threats appearing from different directions. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in the early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed [[Ingvar Harra]], the [[Yngling|King]] of [[Swedes (tribe)|Swedes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|year=2005 |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68 68] |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006 |url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/68}}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=Second source was removed as deprecated}} Similar threats appeared to the east, where East Slavic principalities were expanding westward. Around 1030 the troops of [[Kievan Rus]] led by [[Yaroslav the Wise]] defeated Estonians and established a fort in modern-day [[Tartu]]. This foothold may have lasted until ca 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=33, 34, 59, 60 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mäesalu |first1=Ain|title=Could Kedipiv in East-Slavonic Chronicles be Keava hill fort?|journal=Estonian Journal of Archaeology|year=2012|volume=1 |issue=16supplser|page=199|doi=10.3176/arch.2012.supv1.11 |url=http://www.kirj.ee/public/Archaeology/2012/sup_vol_1/arhe-keava-2012-195-200.pdf|access-date=27 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States |page=9 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=12|year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Around the 11th century, the Scandinavian Viking era around the Baltic Sea was succeeded by the Baltic Viking era, with seaborne raids by [[Curonians]] and by Estonians from the island of [[Saaremaa]], known as [[Oeselians]]. In 1187 Estonians (Oeselians), [[Curonians]] or/and [[Karelians]] sacked [[Sigtuna]], which was a major city of Sweden at the time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres |title=A History of the Baltic States|pages=9–11 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref name=Tarvel>[[Enn Tarvel]] (2007). [http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf ''Sigtuna hukkumine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011191449/http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/7_82007/38-41.pdf |date=11 October 2017 }} Haridus, 2007 (7–8), pp. 38–41</ref> |
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[[Image:Estonia-Ancient-decoration-items.jpg|100px|thumb|left|<small>Ancient Estonian handicraft found at [[Türsamäe]], [[Unipiha]]<br />and [[Jaagupi]].</small>]] |
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In the first centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the [[province]] (Estonian: ''[[parish|kihelkond]]'') and the land (Estonian: ''[[maakond]]''). The province consisted of several elderships or villages. Nearly all provinces had at least one [[fortress]]. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the [[king]] or [[elder]]. The terra was composed of one or several provinces, also headed by an elder, king or their collegium. By the 13th century the following major lands had developed in Estonia: [[Revala]], [[Harjumaa]], [[Saare County| Saaremaa]], [[Hiiu County|Hiiumaa]], [[Läänemaa]], [[Alempois]], [[Sakala]], [[Ugandi]], [[Jogentagana]], [[Soopoolitse]], [[Vaiga]], [[Mõhu]], [[Nurmekund]], [[Järvamaa]] and [[Virumaa]].<ref> Estonia and the Estonians (Studies of Nationalities) Toivo U. Raun p.11 [[ISBN 0817928529]]</ref> |
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Estonia could be divided into two main cultural areas. The coastal areas of north and west Estonia had close overseas contacts with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]], while inland south Estonia had more contacts with [[Balts]] and [[Pskov Land|Pskov]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tvauri|first1=Andres|title=The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia|date=2012|pages=322–325 |url=https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Publications/Display/b80b6f11-43ed-4b8c-b616-48ac53b70ec5?language=ENG |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts.<ref name="Magi2015">{{cite book|last=Mägi |first=Marika |editor-last1=Barrett |editor-first1=James H. |editor-last2=Gibbon |editor-first2=Sarah Jane |title=Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World |publisher=Maney Publishing |date=2015 |pages=45–46 |chapter=Chapter 4. Bound for the Eastern Baltic: Trade and Centres AD 800–1200 |isbn=978-1-909662-79-7}}</ref> Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa.<ref name="Magi2015"/> Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.<ref name="Magi2015"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Martens |first=Irmelin |year=2004 |title= Indigenous and imported Viking Age weapons in Norway – a problem with European implications |journal= Journal of Nordic Archaeological Science |volume=14 |pages=132–135 |url= https://www.archaeology.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.138785.1371480692!/menu/standard/file/martens.pdf |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> |
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Estonia retained a [[Paganism|pagan]] religion centered around a deity called [[Tharapita]]. The [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] mentions [[Tharapita]] as the superior god of [[Oesel]]ians (inhabitants of [[Saaremaa]] island), also well known to [[Vironian]] tribes in northern Estonia. According to the chronicle, when the [[Northern Crusades|crusaders]] invaded Vironia in [[1220]], there was a beautiful wooded hill in [[Virumaa]], where locals believe the Oeselian god Tharapita was born and from which he flew to [[Saaremaa]]. The hill is believed to be the [[Ebavere Hill]] (''Ebavere mägi'') in modern [[Lääne-Viru County]]. |
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<!--[[File:Old Estonian counties.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Independent counties of Ancient Estonia in the beginning of the 13th century]]--> |
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In the early centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (Estonian: ''kihelkond'') and the county (Estonian: ''[[maakond]]''), which consisted of multiple parishes. A parish was led by [[elder (administrative title)|elders]] and centered on a hill fort; in some rare cases a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia comprised eight major counties: [[Harjumaa (ancient county)|Harjumaa]], [[Järvamaa]], [[Läänemaa]], [[Revala]], [[Saare County|Saaremaa]], [[Sakala County|Sakala]], [[Ugandi]], and [[Virumaa]]; and six minor, single-parish counties: [[Alempois]], [[Jogentagana]], [[Mõhu]], [[Nurmekund]], [[Soopoolitse]], and [[Vaiga]]. Counties were independent entities and engaged only in a loose cooperation against foreign threats.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=4 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto | author-link1 = Anto Raukas|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=227|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> |
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Little is known of medieval Estonians' spiritual and religious practices before [[Christianization]]. The [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] mentions ''[[Tharapita]]'' as the superior deity of the then inhabitants of Saaremaa (''Oeselians''). There is some [[historical evidence]] about [[sacred groves]], especially groves of [[oak]] trees, having served as places of "[[paganism|pagan]]" worship.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=7 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://epl.delfi.ee/news/kultuur/kes-oli-saarlaste-suurjumal-taarapita?id=51037692 |title=Arheoloogid lammutavad ajalooõpikute arusaamu |first=Riho |last=Laurisaar |publisher=[[Eesti Päevaleht]] |language=et |date=29 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> |
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===Middle Ages=== |
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Estonia was a part of the [[Livonian Confederation]] from 1228 to the 1560s. The country was [[Christianization|Christianized]] when the [[Germany|German]] "[[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]" conquered southern Estonia as part of the [[Northern Crusades]] in the early [[thirteenth]] [[century]]. At the same time, [[Denmark]] attempted to take possession of northern Estonia. Estonia was consolidated under the two forces by [[1227]]. [[Image:Estonia-ancient-counties.jpg|270px|thumb|right|<small>Ancient [[Counties of Estonia|Estonian counties]].</small>]] Northern Estonia remained a possession of [[Denmark]] until [[1346]]. [[Reval]] (known as [[Tallinn]] since [[1918]]) was given its [[Lübeck law|Lübeck Rights]] in [[1248]] and joined an alliance of trading guilds called the [[Hanseatic League]] at the end of the thirteenth century. In [[1343]], the people of northern Estonia and [[Saaremaa]] rebelled against [[Germany|German]] rule in the [[St. George's Night Uprising]], which was put down by [[1344]]. [[Russia]] attempted unsuccessful invasions in [[1481]] and [[1558]]. |
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===The Reformation period=== |
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The [[Reformation]] in [[Europe]] officially began in [[1517]] with [[Martin Luther]] ([[1483]]-[[1546]]) and his [[95 Theses]]. The Reformation resulted in great change in the [[Baltic]] region. Ideas entered the [[Livonian Confederation]] very quickly and by the [[1520s]] they were well known. [[Language]], [[education]], [[religion]], and [[politics]] were greatly transformed. The [[Church]] services were now given in the local vernacular, instead of [[Latin]], as was previously used.<ref>[http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/reform.html Protestant Reformation in the Baltic] at University of Washington</ref> During the [[Livonian War]] in [[1561]], northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control, while southern Estonia briefly came under the control of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in the [[1580s]]. In [[1625]], mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]] in the north and [[Livonia]] in southern Estonia and northern [[Latvia]], a division which persisted until the early [[20th century|twentieth century]]. |
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[[Image:Castlekuressaare.JPG|left|thumb|250px|<small>[[Kuressaare]] castle in [[Saaremaa]].</small>]] |
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In 1631, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[king]] [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustaf II Adolf]], [[Gustavus Adolphus]], forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater rights, although serfdom was retained. In [[1632]] a printing press and [[Tartu University|university]] were established in the city of [[Dorpat]] (known as [[Tartu]] since [[1918]]). This period is known in Estonian history as ''"the Good Old Swedish Time."'' |
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===Crusades and the Catholic Era=== |
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{{Main|Livonian Crusade|Terra Mariana|Danish Estonia}} |
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Following the [[Great Northern War]], the Swedish empire lost Estonia to [[Russia]] (1710 de facto, and [[1721]] [[de jure]], by the [[Treaty of Nystad]]). However, the upper classes and the higher middle class remained primarily [[Baltic German]]. The war devastated the population of Estonia, but it recovered quickly. Although the rights of peasants were initially weakened, serfdom was abolished in [[1816]] in the province of Estonia and in [[1819]] in [[Livonia]]. |
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[[File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|thumb|left|Medieval Estonia and Livonia after the crusade]] |
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===Declaration of independence=== |
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In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tyerman|first1=Christopher|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674023871|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded [[Saaremaa]]. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at [[Lindanise]], defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=14 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=278|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except [[Reval]], but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=15 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=279|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> |
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As a result of the abolition of [[serfdom]] and the availability of education to the native Estonian-speaking population, an active [[Estonian]] [[nationalist]] [[movement]] developed in the [[19th century|nineteenth century]]. It began on a cultural level, resulting in the establishment of Estonian language [[literature]], [[theatre]] and professional [[music]] and led into the formation of the Estonian national identity and late [[1800s]]' [[Estonian Age of Awakening|Age of Awakening]]. Among the leaders of the movement were [[Johann Voldemar Jannsen]], [[Jakob Hurt]] and [[Carl Robert Jakobson]]. |
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[[Image:Estonian-Constitution.jpg|200px|thumb|right|<small>A piece of text of the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]].</small>]] |
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Significant accomplishments were the publication of the national epic, [[Kalevipoeg]], in [[1862]], and the organization of the first [[Estonian Song Festival|national song festival]] in [[1869]]. In response to a period of [[Russification]] initiated by the [[Russian empire]] in the [[1890s]], [[Estonian nationalism]] took on more political tones, with intellectuals first calling for greater autonomy, and later, complete independence from the [[Russian empire]]. Following the [[Bolshevik]] takeover of power in [[Russia]] after the [[October Revolution]] of 1917 and [[German Empire|German]] victories against the Russian army, between the Russian [[Red Army]]'s retreat and the arrival of advancing [[Germany|German]] troops, the [[Committee of Elders]] of the [[Maapäev]] issued the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]]<ref>[http://www.president.ee/en/estonia Estonian Declaration of Independence 24 February 1918] at www.president.ee</ref> in [[Pärnu]] on [[February 23]] and in [[Tallinn]] on [[February 24]] [[1918]]. |
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[[Image:EStonia-23. Februaruy 1918 in Pärnu-declaration of independence.jpg|200px|thumb|left|<small> |
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Declaration of the [[independence]] in [[Pärnu]] on [[23rd February]] in [[1918]]. One of the first images of the '''Republic'''.</small>]] |
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After winning the [[Estonian Liberation War]] against [[Soviet Russia]] and at the same time [[Germany|German]] [[Freikorps]] volunteers (the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed on [[2 February]] [[1920]]), Estonia maintained its independence for twenty-two years. Initially a [[parliamentary democracy]], the [[parliament]] ([[Riigikogu]]) was disbanded in [[1934]], following political unrest caused by the [[Great Depression|global economic crisis]]. Subsequently the country was ruled by decree by [[Konstantin Päts]], who became President in [[1938]], the year parliamentary elections resumed.<br /> |
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After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]]; later on it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Plakans|first1=Andrejs|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States|page=54 |year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|pages=9–10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> In the next decades there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major [[St. George's Night Uprising|uprising]] encompassed over north Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=20 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States|page=10|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pekomäe|first= Vello|title= Estland genom tiderna|year= 1986|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP|location= Stockholm |language= sv|isbn= 91-86116-47-9|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Jokipii|first1= Mauno|editor1-first= Mauno|editor1-last= Jokipii|title= Baltisk kultur och historia|year= 1992 |language= sv|isbn= 9789134512078|pages= 22–23|publisher= Bonniers}}</ref> |
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===Estonia in World War II=== |
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[[File:Narva Hermanni linnus 14002-4.jpg|thumb|Narva fortress, built around 1256.]] |
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{{main|Estonia in World War II}} |
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[[Reval]] ([[Tallinn]]), the capital of [[Danish Estonia]] founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the [[Lübeck law]] and received full town rights in 1248.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=441|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> The [[Hanseatic League]] controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest towns in Estonia became members: Reval, [[Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Pernau]] (Pärnu), and [[Fellin]] (Viljandi). Reval acted as a trade intermediary between [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with [[Pskov Land|Pskov]]. Many artisans' and merchants [[guilds]] were formed during the period.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100 100]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/100}}</ref> Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Reval and Dorpat often defied other rulers of the medieval [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=305|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref>{{efn|After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the [[Battle of Swienta]] on 1 September 1435, the [[Livonian Confederation]] was established by a treaty signed on 4 December 1435.<ref name="VLM">{{cite book|title=Vana-Liivimaa maapäev|last=Raudkivi|first=Priit|author1-link=Priit Raudkivi (historian)|year=2007|publisher=Argo|language=et|isbn=978-9949-415-84-7|pages=118–119}}</ref>}} |
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The fate of Estonia in [[World War II]] was decided by the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact]] and its [[s:Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact#Secret Additional Protocol|Secret Additional Protocol]] of August [[1939]]. [[World War II]] losses in Estonia, estimated at around 25%, were among the highest in [[Europe]]. War and occupation deaths have been estimated at 90,000. These include the [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|Soviet deportations]] in [[1941]], the German deportations and [[Holocaust]] victims.<ref name="BalticsInBritannica">[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]: [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37264/Baltic-states Baltic states, World War II losses]</ref> |
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[[World War II]] began with the [[History of Poland ([[1939]]–[[1945]]) invasion and subsequent partition]] of an important regional ally of Estonia - [[Poland]], by a joint operation of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Soviet Union]]. |
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====Soviet annexation==== |
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Estonia was [[Occupation of the Baltic Republics|occupied]] by the Soviet Union in June 1940,<ref> The World Book Encyclopedia ISBN 0716601036 </ref><ref> The History of the Baltic States by Kevin O'Connor ISBN 0313323550 </ref> after Stalin gained Hitler's agreement to divide Eastern Europe into "spheres of special interest" according to the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] and its secret protocol.<ref> The History of the Baltic States by Kevin O'Connor ISBN 0313323550 </ref> |
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On [[September 24]] [[1939]], warships of the [[Red Navy]] appeared off Estonian ports and [[Soviet bombers]] began a [[patrol]] over [[Tallinn]] and the nearby countryside.<ref name="TM091939">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,762664,00.html Moscow's Week] at [[Time Magazine]] on Monday, [[October 9]] [[1939]]</ref> The Estonian government was forced to give their assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases and station 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for "mutual defence".<ref> The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by David J. Smith, Page 24, ISBN 0415285801 </ref> |
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===Post-Reformation Era=== |
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On [[June 12]], [[1940]], the order for a total military blockade on Estonia was given to the Soviet [[Baltic Fleet]].<ref>{{fi icon}} [http://www.mil.fi/laitokset/tiedotteet/1282.dsp Pavel Petrov ] at Finnish Defence Forces home page</ref><ref>{{ru icon}} [http://www.rusin.fi/publications/warinpetsamo/indexEN.html documents published] from the State Archive of the Russian Navy</ref> |
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{{Main|Swedish Estonia|Governorate of Estonia|Governorate of Livonia}} |
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[[File:Academia Gustaviana.jpg|right|thumb|"Academia Dorpatensis" (now [[University of Tartu]]) was founded in 1632 by King Gustavus as the second university in the kingdom of Sweden. After the king's death it became known as "Academia Gustaviana".]] |
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The [[Reformation]] began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mol|first1=Johannes A.|last2=Militzer|first2=Klaus|last3=Nicholson|first3=Helen J.|title=The Military Orders and the Reformation: Choices, State Building, and the Weight of Tradition|pages=5–6|year=2006|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=9789065509130}}</ref> Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adopted [[Lutheranism]].<ref name="Frucht121">{{Cite book|last1=Frucht|first1=Richard C.|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121 121]|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Kevin|title=The History of the Baltic States|page=25|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313323553}}</ref> Church services were now conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant [[Low German]], but already from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian.<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=24 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> |
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On [[June 14]], 1940, while world’s attention was focused on the fall of [[Paris]] to [[Nazi Germany]] a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade on Estonia went into effect, two Soviet bombers downed a Finnish passenger airplane "[[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]]" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in [[Tallinn]], [[Riga]] and [[Helsinki]].<ref>[http://www.afsa.org/fsj/may07/lastflight.pdf The Last Flight from Tallinn] at American Foreign Service Association</ref> |
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During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]], Sweden, and [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Poland–Lithuania]] consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.<ref name="Frucht121"/><ref name="Hoover Press">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=25 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> |
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On [[June 16]], 1940, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia.<ref name="TM006241940">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764071-2,00.html Five Years of Dates] at Time magazine on Monday, Jun. 24, 1940 </ref> The Red Army exited from their military bases in Estonia on June 17.<ref>Estonia: Identity and Independence by Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse ISBN 9042008903 </ref> The following day, some 90,000 additional troops entered the country. |
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On [[June 17]], 1940, The Estonian government decided, given the overwhelming Soviet force, not to resist, to avoid bloodshed and open war.<ref>The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by David J. Smith p.19 ISBN 0415285801</ref> |
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The military occupation of Estonia was complete by the June 21 1940.<ref> The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by David J. Smith, Page 27, ISBN 0415285801 </ref> |
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In 1558, Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] of [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia (Muscovy)]] invaded Livonia, starting the [[Livonian War]]. The Livonian Order was decisively [[Battle of Ergeme|defeated]] in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.<ref name="Hoover Press"/><ref>{{Cite book|author1-link=David R. Stone|last1=Stone|first1=David R.|title=A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya|pages=14–18 |year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275985028}}</ref> As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became Swedish [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]], Southern Estonia became Polish [[Duchy of Livonia]], and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=28–29 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> |
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Most of the [[Estonian Defence Forces]] and the [[Estonian Defence League]] [[Surrender (military)|surrendered ]] according to the orders believing that resistance was useless and were disarmed by the Red Army. Only the Estonian Single Signal Battalion stationed in Tallinn at Raua Street showed resistance. As the Red Army brought in additional reinforcements supported by six [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s, the battle lasted several hours until sundown. There was one dead, several wounded on the Estonian side and about 10 killed and more wounded on the Soviet side. Finally the military resistance was ended with [[negotiation]]s and the Single Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed.<ref>{{et icon}}[http://www.mil.ee/?id=297&sisu=uudis 51 years from the Raua Street Battle] at Estonian Defence Forces Home Page</ref> |
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In 1600, the [[Polish–Swedish War]] broke out, causing further devastation. The protracted war ended in 1629 with Sweden [[Swedish Livonia|gaining Livonia]], including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=28 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Danish Saaremaa was [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|transferred]] to Sweden in 1645.<ref>{{cite book |title=Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania |last1=Williams |first1=Nicola |first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |year=2003 |publisher=University of Michigan |isbn=1-74059-132-1 |page=190}}</ref> The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frost|first1=Robert I.|title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558 – 1721|page=77|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317898573}}</ref> |
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In August 1940, Estonia was formally annexed by the Soviet Union as the [[Estonian SSR]]. Those who had failed to do their "political duty" of voting Estonia into the USSR, specifically those who had failed to have their passports stamped for voting, were condemned to death by Soviet tribunals.<ref name="TM191940">[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764407,00.html Justice in The Baltic]at Time magazine on Monday, Aug. 19, 1940 </ref> The repressions followed with the mass [[deportation]]s carried out by the Soviets in Estonia on June 14, 1941. Many of the country's political and intellectual leaders were killed or deported to remote areas of the USSR by the Soviet authorities in 1940-1941. Repressive actions were also taken against thousands of ordinary people. |
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While large parts of the rural population remained in [[serfdom]] during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and [[free tenant]] farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=283|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Swedish King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustaf II Adolf]] established [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]] in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to [[Tartu University]] in 1632. [[Printing presses]] were also established in both towns. In the 1680s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]], who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=32–33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The population of Estonia grew rapidly until the [[Great Famine of Estonia (1695–1697)|Great Famine]] of 1695–97 in which 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=31 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> |
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When the German [[Operation Barbarossa]] started against the Soviet Union, about 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the [[Red Army]]. Less than 30% of them survived the war. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the [[NKVD]].<ref>The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 ISBN 0300060785</ref> |
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During the 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]], the [[Tsardom of Russia]] (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=33 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=34 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> In 1721, Estonia was divided into two [[Baltic governorates|governorates]]: the [[Governorate of Estonia]], which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern [[Governorate of Livonia]], which extended to the northern part of Latvia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319083729/http://www.bdcol.ee/fileadmin/docs/bdreview/bdr-2002-8-11.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923 By LtCol Andrew Parrott|archive-date=19 March 2009}}</ref> Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=38 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=41 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> Serfdom was formally abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had very little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|pages=47–49 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> |
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Many countries including the United States did not recognize the annexation of Estonia by the USSR. Such countries recognized Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in many countries in the name of their former governments. These diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence.<ref>Diplomats Without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War by James T. McHugh , James S. Pacy ISBN 0313318786</ref> |
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===National Awakening=== |
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Contemporary Russian politicians, however, deny that the Republic of Estonia was illegally annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. They state that the Soviet troops had entered Estonia in 1940 following the agreements and with the consent of the government of the Republic of Estonia, regardless of how their actions can be interpreted today. They maintain that the USSR was not in a state of war and was not waging any combat activities on the territory of Estonia, therefore there could be no 'occupation'. The official version claims that Estonians decided to lose their statehood voluntarily and officially describes separatist fighters of 1944-1953 as "bandits" or "nazis". The Russian position is not recognized internationally.<ref>[http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59601.html Russia denies it illegally annexed the Baltic republics in 1940 - Pravda.Ru<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59605.html Presidential aide: the term "occupation" inapplicable for Baltic States - Pravda.Ru<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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{{Main|Estonian national awakening}} |
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[[File:Carl Robert Jakobson.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Carl Robert Jakobson]] played a key role in the [[Estonian national awakening]].]] |
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====German occupation==== |
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The [[Estonian national awakening]] began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857 [[Johann Voldemar Jannsen]] started publishing one of the first successful circulating Estonian-language weekly newspapers, ''[[Pärnu Postimees|Perno Postimees ehk Näddalileht]]'', and began popularising the denomination of oneself as ''eestlane'' (Estonian).<ref name="EE286">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=286|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Schoolmaster [[Carl Robert Jakobson]] and clergyman [[Jakob Hurt]] became leading figures in a national movement, encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their ethnic Estonian identity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|page=90 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the [[Society of Estonian Literati]] and the [[Estonian Students' Society]], and the first [[Estonian Song Festival|national song festival]], held in 1869 in Tartu.<ref name="Raun59">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=59 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref name="EE287">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=287|year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=93 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=90–91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref> The national [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Kalevipoeg]]'' was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances of [[Theatre of Estonia|Estonian theatre]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Subrenat|first1=Jean-Jacques|title=Estonia: Identity and Independence|pages=91 |year=2004|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9042008903}}</ref><ref name="CoE">{{Cite book| title=Cultural Policy in Estonia|page=23 |year=1997|publisher=Council of Europe|isbn=9789287131652}}</ref> In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.<ref name="EE287"/> |
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{{main|Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany}} |
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The country was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]] from [[1941]] to [[1944]]. Although initially the [[Germans]] were perceived as liberators from the [[USSR]] and its repressions by most [[Estonian]]s, who hoped for the restoration of the country's [[independence]], it was soon realized that they were just another occupying power. |
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[[Image:Estonian-Legion-inTallinn.jpg|270px|thumb|right|<small>[[1944]] Estonian Legion soldiers leaving [[Tallinn]]'s Railway Station to head towards the [[Blue Hills]] in [[Ida-Virumaa]].</small>]] |
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The [[Nazi]]s exploited the [[country]] for the war effort and perpetrated [[Holocaust|crimes against the nation's Jews]]. Estonia was incorporated into the [[Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany|German occupation]] province of [[Reichskommissariat Ostland|Ostland]]. This led to many Estonians, unwilling to side with the Nazis, join the [[Finnish Army]] to fight against the [[Soviet Union]]. The [[Finnish Infantry Regiment 200]] (Estonian: ''soomepoisid'') was formed out of Estonian volunteers in [[Finland]]. Although many Estonians were recruited in to the German armed forces (including [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|Waffen-SS]]), the majority did so only in [[1944]] when the threat of a new invasion of Estonia by the [[Red Army]] had become imminent and it was clear that [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] could not win the war.<ref>Estonia 1940-1945, Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity, p.613 ISBN 9949-13-040-9 </ref> |
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By January [[1944]], the front was pushed back by the [[Red Army]] almost all the way to the former Estonian border. [[Narva]] was evacuated. [[Jüri Uluots]], the last legitimate prime minister of the Republic of Estonia (according to the [[Constitution of Estonia|Constitution of the Republic of Estonia]]) prior to its fall to the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1940]], delivered a radio address that appealed to all able-bodied men born from [[1904]] through [[1923]] to report for military service (Before this, [[Jüri Uluots]] had opposed Estonian mobilization.) The call drew support from all across the country: 38,000 volunteers jammed registration centers.<ref>Resistance! Occupied Europe and Its Defiance of Hitler (Paperback) |
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by Dave Lande on Page 200 ISBN 0760307458</ref> Several thousand Estonians who had joined the Finnish Army came back across the [[Gulf of Finland]] to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war Estonia would be able to attract Western support for the cause of Estonia's independence from the [[USSR]] and thus ultimately succeed in achieving independence.<ref> The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania |
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Graham Smith p.91 ISBN 0312161921 </ref> |
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At the end of the 19th century, [[Russification]] began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire.<ref name="Raun59"/> The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed.<ref name="CoE"/> In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like [[Jaan Tõnisson]] and [[Konstantin Päts]]. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans.<ref name="EE291">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=291|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> |
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====Soviet occupation==== |
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{{main|Estonian SSR}} |
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During the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 Revolution]], the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful [[political demonstration]]s and violent [[riot]]s with [[looting]] in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=10 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref name="EE292">{{Cite book|last1=Raukas|first1=Anto|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=292|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> |
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Soviet forces reconquered Estonia in the autumn of 1944 after fierce battles in the northeast of the country on the [[Battle of Narva - Battle for the Narva Bridgehead (1944)|Narva river]] and on the [[Battle of Narva - Battle of the Tannenberg Line (1944)|Tannenberg Line]] ([[Sinimäed]]). In the face of the country being re-occupied by the Red Army, tens of thousands of people chose to either retreat together with the Germans or flee to Finland or Sweden. |
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===Independence=== |
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In addition to the human and material losses suffered due to war, thousands of civilians were killed and tens of thousands of people deported from Estonia by the Soviet authorities until [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death in 1953. |
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{{Main|Estonian Declaration of Independence|Estonian War of Independence|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}} |
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[[File:Declaration of Estonian independence in Pärnu.jpg|thumb|right|alt=photograph of crowd around flag raising|The tricolour [[Flag of Estonia|flags of Estonia]] on display during the public announcement of the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence of Estonia]] in [[Pärnu]] on 23 February 1918. One of the very first images of the independent republic.]] |
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In 1949, in response to the continuing insurgency against Soviet rule,<ref>Heinrihs Strods, Matthew Kott, ''The file on operation "Priboi": A re-assessment of the mass deportations of 1949'', Journal of Baltic Studies, Volume 33, Issue 1 Spring 2002 , pages 1 - 36</ref> about 20,000 people were forcibly deported either to [[labor camp]]s or [[Siberia]] (see [[Gulag]]).<ref name="vr18">[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], page 18</ref> Within the few weeks that followed, almost all of the remaining rural households were [[Collectivization in the USSR|collectivized]].<sup>(ibid)</sup> |
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In 1917, after the [[February Revolution]], the governorate of Estonia [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia|was expanded]] by the [[Russian Provisional Government]] to include Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling the election of the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Calvert |first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=67 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref> The [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup|seized power]] in Estonia in November 1917, and the Provincial Assembly was disbanded. However, the Provincial Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee|Salvation Committee]], and during the short interlude between Bolshevik retreat and [[Operation Faustschlag|German arrival]], the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] and formed the [[Estonian Provisional Government]] on 24 February 1918 in the capital Tallinn. [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I|German occupation]] immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I, the Germans were forced to hand over power back to the Provisional Government of independent Estonia on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Calvert|first1=Peter|title= The Process of Political Succession |page=68 |year=1987|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=9 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref> |
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Half of the deported perished;<ref name="vr25-30"> [http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], pages 25-30</ref> the other half were not allowed to return until the early 1960s (years after Stalin's death).{{Fact|date=October 2007}} The various repressive activities of Soviet forces in 1940-1941 and after reoccupation sparked a [[guerrilla war]] against the Soviet authorities in Estonia which was waged into the early 1950s by "[[forest brothers]]" (''metsavennad'') consisting mostly of Estonian veterans of both the German and Finnish armies as well as some civilians. |
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[[Image:Osmussaar27.jpg|thumb|Western bank of [[Osmussaar]] island]] |
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<!--After the end of [[World War I]], in the 1918–1920 [[Estonian War of Independence|War of Independence]], Estonians were able to repel the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Soviet Russia|Russian]] invasion and [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|successfully defended]] their newborn freedom.-->On 28 November 1918, [[Soviet Russia]] invaded, starting the [[Estonian War of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75 75]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/75}}</ref> The [[Red Army]] came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the [[Estonian Army]], led by [[Johan Laidoner]], went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army, in co-operation with [[White movement|White Russian]] forces, advanced into Russia and [[Latvia]].<ref name="Pinder76">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76 76]|year=1990|publisher= ABC-CLIO|isbn= 9781576078006|url= https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/76}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1= Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=10 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn= 9781403919557}}</ref> In June 1919, Estonia [[Battle of Cēsis (1919)|defeated]] the [[Baltische Landeswehr|German Landeswehr]] which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a [[Battle of Krivasoo|major offensive]] against [[Narva]] in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.<ref name="Pinder76"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia |page=11 |year=2000|publisher= Springer |isbn=9781403919557}}</ref> |
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Material damage caused by the world war and the following Soviet [[planned economy|era]] significantly slowed Estonia's [[economic growth]], resulting in a wide [[wealth gap]] in comparison with neighboring [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]].<ref>[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat], pages 125, 148</ref> |
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<!--[[File:Soomusrong nr 2 Valgas 1919.jpg|thumb|left|Estonian improvised [[armoured train]] during the [[Estonian War of Independence]] (1919)]]-->In April 1919, the [[Estonian Constituent Assembly]] was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping [[Estonian Land Reform of 1919|land reform]] expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]] establishing Estonia as a [[Riigikogu|parliamentary]] democracy.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia |pages=80–81|year= 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Raun |first1=Toivo U.|title= Estonia and the Estonians: Second edition, updated|page=128 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn= 9780817928537}}</ref> In 1924, the [[Soviet Union]] organised a communist [[1924 Estonian coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]], which quickly failed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Leonard|first1= Raymond W.|title= Secret Soldiers of the Revolution: Soviet Military Intelligence, 1918–1933|pages=34–36 |year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313309908}}</ref> Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bell|first1=Imogen|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2003|page=244 |year=2002|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431360}}</ref> The [[Great Depression]] put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing [[Vaps movement]] spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page= 18 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas|first1= Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980|page=11 |year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520046252}}</ref> On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, [[Konstantin Päts]], extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts went on to rule by decree for several years, while the parliament did not reconvene ("[[era of silence]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=19–20 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> A new constitution was adopted in a 1937 referendum, and in 1938 a new bicameral [[1938 Estonian parliamentary election|parliament was elected]] in a popular vote, where both pro-government and opposition candidates participated.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages= 21 |year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref> The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in [[Interwar period|interwar]] Europe, and the régime never used violence against political opponents.<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Smith|first1= David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|pages=22 |year=2013|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9781136452130}}</ref> |
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Militarization was another aspect of the Soviet regime. Large parts of the country, especially the coastal areas were restricted to all but the Soviet military.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Most of the sea shore and all sea islands (including [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]]) were declared "border zones". People not actually resident there were restricted from traveling to them without a permit. A notable closed military installation was the city of [[Paldiski]] which was entirely closed to all public access.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} The city had a support base for the Soviet [[Baltic Fleet]]'s submarines and several large military bases, including a nuclear submarine training centre complete with a full-scale model of a nuclear submarine with working nuclear reactors. The reactor building passed into Estonian control a year after the Soviet troops left. |
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Estonia joined the [[League of Nations]] in 1921.<ref name="Ginneken">{{Cite book|last1=van Ginneken|first1= Anique H. M. |title=Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations|page=82 |year=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810865136}}</ref> Attempts to establish a [[Warsaw Accord|larger alliance]] together with [[Finland]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the [[Baltic Entente]] of 1934.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= von Rauch|first1=Georg |title=Die Geschichte der baltischen Staaten|pages=108–111 |year=1974|publisher= University of California Press|isbn=9780520026001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2= Lane |first2= Thomas |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War|page=7 |year=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521531207}}</ref> In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in secret [[Finnish–Estonian defence cooperation|military co-operation with Finland]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Åselius|first1=Gunnar |title= The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Navy in the Baltic 1921–1941|page= 119 |year=2004 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=9781135769604}}</ref> Non-aggression pacts were signed [[Soviet–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with the Soviet Union]] in 1932, and [[German–Estonian Non-Aggression Pact|with Germany]] in 1939.<ref name="Ginneken"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3= Purs|first3= Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=154 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref> In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Gärtner |first1=Heinz |title=Engaged Neutrality: An Evolved Approach to the Cold War |page=125 |year=2017|publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498546195}}</ref> |
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[[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|Immigration]] was another effect of Soviet occupation. Hundreds of thousands of migrants were relocated to Estonia from other parts of [[Soviet Union]] to assist industrialization and militarization, contributing an increase of about half million people within 45 years.<ref name="vr20">[http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf Valge raamat]</ref> By 1980, when the [[Sailing at the 1980 Summer Olympics|Olympic Regatta]] of the [[1980 Olympic Games]] was held in Tallinn, russification and immigration had achieved a level at which it began to spark popular protests. |
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===World War II=== |
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{{Main|Estonia in World War II|Occupation of the Baltic states}} |
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The [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] and the majority of other western democracies considered the [[Stimson Doctrine|annexation of Estonia by USSR illegal]]. They retained diplomatic relations with the representatives of the independent Republic of Estonia, never ''[[de jure]]'' recognized the existence of the Estonian SSR, and never recognized Estonia as a legal constituent part of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal | last=European Parliament | title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania | journal=Official Journal of the European Communities | volume=C 42/78 | date=January 13, 1983 | url=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg }} ''"whereas the Soviet annexias of the three Baltic States still has not been formally recognized by most European States and the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and the Vatican still adhere to the concept of the Baltic States"''.</ref> Estonia's return to independence became possible as the Soviet Union ran into economic difficulties as a consequence of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s ''[[perestroika]]'' and ''[[glasnost]]'' reforms, and began to disintegrate. As the 1980s progressed, a movement for Estonian autonomy started. In the initial period of 1987-1989, this was partially for more economic independence, but as the Soviet Union weakened and it became increasingly obvious that nothing short of full independence would do, the country began a course towards self-determination. |
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[[File:Red Army entering into Estonia in 1939.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Red Army]] troops moving into military bases in Estonia in October 1939, after the Soviet Union had forced Estonia to sign the [[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|Bases Treaty]].]] |
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[[Image:Estonia-Soviet army leaving in 1991.jpg|200px|thumb|right|<small>[[31 August]] [[1994]] the last remaining elements of the [[Soviet Army]] leave Estonia.</small>]] |
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A week before the outbreak of [[World War II]], on 23 August 1939, [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. In the pact's [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations|secret protocol]] Poland, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were divided between USSR and Germany into "spheres of influence", with Estonia assigned to the Soviet "sphere".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=335|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> On 24 September 1939, the Soviet dictator [[Stalin]] presented the Estonian government an ultimatum demanding that Estonia immediately sign a treaty that would allow the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia, or else face war. The Estonian government decided to avoid military conflict, and a "[[Soviet–Estonian Mutual Assistance Treaty|mutual assistance treaty]]" was signed in Moscow on 28 September 1939.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John |last2=Salmon|first2=Patrick |title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century |page=110 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89057-7}}</ref> On 14 June 1940 the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia. On the same day, the airliner ''[[Kaleva (airplane)|Kaleva]]'' was shot down by the [[Soviet Air Force]]. On 16 June, the USSR presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raukas |first1=Anto |title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld |page=309 |year=2002 |publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus |language=et |isbn=9985701151}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Eric A. |last1=Johnson |first2=Anna |last2=Hermann |date=May 2007 |title=The Last Flight from Tallinn |work=Foreign Service Journal |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117175841/http://finland.usembassy.gov/root/pdfs/antheil_article.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |publisher=American Foreign Service Association}}</ref> On 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the [[Estonian SSR]].<ref name=malksoo>{{Cite book|first=Lauri |last=Mälksoo|year=2003|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR|location= Leiden – Boston|publisher= Brill|isbn= 90-411-2177-3}}</ref> |
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[[File:TLA 1465 1 973 Varemetes Harju tänav, vasakul Kuld Lõvi varemed 1944.jpg|thumb|left|The capital Tallinn after [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|bombing by the Soviet Air Force]] during the war on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] in March 1944]] |
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In 1989, during the "[[Singing Revolution]]", in a landmark demonstration for more independence, called [[The Baltic Way]], a human chain of more than two million people was formed, stretching through [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]] and Estonia. All three nations had similar experiences of occupation and similar aspirations for regaining independence. Estonia formally declared independence on [[August 20]], [[1991]], reconstituting the pre-1940 state, during the [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|Soviet military coup attempt]] in Moscow. The first country to diplomatically recognize Estonia's reclaimed independence was [[Iceland]]. The last Russian troops left on [[31 August]] [[1994]]. Estonia joined [[NATO]] on [[29 March]] [[2004]] and the [[European Union]] on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. |
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The USSR established a repressive wartime regime in occupied Estonia. Many of the country's high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested. Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June 1941 with [[June deportation|mass deportation]] of around 11,000 people to [[Russia]].<ref name="Miljan110">{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gatrell|first1=Peter |last2=Baron|first2=Nick |title=Warlands: Population Resettlement and State Reconstruction in the Soviet-East European Borderlands, 1945–50 |page=233 |year=2009 |publisher= Springer|isbn=978-0-230-24693-5}}</ref> When [[Operation Barbarossa]] (accompanied by Estonian [[Guerilla warfare|guerrilla soldiers]] called "[[Forest Brothers]]"<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Peeter |last1=Kaasik |first2=Mika |last2=Raudvassar |year=2006|pages=496–517|chapter=Estonia from June to October, 1941: Forest brothers and Summer War|editor-first1=Toomas |editor-last1=Hiio |editor-first2=Meelis |editor-last2=Maripuu |editor-first3=Indrek |editor-last3=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the [[Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|location=Tallinn}}</ref>) began against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in the form of the "[[Summer War]]" ({{lang-et|Suvesõda}}), around 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the [[Red Army]], fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Soviet [[destruction battalions]] initiated a scorched earth policy. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated [[NKVD prisoner massacres|were executed]] by the [[NKVD]].<ref>The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence by Anatol Lieven p424 {{ISBN|0-300-06078-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=34 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48304-2}}</ref> Many Estonians went into the forest, starting an anti-Soviet guerrilla campaign. In July, German [[Wehrmacht]] reached south Estonia. The USSR [[Soviet evacuation of Tallinn|evacuated Tallinn]] in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October.<ref name="pinder80">{{Cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=David|title=Western Europe: Challenge and Change|page=[https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80 80]|year=1990|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|url=https://archive.org/details/easterneuropeint0000unse/page/80}}</ref> |
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Initially, many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet [[Estonian Self-Administration|collaborationist administration]] was established, and [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II|occupied Estonia]] was merged into [[Reichskommissariat Ostland]], with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=209|year=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7513-5}}</ref> About a thousand [[Estonian Jews]] who had not managed to leave were almost all [[Holocaust in Estonia|quickly killed]] in 1941. Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, [[Romani people|Romani]], and [[German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet prisoners of war]] perished.<ref name="CommissionReport">{{cite web|title=Conclusions of the Commission|url=http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|publisher=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629035526/http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimger|archive-date=29 June 2008|year=1998}}</ref> German occupation authorities started recruiting men into small [[Estonian Legion|volunteer units]] but, as these efforts provided meagre results and the military situation worsened, forced conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)|Estonian Waffen-SS division]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith |first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|page=36 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45213-0}}</ref> Thousands of Estonians who did not want to fight in the [[Wehrmacht|German military]] secretly escaped to Finland, where [[Finnish Infantry Regiment 200|many volunteered]] to fight together with Finns [[Continuation War|against Soviets]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=275|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6571-6}}</ref> |
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==Geography== |
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{{main|Geography of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Estlandssvenska flyktingar.jpg|thumb|right|alt=sailing ship filled with refugees|A ship with [[Estonian Swedes]] fleeing west from the Soviet invasion (1944)]] |
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===Topography=== |
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The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped in [[Battle of Narva (1944)|heavy fighting near Narva]] for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.<ref name="Raun159">{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=159 |year=2002 |publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-2853-7}}</ref> In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raids [[Bombing of Tallinn in World War II|against Tallinn]] and other Estonian towns.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=18|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers |isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> In July, the Soviets started [[Tallinn Offensive|a major offensive]] from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September and the Estonian islands in November.<ref name="Raun159" /> As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime minister [[Jüri Uluots]] [[National Committee of the Republic of Estonia|appointed a government]] headed by [[Otto Tief]] in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kasekamp|first1=Andres|title=A History of the Baltic States|page=138 |year=2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36450-9}}</ref> Tens of thousands of people, including most of the [[Estonian Swedes]], fled westwards to avoid the new Soviet occupation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan |display-authors=etal |editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=30|year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> |
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Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] immediately across the Gulf of Finland from Finland on the level northwestern part of the rising east European platform between 57.3° and 59.5° N and 21.5° and 28.1° E. Average elevation reaches only 50 meters (164 ft) and the country's highest point is the [[Suur Munamägi]] in the southeast at 318 meters (1,043 ft).<ref name="worldinfo">{{cite web |title=World InfoZone - Estonia |url=http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Estonia |publisher=World InfoZonek, LTD. |work=World InfoZone |access_date=2007-2-20}}</ref> |
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Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kangilaski|first1=Jaan|display-authors=etal|editor-last=Salo|editor-first=Vello |title=The white book: losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes, 1940–1991|page=37 |year=2005|publisher=Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers|isbn=9789985701959}}</ref> Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the [[Russian SFSR]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald J. |last2=Taagepera|first2=Rein |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence, 1940–1980 |page=71|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2}}</ref> |
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[[Oil shale]] (or [[kukersite]]) and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over [[List of lakes in Estonia|1,400 lakes]]. Most are very small, with the largest, [[Lake Peipus]], (Peipsi in Estonian) being 3555 km² (1372 sq mi). There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Võhandu (162 km), Pärnu (144 km), and Põltsamaa (135 km).<ref name="worldinfo">[http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Estonia World Info Zone]</ref> Estonia also boasts numerous [[bogs]], and 3794 [[kilometer]]s (2,357 [[mile|mi]]) of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 1,500. Two are large enough to constitute their own counties: [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]].<ref name="worldinfo">[http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Estonia World Info Zone]</ref> |
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===Second Soviet occupation=== |
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===Climate=== |
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{{Main|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Occupation of the Baltic states|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}} |
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Estonia lies in the northern part of the [[Temperate|temperate climate zone]] and in the transition zone between [[Maritime climate|maritime]] and [[continental climate]]. Because Estonia (and all of [[Northern Europe]]) is continuously warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]] it has a milder climate despite its northern latitude. The [[Baltic Sea]] causes differences between the climate of coastal and inland areas. |
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[[File:Eesti metsavennad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Estonian partisans]], the "Forest Brothers".]] |
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Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "[[Estonian partisans|Forest Brothers]]". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Raun|first1=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated|page=174 |year=2002|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviets initiated a [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|policy of collectivisation]], but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonians [[Operation Priboi|were deported]] to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Purs|first1=Aldis|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945|page=335|year=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref> |
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The Russian-dominated occupation authorities under the Soviet Union began [[Russification]], with hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia|Russians]] and other "[[Soviet people]]"<!-- i.e. people of other "Soviet nationalities"--> being induced to settle in occupied Estonia, in a process which eventually threatened to turn indigenous Estonians into a minority in their own native land.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book|last1=Taagepera|first1=Rein|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State|page=128|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puur |first1=Allan |last2=Rahnu |first2=Leen |last3=Sakkeus |first3=Luule |last4=Klesment |first4=Martin |last5=Abuladze |first5=Liili |date=22 March 2018 |title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf |journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)|Demographic Research]] |volume=38 |issue=38 |page=1117 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 |access-date= 7 January 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=96 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> By March 1949, 60,000 people were deported from Estonia and 50,000 from Latvia to the [[Gulag|gulag system]] in Siberia, where death rates were 30%. The occupying regime established an Estonian Communist Party, where Russians were the majority in party membership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Misiunas |first1=Romuald |title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 |page=78 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|page=227|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.<ref name="Taagepera97"/> The country was heavily militarised, with closed military areas covering 2% of territory.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spyra|first1=Wolfgang |last2=Katzsch |first2=Michael |title=Environmental Security and Public Safety: Problems and Needs in Conversion Policy and Research after 15 Years of Conversion in Central and Eastern Europe |page=14|year=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402056444}}</ref> Islands and most of the coastal areas were turned into a restricted border zone which required a special permit for entry.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Stöcker|first1=Lars Fredrik |title=Bridging the Baltic Sea: Networks of Resistance and Opposition during the Cold War Era |page=72|year=2017 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498551281}}</ref> Estonia was quite closed until the second half of the 1960s, when gradually Estonians began to covertly watch [[Finnish television]] in the northern parts of the country, thus getting a better picture of the way of life behind the [[Iron Curtain]].<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | title = Window to the West: Memories of watching Finnish television in Estonia during the Soviet period | first1 = Annika | last1 = Lepp | first2 = Mervi | last2 = Pantti | format = PDF | journal = VIEW | date = 2013 | number = 3/2013 | pages = 80–81 | publisher = Journal of European Television History and Culture | access-date = October 11, 2021 | language = en | archive-date = 18 December 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181218054651/http://viewjournal.eu/european-television-memories/window-to-the-west/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> |
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The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5 °C. The average temperature in February, the coldest month of the year, is -5.2 °C. The average temperature in July, which is considered the warmest month of the year, is 18 °C. |
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The majority of Western countries [[Stimson Doctrine|considered]] the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Feldbrugge|first1=F. J. Ferdinand Joseph Maria |last2=Van den Berg|first2=Gerard Pieter|last3=Simons |first3=William Bradford |title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law |page=461|year=1985 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789024730759}}</ref> [[State continuity of the Baltic states|Legal continuity]] of the Estonian state was preserved through the [[Estonian government-in-exile|government-in-exile]] and the Estonian [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–91)|diplomatic representatives]] which Western governments continued to recognise.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lane|first1=Thomas |last2=Pabriks|first2=Artis |last3=Purs|first3=Aldis |last4=Smith|first4=David J. |title=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania|page=xx |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136483042}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frankowski|first1=Stanisław |last2=Stephan III|first2=Paul B. |title=Legal Reform in Post-Communist Europe: The View from Within |page=73|year=1995 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=9780792332183}}</ref> |
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The climate is also influenced by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the [[North-Atlantic Stream]] and the [[Icelandic Minimum]], which is an area known for the formation of cyclones and where the average air pressure is lower than in neighbouring areas. |
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===Independence restored=== |
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Estonia is located in a humid zone in which the amount of precipitation is greater than total evaporation. There are about 160 to 190 rainy days a year, and average precipitation is most plentiful on the western slopes of the Sakala and Haanja Uplands. Snow cover, which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia, usually lasts from mid-December to late March. |
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{{Main|Singing Revolution}} |
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<!--[[File:24.02. kell 8.33. 1989 Toompeal (02).jpg|thumb|right|The blue-black-white [[flag of Estonia]] was raised again on the top of the [[Pikk Hermann]] tower on February 24, 1989.]]--> |
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[[File:Balti kett 22.jpg|thumb|left|In the [[Baltic Way]] on 23 August 1989, two million people formed a human chain across three countries in a mass demonstration against the Soviet occupation.]] |
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The introduction of ''[[perestroika]]'' by the Soviet central government in 1987 made open political activity possible again in Estonia, which triggered an independence restoration process later known as ''laulev revolutsioon'' ("[[Singing Revolution|the Singing revolution]]").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Backes|first1=Uwe |last2=Moreau |first2=Patrick |title=Communist and Post-Communist Parties in Europe: Schriften Des Hannah-Arendt-Instituts Für Totalitarismusforschung 36 |page=9|year=2008 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9783525369128}}</ref> The environmental ''Fosforiidisõda'' ("[[Phosphorite War|Phosphorite war]]") campaign became the first major protest movement against the [[Government of the Soviet Union|central government]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vogt|first1=Henri |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |pages=20–22|year=2005 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=9781571818959}}</ref> In 1988, new political movements appeared, such as the [[Popular Front of Estonia]], which came to represent the moderate wing in the independence movement, and the more radical [[Estonian National Independence Party]], which was the first non-communist party in the Soviet Union and demanded full restoration of independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Simons|first1=Greg |last2=Westerlund |first2=David |title=Religion, Politics and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Countries |page=151 |year=2015 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn=9781472449719}}</ref> On 16 November 1988, after the first non-rigged multi-candidate elections in half a century, the parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia issued the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|Sovereignty Declaration]], asserting the primacy of Estonian laws. Over the next two years, many other administrative parts (or [[Republics of the Soviet Union|"republics"]]) of the USSR followed the Estonian example, issuing similar declarations.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |pages=46–48|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Edward W. |title=Dissolution: Sovereignty and the Breakup of the Soviet Union |page=[https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63 63] |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742524538 |url=https://archive.org/details/dissolutionsover00walk/page/63}}</ref> On 23 August 1989, about 2 million Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians participated in a mass demonstration, forming the [[Baltic Way]] human chain across the three countries.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=52|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In February 1990, elections were held to form the [[Congress of Estonia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David |title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration |page=54|year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136452130}}</ref> In March 1991, a [[1991 Estonian independence referendum|referendum was held]] where 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt in Moscow]], Estonia [[Estonian restoration of Independence|declared restoration of independence]] on 20 August 1991.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gill|first1=Graeme |title=Democracy and Post-Communism: Political Change in the Post-Communist World |page=41|year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134485567}}</ref> |
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Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the [[United Nations]].<ref name="Dillon164">{{Cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patricia |last2=Wykoff |first2=Frank C. |title=Creating Capitalism: Transitions and Growth in Post-Soviet Europe|page=164|year=2002 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref> The last units of the [[Russian army]] left Estonia in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Nørgaard|first1=Ole |title=The Baltic States After Independence|page=188|year=1999|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=9781843765561}}</ref> |
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==Administrative regions== |
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The Republic of Estonia is divided into fifteen [[Counties of Estonia|counties]] ''(Maakonnad)'' which are the administrative subdivisions of the country. The first documented mentioning of Estonian political and administrative subdivisions comes from the [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]], written in the [[13th century]] during the [[Northern Crusades]].<ref>[[History of Estonia]] History of Estonia</ref> |
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{{Image with scale |
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|image=[[Image:Estonian-counties.jpg|thumb|none|310px|<small>[[Counties of Estonia|Administrative subdivisions]] of the [[Estonia|Republic of Estonia]]. Also includes the [[Pechory|annexed territories]] by [[Russia]].<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartu_Peace_Treaty Soviet territorial changes against Estonia</ref></small>]] |
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|float=right |scale=310 |x=0.06 |y=0.9 |high=9900 |width=544 |bl=0.133 |bw=1px |bc=black |fc=black |
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|text=<small>50 km</small> |
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}} |
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===Counties=== |
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{{main|Counties of Estonia}} |
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A ''[[county|maakond]]'' (county) is the biggest administrative subdivision. |
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The [[government|county government]] ''(Maavalitsus)'' of each county is led by a [[governor|county governor]] ''(Maavanem)'', who represents the [[government|national government]] at the regional level. Governors are appointed by [[Government of Estonia|Eesti Valitsus]] (government) for a term of five years. Several changes were made to the borders of counties after Estonia became independent, most notably the formation of [[Valga County]] (from parts of [[Võru County|Võru]], [[Tartu County|Tartu]] and [[Viljandi County|Viljandi]] counties) and [[Pechory|Petseri County]] (area acquired from Russia with the [[1920]] [[Tartu Peace Treaty]]). |
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On 28 September 1994, the [[Sinking of the MS Estonia|MS Estonia sank]] as the ship was crossing the Baltic Sea, en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed the lives of 852 people (501 of them were Swedes<ref>{{cite web |title=Sweden pays tribute |url=https://www.thelocal.se/20140928/sweden-pays-tribute-to-estonia-disaster-victims |website=www.thelocal.se}}</ref>), being one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Henley |first1=Jon |last2=correspondent |first2=Jon Henley Europe |title=Estonia ferry disaster inquiry backs finding bow door was to blame |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/23/estonia-ferry-disaster-inquiry-backs-finding-bow-door-was-to-blame |work=The Guardian |date=23 January 2023}}</ref> |
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During the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet rule]], [[Pechory|Petseri County]] was annexed and ceded to the [[Russian SFSR]] in [[1945]] where it became one the [[Pskov]]s [[oblast|districts]]. Counties were again re-established in [[1 January]], [[1990]] in the borders of the Soviet-era regions. Due to the numerous differences between the current and historical (pre-[[1940]]) layouts, the historical borders are still used in ethnology, representing cultural and linguistic differences better. |
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In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ó Beacháin|first1=Donnacha |last2=Sheridan |first2=Vera |last3=Stan |first3=Sabina |title=Life in Post-Communist Eastern Europe after EU Membership| page=170|year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136299810}}</ref> Estonia has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] since 13 November 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htm#:~:text=Estonia%20has%20been%20a%20member%20of%20WTO%20since,Communities%20for%20legal%20reasons%29%20in%20its%20own%20right. |title=Estonia and the WTO |publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref> |
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===Municipalities and cities=== |
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{{main|Municipalities of Estonia|Boroughs of Estonia|Small boroughs of Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}} |
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{| style="background:transparent;" cellspacing="2px" |
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{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%" |
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|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:left" |
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!width="330px"|[[Counties of Estonia|Counties]]!!width="150px"|[[Capital]]!!width="180px"|[[Area]]!!width="160px"|[[Population]]</tr> |
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|- |
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| [[Harju County|Harjumaa]] || [[Tallinn]] || style="text-align:right"|4,333 km²|| style="text-align:right"|521,410 |
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| [[Hiiu County|Hiiumaa]] || [[Kärdla]] || style="text-align:right"|989 km²|| style="text-align:right"|10,289 |
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| [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Virumaa]] || [[Jõhvi]] ||style="text-align:right"|3,364 km²|| style="text-align:right"|174,809 |
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| [[Järva County|Järvamaa]] || [[Paide]] || style="text-align:right"|2,623 km²|| style="text-align:right"|38,255 |
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| [[Jõgeva County|Jõgevamaa]] || [[Jõgeva]] || style="text-align:right"|2,604 km²|| style="text-align:right"|37,647 |
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| [[Lääne County|Läänemaa]] || [[Haapsalu]] ||style="text-align:right"|2,383 km²|| style="text-align:right"|28,101 |
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| [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Virumaa]] || [[Rakvere]] ||style="text-align:right"|3,627 km²|| style="text-align:right"|68,090 |
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|- |
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| [[Pärnu County|Pärnumaa]] || [[Pärnu]] || style="text-align:right"|4,807 km²|| style="text-align:right"|89,660 |
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| [[Põlva County|Põlvamaa]] || [[Põltsamaa]] || style="text-align:right"|2,165 km²|| style="text-align:right"|31,954 |
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| [[Rapla County|Raplamaa]] || [[Rapla]] || style="text-align:right"|2,980 km²|| style="text-align:right"|37,093 |
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| [[Saare County|Saaremaa]] || [[Kuressaare]] || style="text-align:right"|2,673 km²|| style="text-align:right"|35,356 |
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| [[Tartu County|Tartumaa]] || [[Tartu]] || style="text-align:right"|2,993 km²|| style="text-align:right"|148,872 |
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|- |
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| [[Valga County|Valgamaa]] || [[Valga]] || style="text-align:right"|2,044 km²|| style="text-align:right"|35,059 |
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|- |
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| [[Viljandi County|Viljandimaa]] || [[Viljandi]] || style="text-align:right"|3,422 km²|| style="text-align:right"|56,854 |
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|- |
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| [[Võru County|Võrumaa]] || [[Võru]] || style="text-align:right"|2,305 km²|| style="text-align:right"|38,967 |
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|- |
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| ''[[Pechory|Petserimaa]]'' <ref>Constitution_of_Estonia#Chapter_1:_General_Provisions Constitution of Estonia ''"All the territories of Estonia are indivisible and part of a unitary state"''</ref><ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartu_Peace_Treaty Soviet territorial changes against Estonia</ref><br /><small>Annexed in [[1945]] by [[Russian SFSR]] and since [[1991]] by [[Territorial_changes_of_the_Baltic_states#Actual territorial changes after World War II|Russia]].</small>|| [[Petseri]] || style="text-align:right"|1,582 km²|| style="text-align:right"|30,000 |
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|} |
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|An ''[[Municipality|omavalitsus]]'' (municipality) is the smallest administrative subdivision of Estonia. Each [[county]] is further divided into [[Municipalities of Estonia|municipalities]] which are of two types: [[Urban area|urban municipality]],or ''[[town|linn]]'' (''town''), and [[rural municipality]], or ''[[parish|vald]]'' (''parish''). There is no other status distinction between them. Each municipality is a unit of [[self-government]] with its [[representative]] and [[executive]] bodies. The [[municipality|municipalities]] in Estonia cover the entire territory of the [[country]]. |
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Since regaining independence in 1991, Estonian foreign policy has been aligned with other [[Western world|Western democracies]], and in 2004 Estonia joined both the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miljan|first1=Toivo|title=Historical Dictionary of Estonia|pages=18–19|year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780810875135}}</ref> On 9 December 2010, Estonia became a member of [[OECD]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oecd.mfa.ee/estonia-and-oecd/|title=Estonia and OECD|website=Estonia in OECD}}</ref> On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the [[eurozone]] and adopted the [[euro]], the single currency of EU.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12098513|title=Estonia becomes 17th member of the euro zone|work=BBC News|date=31 December 2010}}</ref> Estonia was a member of the [[UN Security council|UN Security Council]] from 2020 to 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vm.ee/en/activities-objectives/estonia-united-nations/estonia-un-security-council|title=Estonia in the UN Security Council | Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=vm.ee}}</ref> |
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Municipality may contain one or several [[Populated places in Estonia|populated places]]. Some [[urban area|urban municipalities]] are divided into ''[[districts|linnaosad]]'' (districts) with limited [[self-government]], e.g. Tallinn consists of 8 districts ([[Haabersti]], [[Kesklinn]], [[Kristiine]], [[Lasnamäe]], [[Mustamäe]], [[Nõmme]], [[Pirita]] and [[Põhja-Tallinn]]). |
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Estonia celebrated its [[100th Anniversary of the Estonian Republic|centennial anniversary]] on 24 February 2018, with other celebrations spanning from April 2017 to 2 February 2020, which was 100 years since the [[Treaty of Tartu (Estonia–Russia)|Tartu Peace Treaty]] was signed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Invitation to the birthday celebrations of the Republic of Estonia |url=https://www.ev100.ee/en/Node/149 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304055021/https://www.ev100.ee/en/Node/149 |archive-date=4 March 2018 |access-date=12 March 2018 |publisher=}}</ref> A [[100th Anniversary of the Estonian Republic#Centennial parade|parade]] took place on 24 February 2018 in [[Freedom Square, Tallinn|Freedom Square]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ERR |date=2018-02-24 |title=Gallery: Independence Day parade on Tallinn's Freedom Square |url=https://news.err.ee/685636/gallery-independence-day-parade-on-tallinn-s-freedom-square |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=ERR |language=en}}</ref> |
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Municipalities are ranging in size from [[Tallinn]] with 400,000 inhabitants to [[Ruhnu]] with as few as 60. As over two-thirds of the municipalities have a population of under 3,000, many of them have found it advantageous to co-operate in providing services and carrying out administrative functions. |
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Since March [[2008]] there are total of 227 municipalities in Estonia, 33 of them are urban and 194 are rural. |
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==Geography== |
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{{main|Cities of Estonia}} |
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{{Main|Geography of Estonia}} |
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Tallinn is the [[capital]] and largest city of Estonia. It lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the [[Gulf of Finland]]. The city is an important industrial, political and cultural center, and [[seaport]]. There are currently [[List of towns in Estonia|33]] [[city|cities]] and several town-parish towns in the county. More than 70% of the entire population lives in the towns. The 20 largest cities are shown on the table below: |
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[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|Satellite image of Estonia]] |
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Estonia is situated in [[Europe]],{{efn|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]] between 57°30′ and 59°49′ N and 21°46′ and 28°13′ E.<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal|last=Raukas|first=Anto|author-link=Anto Raukas|title=Briefly about Estonia |journal=Dynamiques Environnementales|year=2018|volume=42|issue=42 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230|issn=2534-4358|pages=284–291|s2cid=240432618 |access-date=5 March 2023|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia|title=Estonia|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]|date=15 March 2021|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/|title=Methodology |publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Lake Peipsi]] and [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saar|first1=Asmu|editor-last=Raukas|editor-first=Anto|editor-link1=Anto Raukas|chapter=Üldandmed|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld|page=9|year=2002|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus|language=et|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> Estonian territory covers {{convert|45335|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> When including the [[territorial sea]], the Estonian border encompasses {{convert|70177|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.delfi.ee/artikkel/41030503/ulemootmine-soome-on-veidi-pisem-eesti-ikka-sama-suur|title=Ülemõõtmine: Soome on veidi pisem, Eesti ikka sama suur |publisher=[[Delfi (web portal)|Delfi]]|date=25 February 2011|language=et|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> |
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{{Estonian cities}} |
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Estonia has a {{convert|3794|km|mi|0}} long coastline, notable for its [[Cliffed coast|limestone cliffs]] at the northern coast and largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia|title=Information about Estonia|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications|Estonian Information System Authority]]|date=9 November 2022|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are Saaremaa and Hiiumaa. There are over 1560 [[List of lakes of Estonia|natural lakes]], the largest being Lake Peipus at the border of Russia, and [[Võrtsjärv]] in central Estonia. Additionally there are many artificial water reservoirs. There are over [[List of rivers of Estonia|7000 rivers]], streams, and canals in the country; of these, only ten are longer than {{convert|100|km|mi|0}}. The longest rivers of Estonia are [[Võhandu]] — {{convert|162|km|mi|0}} and [[Pärnu (river)|Pärnu]] —{{convert|144|km|mi|0}}, followed by the [[Põltsamaa (river)|Põltsamaa]], [[Pedja (river)|Pedja]], [[Kasari (river)|Kasari]], [[Keila (river)|Keila]], and [[Jägala (river)|Jägala]] rivers. [[Bogs]] and [[mire]]s cover 23.2% of the land. Generally the terrain is flat, average elevation above the sea level being about {{convert|50|m|ft|0}}. Only 10% of the country's terrain is greater than {{convert|100|m|ft|0}} in height, with [[Haanja Upland]] containing the highest peak, [[Suur Munamägi]], at {{convert|318|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> |
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===Location in Europe=== |
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Located in [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web |title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU |url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en |website=op.europa.eu |access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of Northern Europe, the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition|first=OECD Statistics|last=Directorate|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|title=Estonia|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe. A recent version of the online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in "northeastern Europe".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Estonia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> |
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=== Climate === |
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{{Main|2 = Climate of Estonia}} |
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Estonia is situated in the [[temperate|temperate climate zone]], and in the transition zone between [[maritime climate|maritime]] and [[Köppen climate classification#Group D: Continental/microthermal climates|continental climate]], characterized by warm summers and fairly mild winters. Primary local differences are caused by the Baltic Sea, which warms the coastal areas in winter, and cools them in the spring.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/><ref name="EEA"/> Average temperatures range from {{convert|17.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in July, the warmest month, to {{convert|-3.8|°C|1|abbr=on}} in February, the coldest month, with the annual average being {{convert|6.4|°C|1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature is {{convert|35.6|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1992, and the lowest is {{convert|-43.5|°C|1|abbr=on}} from 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/ohutemperatuur/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Temperature|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> The annual average precipitation is {{convert|662|mm|1}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> with the daily record being {{convert|148|mm|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/rekordid/sademed/?lang=en|title=Weather records - Precipitation|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> Snow cover varies significantly on different years.<ref name="EEA"/> Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, with average wind speed being 3–5 m/s inland and 5–7 m/s on coast.<ref name="EEA"/> The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/kliima/kliimanormid/paikesepaiste-kestus/?lang=en|title=Climate normals - Sunshine|publisher=Estonian Environment Agency |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref> |
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===Biodiversity=== |
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{{Main|Fauna of Estonia|Protected areas of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Landsvale.jpg|thumb|right|The [[barn swallow]] (''H. r. rustica'') is the national bird of Estonia.]] |
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Due to varied climatic and soil conditions, and plethora of sea and internal waters, Estonia is one of the most biodiverse regions among the similar sized territories at the same [[latitude]].<ref name="EEA"/> Many species extinct in most other European countries can be still found in Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=4, 6–7|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> |
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Recorded species include 64 [[mammal]]s, 11 [[amphibian]]s, and 5 [[reptile]]s.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Large mammals present in Estonia include the [[Eurasian wolf|grey wolf]], [[Eurasian lynx|lynx]], [[brown bear]], [[red fox]], [[European badger|badger]], [[wild boar]], [[moose]], [[roe deer]], [[Eurasian beaver|beaver]], [[Eurasian otter|otter]], [[grey seal]], and [[ringed seal]]. The critically endangered [[European mink]] has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa, and the rare [[Siberian flying squirrel]] is present in east Estonia.<ref name="Taylor_1"/> The [[red deer]], once extirpated, has also been successfully reintroduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loodusveeb.ee/en/themes/species-and-their-distribution/how-much-has-mammal-fauna-estonia-changed|title=How much has the mammal fauna in Estonia changed?|publisher=Loodusveeb|first1=Uudo|last1=Timm|first2=Tiit|last2=Maran|date=March 2020|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> In the beginning of the 21st century, an isolated population of [[European jackal]]s was confirmed in Western Estonia, much further north than their earlier known range. The number of jackals has grown quickly in coastal areas of Estonia and can be found in [[Matsalu National Park]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maaleht.delfi.ee/artikkel/65914222/peep-mannil-laanemaal-elab-veel-vahemalt-kaks-saakalit-toenaoliselt-rohkem|title=Peep Männil: Läänemaal elab veel vähemalt kaks šaakalit, tõenäoliselt rohkem|website=[[Maaleht]]|date=3 April 2013|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.postimees.ee/4229725/saakalite-jahihooaeg-pikenes-kahe-kuu-vorra|title=Šaakalite jahihooaeg pikenes kahe kuu võrra|website=[[Postimees]]|first=Andres|last=Einmann|date=1 September 2017|access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref> Introduced mammals include [[sika deer]], [[European fallow deer|fallow deer]], [[Common raccoon dog|raccoon dog]], [[muskrat]], and [[American mink]].<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> |
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Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the [[white-tailed eagle]], [[lesser spotted eagle]], [[golden eagle]], [[western capercaillie]], [[Black Stork|black]] and [[white stork]], numerous species of [[owls]], [[wader]]s, [[geese]] and many others.<ref name="Taylor_2">{{Cite book|last1=Taylor|first1= Neil|title= Estonia|pages=7–8|year=2014|publisher= Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> The [[barn swallow]] is the [[national bird]] of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Spilling|first1=Michael|title=Estonia|page=11|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9781841624877}}</ref> |
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[[File:Tarvasjõgi.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tarvasjõgi]] flowing through [[Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve]]]] |
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[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the territory of Estonia belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Sarmatic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Estonia has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 6000 (3461 identified) [[fungi]], 3000 (2500 identified) [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]], 850 (786 identified) [[lichens]], and 600 (507 identified) [[bryophytes]]. Forests cover approximately half of the country. 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with most prevalent tree species being [[pine]] (41%), [[birch]] (28%), and [[spruce]] (23%).<ref name="Raukas_2018"/> Since 1969, the [[Centaurea cyanus|cornflower]] (''Centaurea cyanus'') has been the national flower of Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalroadwarrior.com/estonia/national-flower.html|title=National Flower|website=Global Road Warrior|publisher=World Trade Press|date=2023|access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref> |
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[[Protected areas of Estonia|Protected areas]] cover 19.4% of Estonian land and 23% of its total area together with territorial sea. Overall there are 3,883 protected natural objects, including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://envir.ee/en/climate-and-environment-protection/nature-conservation|title=Nature conservation|publisher=[[Ministry of the Environment (Estonia)|Ministry of the Environment]]|date=13 July 2021|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref> |
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==Politics== |
==Politics== |
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{{ |
{{Main|Politics of Estonia|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}} |
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{{multiple image |
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[[Politics of Estonia]] takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system.[[Image:Estonian parliament building.jpg|thumb|right|250px|<sub>The [[Estonian Parliament]] building in [[Tallinn]].</sub>]] |
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| align = left |
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===Parliament=== |
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| direction = horizontal |
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{{main|Parliament of Estonia}} |
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| caption_align = center |
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Estonia is a [[parliamentary democratic|parliamentary]], [[Representative democracy|representative]] [[Democracy|democratic]] [[republic]]. The Estonian political system operates under a framework laid out in the [[1992]] [[Constitution|constitutional document]]. Estonia [[election|elects]] a [[legislature]] on the national level. The [[Riigikogu]], exercising the [[legislative power]] , has 101 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]]. A [[head of state]] - the [[president]] - is elected for a five year term by parliament (1st-3rd round) or an electoral college (4th and subsequent rounds). Locally, Estonia elects local government councils, which vary in size, but by the election law there are minimum size of councils depending on the size of municipality. Local government councils are elected by proportional representation too. |
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| image1 = Alar Karis - August 2021.jpg |
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| width1 = 114 |
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| caption1 = [[Alar Karis]]<br /><small>[[President of Estonia|President]]<br />since 2021</small> |
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| image2 = RE Kaja Kallas.jpg |
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| width2 = 113 |
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| caption2 = [[Kaja Kallas]]<br /><small>[[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]<br />since 2021</small> |
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}} |
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Estonia is a unitary [[parliamentary republic]]. The unicameral parliament [[Riigikogu]] serves as the legislature and [[Government of Estonia|the government]] as the executive.<ref name="Toots">{{cite web |first=Anu |last=Toots |url=http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/baltikum/15260.pdf |title=2019 Parliamentary elections in Estonia |page=3 |publisher=[[Friedrich Ebert Foundation]] |date=March 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> |
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===Government and e-Government=== |
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{{main|Government of Estonia|Prime Minister of Estonia|President of Estonia}} |
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The [[Government of Estonia]] (Estonian: ''Vabariigi Valitsus'') or the [[executive branch]] is formed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]], nominated by the president and approved by the parliament.[[Image:Estonian-E-Government session.jpg|thumb|left|250px|<sub>The [[Government of Estonia|Estonian Governments having an e-session]].</sub>]] The government exercises executive power pursuant to the [[Constitution of Estonia]] and the laws of the Republic of Estonia and consists of 12 ministers, including the [[prime minister]]. The prime minister also has the right to appoint other ministers, whom he or she will assign with a subject to deal with and who will not have a ministry to control, becoming a 'minister without portfolio'. The prime minister has the right to appoint a maximum of 3 such ministers, as the limit of ministers in one government is 15. It is also known as the [[cabinet]]. The cabinet carries out the country’s domestic and foreign policy, shaped by parliament (Riigikogu); it directs and co-ordinates the work of government institutions and bears full responsibility for everything occurring within the authority of executive power. The government, headed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]], thus represents the political leadership of the country and makes decisions in the name of the whole executive power. |
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Estonian parliament Riigikogu is elected by citizens over 18 years of age for a four-year term by [[proportional representation]], and has 101 members. Riigikogu's responsibilities include approval and preservation of the national government, passing legal acts, passing the state budget, and conducting parliamentary supervision. On proposal of [[President of Estonia|the president]] Riigikogu appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-is-riigikogu/ |title=What is Riigikogu? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigikogu.ee/en/introduction-and-history/riigikogu-tasks-organisation-work/what-does-riigikogu/ |title=What does Riigikogu do? |publisher=[[Riigikogu]] |date=4 September 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> |
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Estonia has pursued the development of the [[e-state]] and [[e-government]]. [[Electronic voting|Internet voting]] is used in elections in Estonia [http://news.com.com/Estonia+pulls+off+nationwide+Net+voting/2100-1028_3-5898115.html]. |
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The first [[Internet]] voting took place in the 2005 local elections and the first in a parliamentary election was made available for the [[Estonian parliamentary election, 2007|2007 elections]], in which 30,275 individuals voted over the [[Internet]]. Voters have a chance to invalidate their vote in traditional elections, if they wish to. In its [[2007]] Worldwide Press Freedom Index, [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked Estonia 3rd out of 169 countries. |
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The [[Government of Estonia]] is formed by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] at recommendation of the President, and approved by the Riigikogu. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, carries out domestic and foreign policy. Ministers head ministries and represent its interests in the government. Sometimes ministers with no associated ministry are appointed, known as ''ministers without portfolio''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Government_and_executive_power/Government/ |title=Government |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114172058/http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Government_and_executive_power/Government/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia has been ruled by coalition governments because no party has been able to obtain an absolute majority in the parliament.<ref name="Toots"/> |
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===Law and court=== |
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{{main|Constitution of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Riigikogu hoone, Kaupo Kalda foto, 2016.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Toompea Castle pink stucco three-story building with red hip roof|The seat of the Parliament of Estonia in [[Toompea Castle]]]] |
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The supreme [[judicial power]] is vested in the [[Supreme Court]] or [[Riigikohus]], with 19 justices. The Chief Justice is appointed by the parliament for nine years on nomination by the president.[[Image:Estonia-Government-building.jpg|thumb|right|230px|<sub>The [[Government of Estonia|Estonian Governments]] building - the House of Stenbock at [[Toompea]].</sub>]]The official [[Head of State]] is the [[President of Estonia]], who gives [[assent]] to the laws passed by [[Riigikogu]], also having the right of [[President of Estonia#Veto power|sending them back]] and proposing new laws. The president, however, does not use these rights very often, having a largely ceremonial role. He or she is elected by [[Riigikogu]], with two-thirds of the votes required. If the candidate does not gain the amount of votes required, the right to elect the president goes over to an electoral body, consisting of the 101 members of Riigikogu and representatives from local councils. As other spheres, Estonian law-making has been successfully integrated with the [[Information Age]]. |
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The head of the state is [[President of Estonia|the President]] who has a primarily representative and ceremonial role. There is no [[Direct election|popular vote]] on the election of the president, but the president is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-12053491 YLE: Viron presidentinvaali on ajautumassa kaaokseen jo toista kertaa peräkkäin – "Instituutio kyntää pohjamudissa", sanoo politiikan tutkija] (in Finnish)</ref> The President proclaims the laws passed in the Riigikogu, and has the right to refuse proclamation and return law in question for a new debate and decision. If Riigikogu passes the law unamended, then the President has right to propose to the Supreme Court to declare the law unconstitutional. The President also represents the country in international relations.<ref name="Toots"/><ref>{{cite web |first=Taavi |last=Annus |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |title=Duties of the President of the Republic |publisher=[[Estonica]] |date=27 September 2012 |access-date=4 January 2020 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924110941/http://www.estonica.org/en/State/President_of_the_Republic/Duties_of_the_President_of_the_Republic/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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The [[Constitution of Estonia]] also provides possibility for direct democracy through referendum, although since adoption of the constitution in 1992 the only referendum has been the [[2003 Estonian European Union membership referendum|referendum on European Union membership]] in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liivik |first1=Ero |year=2011 |title=Referendum in the Estonian Constitution |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2011_1_17.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=18 |page=21 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> |
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Estonia has pursued the development of the [[e-government]], with 99 percent of the public services being available on the web 24 hours a day.<ref>{{cite news |first=Elizabeth |last=Schulze |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/08/how-estonia-became-a-digital-society.html |title=How a tiny country bordering Russia became one of the most tech-savvy societies in the world |publisher=[[CNBC]] |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> In 2005, [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Estonia became]] the first country in the world to introduce nationwide binding Internet voting in local elections of 2005.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Priit |last=Vinkel |title=Information Security Technology for Applications |chapter=Internet Voting in Estonia |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |book-title=Laud P. (eds) Information Security Technology for Applications. NordSec 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7161 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2012 |volume=7161 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-29615-4_2 |isbn=978-3-642-29614-7 }}</ref> In the [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|2023 parliamentary elections]] 51% of the total votes were cast over the internet, becoming the first time when more than half of votes were cast online.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608904730/estonia-sets-new-e-voting-record-at-riigikogu-2023-elections |title=Estonia sets new e-voting record at Riigikogu 2023 elections |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref> |
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In the most recent [[2023 Estonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections of 2023]], six parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]], [[Kaja Kallas]], [[Kaja Kallas' third cabinet|formed the government]] together with [[Estonia 200]] and [[Social Democratic Party (Estonia)|Social Democratic Party]], while [[Conservative People's Party of Estonia|Conservative People's Party]], [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] and [[Isamaa]] became the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.err.ee/1608905309/reform-party-takes-landslide-win-in-2023-riigikogu-elections |title=Reform Party takes landslide win in 2023 Riigikogu elections |date=6 March 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.err.ee/1608950416/reformierakonna-eesti-200-ja-sotsiaaldemokraatide-valitsus-astus-ametisse |title=Reformierakonna, Eesti 200 ja Sotsiaaldemokraatide valitsus astus ametisse |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=17 April 2023 |access-date=17 April 2023 |language=Estonian}}</ref> |
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===Law=== |
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{{Main|Law of Estonia|Constitution of Estonia}} |
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{{See also|LGBT rights in Estonia}} |
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[[File:Riigikohus.jpg|thumb|Building of the [[Supreme Court of Estonia]] in [[Tartu]]]] |
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The [[Constitution of Estonia]] is the fundamental law, establishing the constitutional order based on five principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ernits |first1=Madis |last2=Ginter |first2=Carri |last3=Laos |first3=Saale |last4=Allikmets |first4=Marje |last5=Tupay |first5=Paloma Krõõt |last6=Värk |first6=René |last7=Laurand |first7=Andra |editor-last1=Albi |editor-first1=Anneli |editor-last2=Bardutzky |editor-first2=Samo |title=National Constitutions in European and Global Governance: Democracy, Rights, the Rule of Law |publisher=[[T.M.C. Asser Instituut|T.M.C. Asser Press]] |location=[[The Hague]] |date=2019 |page=889 |chapter=The Constitution of Estonia: The Unexpected Challenges of Unlimited Primacy of EU Law |isbn=978-94-6265-272-9 |doi=10.1007/978-94-6265-273-6|hdl = 10138/311890|display-authors=1}}</ref> Estonia has a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system based on the Germanic legal model.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varul |first1=Paul |year=2000 |title=Legal Policy Decisions and Choices in the Creation of New Private Law in Estonia |url=https://www.juridicainternational.eu/public/pdf/ji_2000_1_104.pdf |journal=Juridica International |volume=5 |page=107 |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The [[Appellate court|second instance]] are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Madise |first1=Ülle |author-link1=Ülle Madise |date=27 September 2012 |title=Courts of first instance and courts of appeal |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |publisher=Estonica |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919193533/http://www.estonica.org/en/State/Judicial_system/Courts_of_first_instance_and_courts_of_appeal/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Estonia|Supreme Court]] is the [[court of cassation]], conducts constitutional review, and has 19 members.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court of Estonia |
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|url=https://www.riigikohus.ee/en/supreme-court-estonia |publisher=[[Supreme Court of Estonia]] |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted of a crime.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Günther |last2=Vodička |first2=Karel |title=From Eastern Bloc to European Union: Comparative Processes of Transformation since 1990 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |date=2017 |page=12 |isbn=9781785333187}}</ref> The justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/837471/study-estonian-judicial-system-among-most-efficient-in-eu |title=Study: Estonian judicial system among most efficient in EU |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=6 June 2018 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> |
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As of June 2023, gay registered partners and married couples have the right to adopt. [[LGBT rights in Estonia|Gay couples]] gained the right to marriage in Estonia in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perry |first1=Sophie |title=Same-sex marriage is now officially legal in Estonia |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2024/01/02/estonia-same-sex-marriage-lgbtq/ |website=PinkNews |date=2 January 2024 |access-date=2 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-05-15 |title=Estonian government approves draft same-sex marriage act |url=https://news.err.ee/1608978632/estonian-government-approves-draft-same-sex-marriage-act |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=ERR News |language=en}}</ref> |
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===Foreign relations=== |
===Foreign relations=== |
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{{ |
{{Main|Foreign relations of Estonia|Diplomatic missions of Estonia}} |
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Estonia was a member of the [[League of Nations]] from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the [[United Nations]] on 17 September 1991.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whittaker Briggs |first=Herbert |title=The law of nations: cases, documents, and notes |url= https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig |url-access=registration |year=1952 |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |page=[https://archive.org/details/lawofnationscase0000brig/page/106 106]}}</ref><ref name="DFAT">{{cite web |url= http://dfat.gov.au/geo/estonia/Pages/estonia-country-brief.aspx |title=Estonia country brief |publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)|Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the [[Western world|Western countries]], and has been member of [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]] since 2004.<ref name="DFAT"/> In 2007, Estonia joined the [[Schengen Area]], and in 2011 the [[Eurozone]].<ref name="DFAT"/> The [[Eu-Lisa|European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems]] is based in Tallinn, and started operations at the end of 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |title=EU Agency for large-scale IT systems |publisher=European Commission |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120910112010/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/borders-and-visas/agency/index_en.htm |archive-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> Estonia held the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]] in the second half of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://euobserver.com/eu-presidency/140368 |title=Estonian presidency leaves 'more confident' EU |work=[[EUobserver]] |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> |
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Since regaining independence, Estonia has pursued a foreign policy of close cooperation with its Western European neighbors. [[Image:Toomas Hendrik Ilves and W.Bush.jpg|thumb|270px|left|<small>President [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] and President [[George W. Bush]], in Estonia 2006.</small>]] The two most important policy objectives in this regard have been accession into [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]], achieved in March and May of 2004 respectively. Estonia's international realignment toward the West has been accompanied by a general deterioration in relations with [[Russia]], most recently demonstrated by the controversy surrounding relocation of the [[Bronze Soldier]] WWII memorial in Tallinn.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6604647.stm BBC NEWS | Europe | Estonia blames Russia for unrest<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Since the early 1990s, Estonia has been involved in active trilateral [[Baltic states]] co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the [[Nordic countries]]. Estonia is a member of the interparliamentary [[Baltic Assembly]], the intergovernmental [[Baltic Council of Ministers]] and the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4096 |title=Estonian Chairmanship of the Baltic Council of Ministers in 2011 |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113111112/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4096 |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries, especially [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], and is a member of [[Nordic-Baltic Eight]].<ref name="DFAT"/><ref name="NB8">{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/4097 |title=Nordic-Baltic Co-operation |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs |date=10 July 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184410/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4097 |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref> Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |title=Nordplus |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113110917/http://www.nordplusonline.org/eng/nordplus/about_nordplus |archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> and mobility programmes for business and industry<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |title=NordicBaltic Mobility and Network Programme for Business and Industry |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Latvia |access-date=11 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131118051601/http://www.nb8businessmobility.org/ |archive-date=18 November 2013}}</ref> and for public administration.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/funding/mobility-programme-for-public-administration |title=NordicBaltic mobility programme for public administration |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The [[Nordic Council of Ministers]] has an office in [[Tallinn]] with a subsidiaries in [[Tartu]] and [[Narva]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |title=Nordic Council of Ministers' Information Offices in the Baltic States and Russia|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121018134356/http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers/the-secretariat-to-the-nordic-council-of-ministers/nordic-council-of-ministers-information-offices-in-the-baltic-states-and-russia |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.norden.ee/en/about-us/about-us |title=Norden in Estonia |publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers' Office in Estonia |access-date=11 August 2012}}</ref> The Baltic states are members of [[Nordic Investment Bank]], European Union's [[Nordic Battle Group]], and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with [[Nordic Defence Cooperation]] in selected activities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |title=Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania 10-year owners at NIB |publisher=[[Nordic Investment Bank]] |date=December 2014 |access-date=22 February 2018 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050920/https://www.nib.int/news_publications/cases_and_feature_stories/1517/estonia_latvia_and_lithuania_10-year_owners_at_nib |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/world-view-german-paper-outlines-vision-for-eu-defence-union-1.2638290 |last=Smyth |first=Patrick |title=World View: German paper outlines vision for EU defence union |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=7 May 2016 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dahl |first1=Ann Sofie |last2=Järvenpää |first2=Pauli |title=Northern Security and Global Politics: Nordic-Baltic strategic influence in a post-unipolar world |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-83657-9 |page=166 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NTZtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf|title=NORDEFCO annual report 2015 |publisher=Nordefco.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085148/http://www.nordefco.org/files/nordefco-annual-report-2015_webb.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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An important element in Estonia's post-independence reorientation has been closer ties with the [[Nordic countries]], especially [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]]. Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people rather than [[Baltic states|Balts]],<ref>[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/220/eesti_elu.pdf Estonian foreign ministry publication], 2004</ref><ref>[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/273/Eesti%20elu.pdf Estonian foreign ministry publication], 2002</ref> based on their historical ties with Sweden, Denmark and particularly Finland. In December 1999 Estonian foreign minister (and since 2006, [[president of Estonia]]) [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the [[Swedish Institute for International Affairs]].<ref>[http://www.vm.ee/eng/nato/1210.html NATO :: NATO :: Estonia as a Nordic Country<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 2003, the [[foreign ministry]] also hosted an exhibit called "Estonia: Nordic with a Twist".<ref>[http://www.sm.ee/eng/pages/goproweb0689 Estonia - Nordic with a Twist<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> And in 2005, Estonia joined the [[European Union]]'s [[Nordic Battle Group]]. It has also shown continued interest in joining the [[Nordic Council]]. |
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The beginning of the attempt to redefine Estonia as "Nordic" was seen in December 1999, when then Estonian foreign minister (and [[President of Estonia]] from 2006 until 2016) [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the [[Swedish Institute for International Affairs]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/3489|title=Estonia as a Nordic Country |last=Ilves |first=Toomas Hendrik |author-link=Toomas Hendrik Ilves |date=14 December 1999 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094242/http://www.vm.ee/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3489 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> with the potential political calculation behind it being the wish to distinguish Estonia from its more slowly progressing southern neighbours, which could have postponed early participation in European Union enlargement.<ref name=Mouritzen>{{cite book |last1=Mouritzen |first1=Hans |last2=Wivel |first2=Anders |title=The Geopolitics of Euro-Atlantic Integration |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=143 |edition=1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1134457634}}</ref> [[Andres Kasekamp]] argued in 2005, that relevance of identity discussions in Baltic states decreased with their entrance into EU and NATO together, but predicted, that in the future, attractiveness of Nordic identity in Baltic states will grow and eventually, five Nordic states plus three Baltic states will become a single unit.<ref name="Mouritzen" /> |
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Whereas in 1992 Russia accounted for 92% of Estonia's international trade,<ref>[http://www.heritage.org/Research/WorldwideFreedom/bg2060.cfm The Estonian Economic Miracle]</ref> today there is extensive economic interdependence between Estonia and its Nordic neighbors: three quarters of [[foreign investment]] in Estonia originates in the Nordic countries (principally Finland and Sweden), to which Estonia sends 42% of its exports (as compared to 6.5% going to Russia, 8.8% to Latvia, and 4.7% to Lithuania). On the other hand, the Estonian political system, its [[flat tax|flat rate]] of income tax, and its non-welfare-state model distinguish it from the other Nordic states, and indeed from many other European countries.<ref>http://www.investinestonia.com/pdf/ForeignTrade2007.pdf Foreign investment</ref> |
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Other Estonian international organisation memberships include [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[WTO]], [[IMF]], the [[Council of the Baltic Sea States]],<ref name="DFAT"/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/list-oecd-member-countries.htm |title=List of OECD Member countries – Ratification of the Convention on the OECD |publisher=[[OECD]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/participating-states |title=Participating States |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> and on 7 June 2019, was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term that began on 1 January 2020.<ref name="ERR_20190607">{{cite news |title= Gallery: Estonia gains non-permanent UN Security Council seat |work= ERR News |publisher= [[Eesti Rahvusringhääling|ERR]] |date= 7 June 2019 | url= https://news.err.ee/950290/gallery-estonia-gains-non-permanent-un-security-council-seat |access-date= 7 June 2019}}</ref> |
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==Military== |
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{{main|Military of Estonia}} |
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[[Image:EST-Military-Parade.jpg|right|255px|thumb|<small>[[Estonian Army]] [[armoured personnel carrier]]s on the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence|Independence Day]] parade in [[Pärnu]] (February [[2008]])</small>]] |
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Since the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet era]], the [[Estonia–Russia relations|relations with Russia]] remain generally cold, even though practical co-operation has taken place in between.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://news.err.ee/649606/ambassador-successes-tend-to-get-ignored-in-estonian-russian-relations |title=Ambassador: Successes tend to get ignored in Estonian-Russian relations |publisher=[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]] |date=9 December 2017 |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref> Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated due to [[Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)|Russia's invasion]] of [[Ukraine]]. Estonia has very actively supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/06/03/estonia-russia-ukraine-war-kallas-baltics-nato/ |title=Estonia's Prime Minister: 'We Need to Help Ukraine Win' |publisher=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=3 June 2022 |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/security/blog-russia-ukraine-crisis-a-view-from-estonia/|title=Updates: Russia's invasion of Ukraine – reactions in Estonia|website=Estonian World|access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref> |
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Estonian military - the ''[[Estonian Defence Forces]]'' - is the name of the unified armed forces of the Republic of Estonia with ''[[Estonian Army|Maavägi]]'' (Army), ''[[Estonian Navy|Merevägi]]'' (Navy), ''[[Estonian Air Force|Õhuvägi]]'' (Air Force) and a paramilitary organization ''[[Estonian Defence League|Kaitseliit]]'' (Defence League). The national defence policy aims to guarantee the [[preservation]] of the [[independence]] and [[sovereignty]] of the state, the [[integrity]] of its land area, territorial waters and airspace and its constitutional order. Its main goals remain the development and maintenance of a credible [[capability]] to defend the nation's vital interests and development of the [[Estonian Defence Forces|Defence Forces]] in a way that ensures their [[interoperability]] with the armed forces of [[NATO]] and [[European Union]] member states and their capability to participate in the full range of [[NATO|Alliance missions]].<ref>http://mil.ee/index_eng.php Estonian National Defence Policy</ref><br /> |
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===Military=== |
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''[[Military service|Ajateenistus]]'' (Military Service) is compulsory for men between 18 and 28, and conscripts serve [[eight]]-month to [[eleven]]-month tours of duty depending on the [[army]] [[branch]] they serve in. Estonia has retained [[conscription]] unlike [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] and has no plan to transition to a contract armed forces.[[Image:Estonian soldiers in Afghanistan.jpg|left|210px|thumb|<small>[[Estonian Army]] soldiers in [[Afghanistan]] on a [[patrol]] [[mission]] (December [[2007]])</small>]] In [[2008]], the military spending will reach to 1.85% - 5 billion [[Estonian kroon|krones]] of the [[GDP]] and will continue to increase till [[2010]] when the 2.0% level is achieved.<ref>http://www.mod.gov.ee/?op=body&id=6 Estonian Defence Budget</ref> As of January 2008, the Estonian military had almost 300 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of various international peacekeeping forces, including 35 [[Defence League]] troops stationed in [[Kosovo]]; 120 [[Estonian Army|Ground Forces]] soldiers in the [[NATO]]-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] force in [[Afghanistan]]; 80 soldiers stationed as a part of [[MNF]] in the [[Iraq]]; and 2 Estonian officers in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] and 2 Estonian military agents in [[Israel]] in [[Golan Heights]].<ref>http://operatsioonid.kmin.ee/index.php?page=86& Estonian military missions in Middle-East</ref> The Estonian Defence Forces have had previously military missions also in [[Croatia]] from March till October [[1995]], in [[Lebanon]] from December [[1996]] till June [[1997]] and in [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] from May till December [[2003]].<ref>http://www.mil.ee/?menu=operatsioonid&sisu=operatsioonid6 Former operations</ref> Estonia participates in the [[Nordic Battlegroup]] and has announced readyness to send soldiers also to [[Sudan]] to [[Darfur]] if necessary, creating the very first [[African]] [[peacekeeping]] [[mission]] for the armed forces of Estonia. |
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{{Main|Estonian Defence Forces|Estonian Defence League}} |
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===E-Military=== |
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[[File:Baltic Battalion Soldiers, Trident Juncture 15 (22200204329).jpg|thumb|left|Estonian soldiers during a NATO exercise in 2015]] |
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{{main|E-Military of Estonia|Cyberattacks on Estonia 2007}} |
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The [[Estonian Defence Forces]] consist of [[Estonian Land Forces|land forces]], [[Estonian Navy|navy]], and [[Estonian Air Force|air force]]. The current national [[military service]] is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8- or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forces/compulsory-military-service |title=Compulsory military service |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |date=11 March 2014|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mil.ee/en/defence-forcesp |title=Estonian Defence Forces |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |access-date=28 December 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Since 2015, the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/et/eesmargid-tegevused/kaitse-eelarve |title=Kaitse-eelarve |publisher=Estonian Ministry of Defence|date=3 December 2019 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> |
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The [[Military of Estonia]] is introducing a new [[21st century]] based [[cyber warfare]] and [[defence]] [[formation]] in order to protect the vital [[infrastructure]] and [[internet|e-infrastructure]] of Estonia. Currently the leading organization in the Estonian cyber defence is the '''[http://www.cert.ee/ CERT]''' (the Computer Emergency Response Team of Estonia), established in 2006, as an organisation responsible for the management of security incidents in .ee computer networks. Its task is to assist Estonian internet users in the implementation of preventive measures in order to reduce possible damage from security incidents and to help them in responding to security threats. The unit deals with security incidents that occur in Estonian networks, are started there, or have been notified of by citizens or institutions either in Estonia or abroad.<ref>http://www.ria.ee/?id=28201 CERT Estonia</ref> |
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The [[Estonian Defence League]] is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseliit.ee/en/edl |title=Estonian Defence League |publisher=Estonian Defence League |access-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=McLaughlin |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/baltic-volunteers-guard-against-threat-of-russian-stealth-invasion-1.2714047 |title=Baltic volunteers guard against threat of Russian stealth invasion |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> |
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On [[June 25]], [[2007]], Estonian president [[Toomas Hendrik Ilves]] met with the president of [[USA]], [[George W. Bush]].<ref>[[White House]] [[May 4]], [[2007]]: [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/05/20070504-6.html President Bush to Welcome President Toomas Ilves of Estonia]</ref> Among the topics discussed were the attacks on Estonian e-infrastructure. |
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<ref>Yahoo/[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] [[June 25]], [[2007]]: [http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070625/tc_afp/usestoniainternet Bush, Ilves eye tougher tack on cybercrime]</ref> |
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The attacks triggered a number of military organisations around the world to reconsider the importance of network security to modern military doctrine. On [[June 14]], [[2007]], defence ministers of [[NATO]] members held a meeting in [[Brussels]], issuing a joint [[communiqué]] promising immediate action. First public results are estimated to arrive by autumn [[2007]].<ref>[[Eesti Päevaleht]] [[June 15]], [[2007]]: [http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/389847 NATO andis rohelise tule Eesti küberkaitse kavale] by [[Ahto Lobjakas]]</ref> |
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Estonia co-operates with [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the Baltic airspace control center, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the [[NATO Response Force]], and a joint military educational institution [[Baltic Defence College]] is located in [[Tartu]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Aili |last=Vahtla |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Defense chiefs decide to move forward with Baltic battalion project |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=20 April 2017 |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> |
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As to the placement of a newly planned [[NATO Cybernetic Defence Centre]], Bush proclaimed the policy of [[USA]] as supporting Estonia as this centre's location.<ref>[[Eesti Päevaleht]] [[June 28]], [[2007]]: [http://www.epl.ee/artikkel/391287 USA toetab Eesti küberkaitsekeskust] by [[Krister Paris]]</ref> In the aftermath of the [[Cyberattacks on Estonia 2007]], plans to combine network defence with Estonian military doctrine, and related [[NATO]] plans to create a Cybernetic Defence Centre in Estonia, have been nicknamed the "Tiger's Defence" ({{lang-et|Tiigrikaitse}}), in reference to Tiigrihüpe.<ref>Office of the [[President of Estonia]] [[June 25]], [[2007]]: [http://www.president.ee/et/ametitegevus/ametlikud_teated.php?gid=96087 President Ilves kohtus Ameerika Ühendriikide riigipeaga]</ref> |
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Estonia joined [[NATO]] on 29 March 2004.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rang |first1=Adam |title=A letter from 1949 indicates Estonia wanted to be a NATO founding member |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/the-74-year-old-letter-that-indicates-estonia-wanted-to-be-a-nato-founding-member/ |website=Estonian World |date=29 March 2023}}</ref> NATO [[Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence]] was established in Tallinn in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Andrew |last=Whyte |url=https://news.err.ee/590917/defense-chiefs-decide-to-move-forward-with-baltic-battalion-project |title=Nine more nations join NATO cyberdefense center |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=5 May 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In response to [[Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)|Russian war in Ukraine]], since 2017 a [[NATO Enhanced Forward Presence]] battalion battle group has been based in [[Tapa Army Base]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan |last=Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40554104 |title=Nato sends 'alive and strong' message from Estonia |publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2017 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> Also part of NATO, the [[Baltic Air Policing]] deployment has been based in [[Ämari Air Base]] since 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://eng.lsm.lv/article/society/defense/czechs-and-belgians-take-over-in-latest-baltic-air-police-rotation.a330782/ |title=Czechs and Belgians take over in latest Baltic air police rotation |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting of Latvia|LSM]]|date=3 September 2019 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> In the European Union, Estonia participates in [[Nordic Battlegroup]] and [[Permanent Structured Cooperation]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Jan Joel |last=Andresson |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/if-not-now-when-nordic-eu-battlegroup |title=If not now, when? The Nordic EU Battlegroup |publisher=[[European Union Institute for Security Studies]] |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaitseministeerium.ee/en/news/estonia-joins-european-intervention-initiative |title=Estonia joins European Intervention Initiative |publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Defence]] |date=26 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> |
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Since 1995, Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: [[International Security Assistance Force|Afghanistan]], [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|Iraq]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Kosovo Force|Kosovo]], and [[Operation Barkhane|Mali]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mil.ee/et/operatsioonid/operatsioonid-alates-1995 |title=Operatsioonid alates 1995 |publisher=Estonian Defence Forces |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.postimees.ee/1171242/eesti-sodurite-10-aastat-afganistanis-9-surnut-90-haavatut |title=Eesti sõdurite 10 aastat Afganistanis: 9 surnut, 90 haavatut |work=Postimees|date=15 March 2013 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> Eleven Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.<ref>{{cite news|first=Maria-Ann |last=Rohemäe |url=https://www.err.ee/512040/valisoperatsioonidel-on-hukkunud-11-eesti-sodurit |title=Välisoperatsioonidel on hukkunud 11 Eesti sõdurit |publisher=Eesti Rahvusringhääling|date=27 April 2014 |language=et |access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> |
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===Administrative divisions=== |
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{{Main|Administrative divisions of Estonia|Counties of Estonia|Municipalities of Estonia|Boroughs of Estonia|Populated places in Estonia}} |
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[[File:Estonian administrative divisions 2017 with labels.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Administrative divisions of Estonia]] |
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Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a ''[[Counties of Estonia|maakond]]'' (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.<ref>{{cite book |title=Public administration characteristics and performance in EU28 |last1=Pesti |first1=Cerlin |last2=Randma-Liiv |first2=Tiina |date=April 2018 |chapter=Estonia |chapter-url= https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c017bdc1-960e-11e8-8bc1-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |editor-last=Thijs |editor-first=Nick |editor2-last=Hammerschmid |editor2-first=Gerhard |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union |location=[[Luxembourg]] |pages=252–255 |doi=10.2767/74735 |isbn=9789279904530}}</ref> Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. The council appoints local government. For towns, the head of the local government is ''linnapea'' (mayor) and ''vallavanem'' for parishes. For additional decentralization the local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority, currently those have been formed in [[Tallinn]] and [[Hiiumaa]].<ref name="rahandusmin">{{cite web |url=https://www.rahandusministeerium.ee/en/local-governments-and-administrative-territorial-reform |title=Local Governments |date=1 November 2019 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Estonia)|Estonian Ministry of Finance]] |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> |
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Separately from administrative units, there are also [[Populated places in Estonia|settlement units]]: village, small borough, borough, and town. Generally, villages have less than 300, small boroughs have between 300 and 1000, boroughs and towns have over 1000 inhabitants.<ref name="rahandusmin"/> |
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==Economy== |
==Economy== |
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{{ |
{{Main|Economy of Estonia}} |
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The Republic of Estonia is currently a member of the [[European Union]] since [[1 May]] [[2004]] and its economy is rated as {{increase}}<font color="#009900">high income</font> by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. Level of the Estonian economy [[Economic boom|Estonian economical miracle]] has been often being described as the [[Baltic Tiger]]. |
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As a member of the European Union and [[OECD]], Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. The [[Purchasing power parity|GDP (PPP) per capita]] of the country was $46,385 in 2023 according to the [[International Monetary Fund]], ranked 40th.<ref name="IMFWEO.EE" /> |
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{{Image with scale |
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|image=[[Image:Estonian-economy.jpg|thumb|none|310px|<small>[[Economy of Estonia|Economical map]] of the Estonia. Also includes areas where local resources can be found and mined.</small>]] |
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Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia (Ranked 21st) |url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia |website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index|education]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]], [[E-government|digitalisation of public services]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2020 |title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020 |url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/ |website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Harold |first=Theresa |date=October 30, 2017 |title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations |url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/ |access-date=November 29, 2021 |work=Alphr}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Number of start-ups per capita by country |url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309 |website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref> |
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|float=right |scale=310 |x=0.06 |y=0.9 |high=800 |width=544 |bl=0.133 |bw=1px |bc=black |fc=black |
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|text=<small>50 km</small> |
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Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th [[eurozone]] member state.<ref name="euroreuters">{{cite news|last=Mardiste|first=David|title=Estonia joins crisis-hit euro club|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-estonia-euro-idUSTRE6BU0S720110101|access-date=2 January 2011|date=1 January 2011|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> |
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}} |
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By [[1929]], a stable currency, the [[Estonian kroon|Kroon]] ''(crown)'', was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom. Only '''3'''% of all commerce was with the [[USSR]]. Before the [[Second World War]] Estonia was mainly an [[agriculture]] [[country]] whose products such as [[butter]], [[milk]] and [[cheese]] was widely known on the [[West Europe|western European]] [[market]]s. |
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Estonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34170 "Electricity Balance, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128220628/http://www.stat.ee/34170 |date=28 November 2017 }} 8 June 2010 (Estonian)</ref> In 2011, about 85% of it was generated with locally mined [[oil shale]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/Põlevkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20täitmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |title="Põlevkivi kasutamise riikliku arengukava 2008–2015" 2011. a täitmise aruanne |publisher=Valitsus.ee |date=6 September 2012 |access-date=16 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121023/https://valitsus.ee/UserFiles/valitsus/et/valitsus/arengukavad/keskkonnaministeerium/P%C3%B5levkivi%20kasutamise%20riikliku%20arengukava%20t%C3%A4itmise%20aruanne%202011.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009.<ref>[http://www.stat.ee/34167 "Energy Effectiveness, Yearly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128212459/http://www.stat.ee/34167 |date=28 November 2017 }} 22 September 2010 (Estonian)</ref> Estonia imports [[petroleum]] products from western Europe and Russia. Estonia imports 100% of its [[Russia in the European energy sector|natural gas from Russia]].<ref>"[https://www.e3g.org/docs/E3G_Trends_EU_Gas_Demand_June2015_Final_110615.pdf Europe's Declining Gas Demand: Trends and Facts about European Gas Consumption – June 2015]". (PDF). p.9. [[E3G]]. Source: Eurostat, Eurogas, E3G.</ref> Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|title=DISCOVER BUSINESS AND INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN ESTONIA!|url=http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|work=Estonian Export Directory|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-date=21 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121064237/http://www.estonianexport.ee/?page=b4&lang=eng|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[ice-free port]] of [[Port of Muuga|Muuga]], near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transhipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muuga Harbour |url=https://www.ts.ee/en/muuga-harbour/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Tallinna Sadam |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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The [[USSR|USSR's]] forcible [[Estonian SSR|annexation of Estonia]] in [[1940]] and the ensuing [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. [[Post-war]] [[Sovietization]] of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the [[USSR|USSR's]] centrally planned structure. |
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[[File:Tln1.jpg|thumb|left|alt=aerial view of high rises at sunset|The central business district of [[Tallinn]]]] |
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Since [[History_of_Estonia#Regaining independence|re-establishing independence]], Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and aggressively pursued economic reform and integration with the West. Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former [[COMECON]] area. A balanced [[budget]], almost non-existent [[public debt]], flat-rate [[income tax]], [[free trade]] regime, fully convertible [[currency]] backed by [[currency board]] and a strong peg to the [[euro]], competitive commercial banking sector, hospitable environment for [[foreign investment]], [[innovative]] [[e-Services]] and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy.{{fact|date = March 2008}} Estonia also has made excellent progress in regard to [[structural adjustment]].{{fact|date = March 2008}} |
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Because of the [[Financial crisis of 2007–2010|global economic recession that began in 2007]], the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by [[Riigikogu]]. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |title=Ministry of Finance |publisher=fin.ee |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031135/http://www.fin.ee/80290/ |archive-date=2 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, the economic situation stabilised and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since.<ref name="Stat">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |title=Eesti Statistika – Enim nõutud statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |date=23 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114194049/https://www.stat.ee/pohinaitajad |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |title=GDP per capita in PPS |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=25 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711153813/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-25062009-BP/EN/2-25062009-BP-EN.PDF |archive-date=11 July 2009 }}</ref> In 2017, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1221.<ref name=StatisticsEstonia>{{cite web|first1=Allan |last1=Aron |first2=Evelin |last2=Puura |url=http://www.stat.ee/ |title=Avaleht – Eesti Statistika |publisher=Stat.ee |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> |
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However, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn.<ref name="BBN">{{cite web|first=Kaja |last=Koovit |url=http://www.balticbusinessnews.com/?PublicationId=f47e445a-e234-432f-b7b0-137ca0bff47d |title=bbn.ee – Half of Estonian GDP is created in Tallinn |publisher=Balticbusinessnews.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average,<ref name="Statistics">[http://www.stat.ee/dokumendid/30210 Half of the gross domestic product of Estonia is created in Tallinn]. Statistics Estonia. ''Stat.ee''. 29 September 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties. |
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The unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average,<ref name=StatisticsEstonia/> while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%,<ref name="Statistics Estonia">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.ee/29958 |title=Real GDP per capita, growth rate and totals |website=Stat.ee |publisher=Statistics Estonia |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114083834/http://www.stat.ee/29958 |archive-date=14 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonia Uses the Euro, and the Economy is Booming|url=https://www.cnbc.com/id/47691090/|publisher=CNBC|access-date=13 June 2012|date=5 June 2012}}</ref> |
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===Economic indicators=== |
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Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=13 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916153902/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016 – Transparency International |publisher=Transparency.org |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=30 January 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170130045244/http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The rule of [[Law of Estonia|law]] remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.<ref name="taxfoundation1">{{cite web|url=http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|title=2015 International Tax Competitiveness Index|date=28 September 2015|publisher=Taxfoundation.org|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-date=25 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125001702/http://taxfoundation.org/article/2015-international-tax-competitiveness-index|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2018|May}}, the [[Ease of Doing Business Index]] by the [[World Bank Group]] places the country 16th in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |title=Rankings & Ease of Doing Business Score |website=Doing Business |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=25 January 2019}}</ref> The strong focus on the IT sector through its [[e-Estonia]] program has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neweuropeaneconomy.com/fdi/digital-economy-estonia/ |title=Digital Economy Estonia: From IT tiger to the World's Most Pre-eminent e-state |date=23 May 2016 |publisher=New European Economy |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 2015 |url=http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |title=Estonia: a digital economy |publisher=Treasury Today |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808034930/http://treasurytoday.com/2015/06/estonia-a-digital-economy-ttcyf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.<ref name="traceinternational.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.traceinternational.org/trace-matrix |title=Trace Matrix |publisher=Traceminternational.org |access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref> |
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Estonia is a [[developed country]] with an advanced, [[high-income economy]] that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.<ref>{{cite magazine |title= Estonian Economic Miracle: A Model For Developing Countries |magazine= Global Politician | url= http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230137/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2614-baltic-eu-expansion-estonia | archive-date= 28 June 2011 |access-date= 5 June 2011 |url-status= dead}}</ref> The country ranks very high in the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]],<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |title= 2020 Human Development Report|publisher= United Nations Development Programme |year= 2019 |url= http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |access-date= 15 December 2020}}</ref> and compares well in measures of [[Index of Economic Freedom|economic freedom]], [[Freedom in the World (report)|civil liberties]], education,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html | title= Asian countries dominate, science teaching criticised in survey | publisher= Yahoo | access-date= 10 December 2016 | archive-date= 15 August 2020 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200815210528/https://www.yahoo.com/news/asian-countries-dominate-science-teaching-criticised-survey-101202488.html | url-status= dead }}</ref> and [[Press Freedom Index|press freedom]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://rsf.org/en/ranking |title= Press Freedom Index 2016 |date= 30 January 2013 |publisher= Reports Without Borders |access-date= 29 May 2016}}</ref> Estonian citizens receive [[universal health care]],<ref>[https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/comparing-performance-of-universal-health-care-countries-2016.pdf Comparing Performance of Universal Health Care Countries, 2016] Fraser Institute</ref> [[free education]],<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/estonia/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-Profile-Estonia.pdf Estonia] OECD 2016.</ref> and the longest paid [[maternity leave]] in the OECD.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/10/daily-chart-10 |title= Which countries are most generous to new parents? |newspaper= The Economist |access-date= 28 October 2016}}.</ref> One of the world's most digitally-advanced societies,<ref> |
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{{cite magazine | url= https://www.wired.co.uk/article/digital-estonia |title=Welcome to E-stonia, the world's most digitally advanced society |magazine= [[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date= 20 October 2018}} |
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</ref> |
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in 2005 Estonia became the first state to hold elections over the [[Electronic voting in Estonia|Internet]], and in 2014, the first state to provide [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is e-Residency {{!}} How to Start an EU Company Online|url=https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/|access-date=2021-12-26|website=e-Residency|language=en-US}}</ref> |
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===Historic development=== |
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[[File:GDP_per_capita_Baltics.svg|thumb|right|Real GDP per capita development of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania]] |
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In 1928, a stable currency, the ''[[Estonian kroon|kroon]]'', was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. The word ''kroon'' ({{IPA-et|ˈkroːn|est}}, "crown") is related to that of the other [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] currencies (such as the [[Swedish krona]] and the [[Danish krone|Danish]] and [[Norwegian krone]]). The kroon succeeded the [[Estonian mark|mark]] in 1928 and was used until 1940. After Estonia regained its independence, the kroon was reintroduced in 1992. |
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After [[History of Estonia#Regaining independence|restoring full independence]], in the 1990s, Estonia styled itself as the "gateway between East and West" and aggressively pursued economic reform and reintegration with the West.<ref>{{Cite web |title=30 years of monetary reform in Estonia: Lessons learned for the decade ahead |url=https://www.bundesbank.de/en/press/speeches/30-years-of-monetary-reform-in-estonia-lessons-learned-for-the-decade-ahead-893014 |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=www.bundesbank.de |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bauc |first=Jaroslaw |date=April 1995 |title=Estonian way to a liberal economic system |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/140213/38.pdf |archive-url=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Staehr |first=Karsten |title=Economic Transition in Estonia: Background, Reform and results |url=https://haldus.taltech.ee/sites/default/files/2021-04/011_2004-CC20in20Estonia.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia Economic Reform History - Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System |url=https://photius.com/countries/estonia/economy/estonia_economy_economic_reform_hist~0.html |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=photius.com}}</ref> In 1994, applying the economic theories of [[Milton Friedman]], Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.<ref>[http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax Personal Income Tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031341/http://www.fin.ee/personal-income-tax |date=2 November 2013}}, Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Estonia</ref> The [[Government of Estonia]] finalised the design of [[Estonian euro coins]] in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.<ref name="euroreuters"/><ref name="euro-EFP">{{cite news|url=http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203542/http://www.estonianfreepress.com/2009/03/estonia-gets-closer-to-the-euro/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |newspaper=Estonian Free Press |title=Estonia Gets Closer to the Euro |last=Angioni |first=Giovanni |date=31 March 2009 |access-date=22 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A [[Land Value Tax]] is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state-level tax, but 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities.<ref name="Land Tax Reform">{{cite web|title=Land Taxation Reform in Estonia|url=http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|website=Aysps.gsu.edu|access-date=23 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806011749/http://aysps.gsu.edu/isp/files/ISP_CONFERENCES_PROPERTY_TAX_06_TIITS_PAPER.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax.<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%)<ref name="Land Tax Reform"/> of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=Homeownership rate graph|url=https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/index.html|website=Housing Vacancies and Homeownership|publisher=US Census|access-date=2 June 2015}}</ref> |
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In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schneider |first=Thomas |date=March 2013 |title=Estonia and the European Debt and Economic Crisis |url=https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=1da1fca8-e061-baee-fd2a-46528c2a2519&groupId=252038 }}</ref> Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Investment Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002. Estonia joined the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/estonia/estoniasaccessiontotheoecd.htm |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |title=Estonia's accession to the OECD |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=22 July 2016}}</ref> |
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===Transport=== |
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{{Main|Transport in Estonia}} |
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<!-- This image is over 15 years old, the buildings look rather different today [[File:Tallinn Airport 03 July 2006.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tallinn Airport]] in 2006]]--> |
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The [[Port of Tallinn]], taking into account both cargo and passenger traffic, is one of the largest port enterprises of the [[Baltic Sea]]. In 2018, the enterprise was listed in [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]]. It was the first time in nearly 20 years in Estonia when a state-owned company went public in Estonia. It was also the 2nd largest [[Initial public offering|IPO]] in Nasdaq Tallinn in the number of retail investors participating. The Republic of Estonia remains the largest shareholder and holds 67% of the company.<ref>[https://news.err.ee/839135/port-of-tallinn-surges-nearly-20-minutes-after-trading-begins "Port of Tallinn surges nearly 20% minutes after trading begins"] ERR, 13 June 2018.</ref> |
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Owned by [[Eesti Raudtee|AS Eesti Raudtee]], there are many significant [[Rail transport in Estonia|railroad connections in Estonia]], such as [[Tallinn–Narva railway]], which is {{convert|209.6|km|abbr=on}} long main connection to [[St. Petersburg]]. The most important [[highways in Estonia]], in other hand, includes [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263|E263]]) and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67|E67]]). |
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The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]] in Tallinn is the largest airport in Estonia and serves as a [[Airline hub|hub]] for the national airline [[Nordica (airline)|Nordica]], as well as the secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia |url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ |work=Estonian World |date=4 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Siiri |last=Liiva |url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga |title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga |newspaper=Postimees Majandus |publisher=Postimees |date=18 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2016 |language=et}}</ref> Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 14.2% annually since 1998. On 16 November 2012 Tallinn Airport has reached two million passenger landmark for the first time in its history.<ref>{{cite news |title=FOTOD: Vaata, kuidas saabus Tallinna lennujaama kahe miljones reisija |url=http://majandus.delfi.ee/news/uudised/fotod-vaata-kuidas-saabus-tallinna-lennujaama-kahe-miljones-reisija.d?id=65274122 |publisher=delfi.ee |language=et |date=16 November 2012 |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> |
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===Resources=== |
===Resources=== |
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[[File:Estonian shale.JPG|thumb|right| As of 2013, the [[Oil shale in Estonia|oil shale industry]] in Estonia was one of the most developed in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=20}}</ref> |
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{| style="background:transparent;" cellspacing="2px" |
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In 2012, oil shale supplied 70% of Estonia's [[total primary energy supply|total primary energy]] and accounted for 4% of Estonia's gross domestic product.<ref name=audit> |
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| |
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{{cite web |
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{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%" |
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|url = http://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239 |
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|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:left" |
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|title = Actions of the state in directing the use of oil shale. Does the state guarantee that oil shale reserves are used sustainably? Report of the National Audit Office to the Riigikogu |
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!width="580px"|[[natural resource|Resource]]!!width="480px"|[[Location]]!!width="900px"|[[Resource|Reservs]]</tr> |
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|publisher = [[National Audit Office of Estonia]] |
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|- |
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|date = 19 November 2014 |
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| [[oil shale|Oil-shale]]<br /> ||<small>North-East Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|1,137,700,000 mln t |
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|pages = 7–14; 29 |
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|- |
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|access-date = 7 January 2015 |
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| [[Bay mud|Sea mud]] (medical) ||<small>South-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|1,356,400,000 mln t |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181213120049/https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?AuditId=2314&FileId=13239 |
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|- |
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|archive-date = 13 December 2018 |
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| [[sand|Construction sand]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|166,700,000 mln m³ |
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|url-status = live |
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|- |
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}} |
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| [[Gravel|Construction gravel]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>||style="text-align:right"|32,800,000 mln m³ |
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</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Estonia 2013 |series=Energy Policies Beyond IEA Countries |author=IEA |author-link=International Energy Agency |year=2013 |location=Paris |publisher=IEA |doi=10.1787/9789264190801-en |isbn=978-92-6419079-5 |issn=2307-0897 |page=7}}</ref>]] |
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|- |
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Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large [[oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits. In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of [[phosphorite]], [[uraninite|pitchblende]], and [[granite]] that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |title=Uranium production at Sillamäe |publisher=Ut.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=4 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104181758/http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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| [[Bay mud|Lake mud]] (medical)||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|1,133,300 mln t |
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|- |
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| [[Bay mud|Lake mud]] (fertilycer)||<small>East-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|170,900 t |
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|- |
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| [[Clay|Ceramic clay]] ||<small>across the country</small>||style="text-align:right"|10,600,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Clay|Ceramsid clay]] (for gravel) ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|2,600,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Dolomite|Technological dolomite]] ||<small>West-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|16,600,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Technological]]lubjakivi ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|13,800,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Dolomite|Decoration dolomite]] ||<small>West-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|2,900,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Dolomite|Construction dolomite]] ||<small>West-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|32,900,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Clay|Blue clay]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|2,044,000 mln t |
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|- |
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| [[Granite]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|1,245,100,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Peat]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|230,300,000 mln t |
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|- |
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| [[Limestone|Construction limestone]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|110,300,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Limestone|Limestone cement]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|9,400,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Clay|Clay cement]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|15,6000,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Uranium|Dictyonema flabelliforme]]<ref>http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html Uranium production at Sillamäe</ref> ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"| 64,000,000,000 mln t |
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|- |
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| [[Wood]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"|15,6000,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Sand|Technological sand]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|3,300,000 mln m³ |
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|- |
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| [[Lime (mineral)|Lake lime]] || <small>North-Estonia</small><br /><small>South-Estonia</small><br /> || style="text-align:right"|808,000 t |
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|- |
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| [[Phosphorite]] ||<small>North-Estonia</small>|| style="text-align:right"|over 350,000,000 mln t <small>(estimated)</small> |
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|- |
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| [[Subsoil]] ||<small>across the country</small>|| style="text-align:right"| ''unknown'' |
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|- |
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|} |
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|In [[1994]], Estonia became one of the first countries in the world to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. In January 2005 the personal income tax rate was reduced to 24%. A subsequent reduction to 23% followed in January 2006. The income tax rate will be decreased by 1% annually to reach 18% by January 2010. The [[Government of Estonia]] finalized the design of Estonia's [[euro coins]] in late [[2004]], and is now intending to adopt the [[euro]] as the country's currency between [[2011]] and [[2013]], later than planned due to continued high [[inflation]]. In [[1999]], Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in [[1991]], largely because of the impact of the August [[1998]] [[Russian financial crisis]]. Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November [[1999]]. With assistance from the [[European Union]], the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Investment Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for [[European Union]] membership by the end of 2002 and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the [[European Union]]. |
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Significant quantities of [[rare-earth]] oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of [[uranium ore]], [[shale]] and [[loparite]] mining at [[Sillamäe]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Turning a Problem into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia |last1=Rofer |first1=Cheryl K. |first2=Tõnis |last2=Kaasik |series=Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-6187-9 |page=229}}</ref> Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip |first=Anneli |last=Reigas |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 December 2010 |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5itXbI57zv-lwfcaFdBdh7UZXuVuA?docId=CNG.a00f68010092a06189a0276c763e93a4.141 |access-date=1 December 2010}}</ref> |
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===Infrastructure and e-Infrastructure=== |
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{{main|Transport in Estonia}} |
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[[Transport]] and [[logistics]] play a vital role in the [[Economy of Estonia|Estonian economy]]. The country’s favorable geographic location, along with its well-developed [[infrastructure]], offers excellent opportunities for all transport and logistics related activities. Estonia has become an important transit center as its location is ideal for the creation of efficient transportation links and distribution chains of goods and services for companies in [[Europe]] and in other parts of the [[world]]. Approximately 7.5% of the country’s [[workforce]] is employed in transportation and road management, and over the past years the share of transportation and telecommunications in the economic activity has steadily increased and currently constitutes ca. 15% of the [[GDP]]. Railway transport dominates the cargo sector, comprising 70% of all carried goods, domestic and international. Road transport is the one that prevails in the passenger sector, accounting for over 90% of all transported passengers. The Estonian transportation and logistics sector is comprised of a successful combination of transportation services, transit trade, distribution centers and value-added logistics. Transit services constitute a profitable form of exports for the nation, and their future success ranks highly among the priorities of Estonia’s economic policy. |
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As of 2012, Estonia had forests that covered 48% of the land.<ref>{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Forest resources based on national forest inventory |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=EN51&ti=FOREST+RESOURCES+BASED+ON+NATIONAL+FOREST+INVENTORY+%28NFI%29&path=../I_Databas/Environment/04Natural_resources_and_their_use/06Forest_resources/&lang=1 |publisher=Statistics Estonia}}</ref> Since at least 2009, there has been a substantial increase in logging, and logging occurs not only nationwide in private land, but even in supposedly protected land like the national park.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Millington |first=David |date=2022-04-11 |title=The war on Estonian forests |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/the-war-on-estonian-forests/ |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB}}</ref> Estonia needs to cut significantly less forest to retain biodiversity and meet the country's carbon sequestration goal,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-14 |title=Kas metsanduse arengukava kaitseb Eesti metsi? |url=https://bioneer.ee/kas-metsanduse-arengukava-kaitseb-eesti-metsi |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Bioneer |language=et}}</ref> but it is increasing, and in 2022 the government ministry responsible for forestry, the RMK, reported a record profit of 1.4 billion euros.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ERR |first=Marko Tooming {{!}} |date=2023-03-20 |title=RMK 2022 profit €153 million |url=https://news.err.ee/1608920819/rmk-2022-profit-153-million |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=ERR |language=en}}</ref> |
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Located in the [[Baltic Sea]] region, Estonia has captured an increasing share of the rapidly growing trade through the Baltic Sea. 5 major [[cargo]] [[ports]] offer easy navigational access, deep waters, and good ice conditions. There are 12 [[airports]] and 1 [[heliport]] in Estonia. [[Tallinn International Airport]] is the largest airport in Estonia, providing services to a number of international carriers flying to 23 destinations. |
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|} |
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Estonia has a strong [[information technology]] ([[IT]]) [[sector]], partly due to the [[Tiigrihüpe]] project undertaken in mid [[1990s]], and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in [[Europe]] in the terms of [http://www.valitsus.ee/ e-government].<ref>[http://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> |
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===Industry and environment=== |
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{{See also|Oil shale in Estonia|Narva Power Plants|Wind power in Estonia}} |
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Proximity to the [[Nordic]] [[markets]], location between Eastern and Western Europe, competitive cost structure and high-skill labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages since the [[1990s]].[[Image:Estonian-automobile-infrastructure.jpg|thumb|right|230px|<small>A view upon a typical [[autobahn|Estonian highway</small>]].]] Estonia has a modern [[market-based]] [[economy]] and one of the highest [[per capita]] [[income]] levels in [[Central Europe]]. The economy benefits from strong [[electronics]] and [[telecommunications]] sectors and strong trade ties with [[Finland]], [[Sweden]] and [[Germany]]. The current government has pursued relatively sound [[fiscal]] policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low [[public debt]]. In [[2007]], however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on [[Estonian kroon|Estonia's currency]], which is pegged to the [[euro]], highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries. |
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[[File:Hanila tuulepark 2.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Rõuste wind turbines next to wetland|Rõuste wind farm in [[Lääneranna Parish]]]] |
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Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-02 |title=What Are The Biggest Industries In Estonia? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-biggest-industries-in-estonia.html |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021094336/http://www.investinestonia.com/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=118&op=page&SubMenu= |archive-date=21 October 2007 |title=Invest in Estonia: Overview of the Construction industry in Estonia |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in [[Ida-Viru county]] and around Tallinn. |
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The oil shale-based [[mining industry]], also concentrated in [[Virumaa|East Estonia]], produces around 73% of the entire country's electricity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-28 |title=Energy emergency revives Estonia's polluting oil shale industry |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/energy-emergency-revives-estonias-polluting-oil-shale-industry/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref> Although the number of pollutants emitted has been falling since the 1980s,<ref name=Auer>M. Auer (2004). Estonian Environmental Reforms: A Small Nation's Outsized Accomplishments. In: ''Restoring Cursed Earth: Appraising Environmental Policy Reforms in Eastern Europe and Russia.'' Rowman & Littlefield. pp 117–144.</ref> the air is still contaminated with [[sulphur dioxide]] from the mining industry the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas, coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the [[Sillamäe]] industrial complex.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html |title=Environment – current issues in Estonia. CIA Factbook |publisher=Umsl.edu |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824013731/http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Estonia exports machinery and equipment (33% of all exports annually), wood and paper (15% of all exports annually), textiles (14% of all exports annually), [[food]] products (8% of all exports annually), furniture (7% of all exports annually), and [[metal]]s and [[chemical]] products.<ref name="CIAworld">[http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/en.html CIA World Factbook: Estonia]</ref> Estonia also exports 1.562 billion [[kilowatt]] hours of [[electricity]] annually.<ref name="CIAworld">[http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/en.html CIA World Factbook: Estonia]</ref> |
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Estonia is dependent on other countries for energy. In recent years, many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kütt |first=Ave |date=2022-10-28 |title=Estonia to use 100% renewable energy by 2030 |url=https://investinestonia.com/estonia-to-use-100-renewable-energy-by-2030/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Invest in Estonia |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The EBRD invests in renewable energy developer Sunly in Estonia |url=https://www.ebrd.com/news/2023/the-ebrd-invests-in-renewable-energy-developer-sunly-in-estonia.html |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=www.ebrd.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Howey |first=William |date=2023-05-26 |title=Baltic states ramp up investment in energy sector |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/baltic-states-ramp-up-investment-in-energy-sector/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |language=en-GB}}</ref> Wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and the total current amount of energy produced from wind is nearly 60 [[Megawatt|MW]]; another roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW being proposed in the [[Lake Peipus]] area and coastal areas of [[Hiiumaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tuuleenergia.ee/?path=0x139x173 |title=Estonian Wind Power Association |publisher=Tuuleenergia.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php Peipsile võib kerkida mitusada tuulikut], ''Postimees''. 21 October 2007 (in Estonian) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822013819/http://wwx.postimees.ee/211007/esileht/majandus/290763.php |date=22 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Henrik Ilves [http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 Tuule püüdmine on saanud Eesti kullapalavikuks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102082217/http://arileht.delfi.ee/news/uudised/tuule-puudmine-on-saanud-eesti-kullapalavikuks.d?id=51133036 |date=2 November 2013 }}, ''[[Eesti Päevaleht]]''. 13 June 2008 (in Estonian)</ref> |
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{| style="background:transparent;" cellspacing="2px" |
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Currently{{When|date=February 2011}}, there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |title=State Environment in Estonia |publisher=Enrin.grida.no |access-date=2 June 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153806/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/estonia/env2001/content/soe/air_2-3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Estonia [[Liberalization|liberalised]] 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole was to be liberalised by 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013625/http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |title=Developing Estonian energy policy hand in hand with EU energy packages|access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%" |
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|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:left" |
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Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the [[Visaginas nuclear power plant]] in Lithuania to replace the [[Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant|Ignalina]] nuclear plant.<ref name="wnn-lt">{{cite news |
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!width="120px"|[[List of countries in Europe|Estonia]]!!width="60px"|[[Export]] |
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|url = http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN_Visaginas_recognised_with_nuclear_site_name_3007082.html |
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!!width="60px"|[[Import]]</tr> |
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|title = Visaginas recognised with nuclear site name |
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|- |
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|publisher = World Nuclear News |
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| [[Finland]] ||18.4%|| style="text-align:right"|18.2% |
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|date=30 July 2008 |
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|- |
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|access-date=31 July 2008}} |
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| [[Sweden]] ||12.4%|| style="text-align:right"|9% |
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</ref><ref name="le"> |
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|- |
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{{cite web |
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| [[Latvia]] ||8.9%||style="text-align:right"|5.7% |
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|url=http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469 |
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|- |
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151647/http://www.lpc.lt/en/main/news/press?ID=469 |
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| [[Russia]] ||8.1%|| style="text-align:right"|13.1% |
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|archive-date=22 July 2011 |
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|- |
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|title=Nuclear Power Plant Project in Lithuania is Feasible. Press release |
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| [[Germany]] ||5.1%||style="text-align:right"|12.4% |
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|date=25 October 2006 |
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|- |
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|publisher=[[Lietuvos Energija]] |
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| [[Lithuania]] ||4.8%|| style="text-align:right"|6.4% |
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|access-date=13 July 2007 |
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|- |
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|url-status=dead |
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|} |
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}} |
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|Estonia imports machinery] and equipment]] (33.5% of all imports annually), [[chemical]] products (11.6% of all imports annually), textiles (10.3'% of all imports annually), food products (9.4% of all imports annually), and transportation equipment (8.9% of all imports annually).<ref name="CIAworld">[http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/en.html CIA World Factbook: Estonia]</ref> Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld">[http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/en.html CIA World Factbook: Estonia]</ref> |
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</ref> However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the nuclear sector (like the [[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster|Fukushima disaster]] and bad example of [[Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant|Olkiluoto plant]]), [[Eesti Energia]] shifted its main focus to [[shale oil]] production, seen as far more profitable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.err.ee/v/economy/876c4997-500b-4adc-aeab-eb2e8c0dbcb7|date=24 November 2014 |title= Liive: Eesti Energia ditched nuclear plant plans for shale oil |publisher=ERR |access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref> |
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===Tourism=== |
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|} |
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The Estonian electricity network forms a part of the [[Nord Pool Spot]] network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nord Pool|url=http://www.nordpoolspot.com/|access-date=23 July 2017|publisher=Nordpoolspot.com}}</ref> |
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Estonia has a strong information technology [[quaternary sector of the economy|sector]], partly owing to the [[Tiigrihüpe]] project undertaken in the mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The 2014 [[E-residency of Estonia|e-residency program]] began offering those services to non-residents in Estonia. |
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[[Skype]] was written by Estonia-based developers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]] and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who had also originally developed [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 February 2012|date=6 September 2006|first=Andreas|last=Thomann|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story|publisher=credit-suisse.com|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise|Wise (formerly known as TransferWise)]]. It has been reported that Estonia has the highest startups per person ratio in the world.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 July 2013|title=Not only Skype|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref> As of January 2022, there are 1,291 startups from Estonia, seven of which are [[Unicorn (finance)|unicorns]], equalling nearly 1 startup per 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Estonian Startup Database|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database|access-date=2022-01-11|website=Startup Estonia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-07|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore|access-date=2022-01-11|website=KrASIA|language=en}}</ref> |
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===Trade=== |
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{{Main|Tallinn Stock Exchange}} |
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Estonia has had a [[market economy]] since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=GNI per capita in PPP dollars for Baltic states |url=https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&met_y=ny_gnp_pcap_pp_cd&idim=country:EST:LTU:LVA&dl=en |website=Google WorldBank|access-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> Proximity to the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a [[financial centre]] and the [[Tallinn Stock Exchange]] joined recently with the [[OMX]] system. Several cryptocurrency trading platforms are officially recognised by the government, such as [[CoinMetro]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CoinMetro License|url=https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|access-date=8 August 2018|archive-date=15 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715210621/https://mtr.mkm.ee/taotluse_tulemus/483668?backurl=%40juriidiline_isik_show%3Fid%3D227953|url-status=dead}}</ref> The current government has pursued tight [[Finance|fiscal]] policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low [[public debt]]. |
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In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on [[Estonian kroon|Estonia's currency]], which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries. |
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Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products.<ref name="CIAworld">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Estonia |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=23 December 2010 }}</ref> Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/> At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.<ref name="CIAworld"/> Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.<ref name="CIAworld"/> |
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Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion [[Estonian kroon|kroons]] (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://struktuurifondid.ee/ |title=European Union Structural Funds in Estonia |publisher=Struktuurifondid.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fin.ee/?404 |first=Livia |last=Vosman |title=Europostitus on jõudnud 350 000 kodusse |website=Rahandusministeerium |date=13 November 2010 |language=et |access-date=29 April 2017 |archive-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=http://veebiarhiiv.digar.ee/a/20101114110851/http://www.fin.ee/?404 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Main sources of [[foreign direct investment]]s to Estonia are Sweden and Finland ({{as of|2016|December|31}} 48.3%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vm.ee/en/estonian-economy-overview |title=Estonian Economy Overview | Ministry of Foreign Affairs |website=Vm.ee |date=16 June 2017 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725165843/http://vm.ee/en/estonian-economy-overview |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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==Demographics== |
==Demographics== |
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{{ |
{{Main|Demographics of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Eesti rahvaarv 1960-2019.png|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=The population of Estonia, from 1960 to 2019, with a peak in 1990.|Population of Estonia 1960–2019. The changes are largely attributed to Soviet immigration and emigration.<ref name="stat.ee_2">{{cite web|title=Rahvaarv, 1. jaanuar, aasta|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Database/RAHVASTIK/databasetree.asp|publisher=Statistics Estonia|access-date=10 October 2019}}</ref>]] |
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With only 1.3 million inhabitants, Estonia is one of the least populous countries in the [[European Union]]. The current [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] is 1.41 children per mother.<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/en.html#Econ CIA Fact book</ref> Estonia has a small number of larger cities, the most populous being [[Tallinn]], [[Tartu]], [[Narva]], [[Kohtla-Järve]] and [[Pärnu]]. |
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{{Image with scale |
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Before World War II, ethnic [[Estonians]] made up 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.<ref name="ethnic minor">{{cite web|title=Ethnic minorities in Estonia: past and present |url=http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/ |date=26 December 1998 |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807204855/http://old.estinst.ee/factsheets/ethnic_minor/}}</ref> The largest minority groups in 1934 were [[Russians]], [[Germans]], [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Latvians]], [[Jewish people|Jews]], [[Polish people|Poles]], and [[Finns]]<!--including Finns from Ingria-->. Other smaller minorities in Estonia are [[Armenians]], [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Moldovans]], [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]], [[Karelians]] and [[Romani people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/country/estonia/#:~:text=The%20Estonian%20Constitution%20of%201992,citizens%20alike%20(article%209).|title=Estonia - World Directory of Minorities & Indigenous Peoples|date=2 November 2023 }}</ref> |
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|image=[[Image:Estonian-demographics.jpg|thumb|none|310px|<small>[[Demographics of Estonia|Demographical situation]] of the [[Estonia|Republic of Estonia]] in [[2007]].</small>]] |
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|float=right |scale=310 |x=0.06 |y=0.9 |high=900 |width=544 |bl=0.133 |bw=1px |bc=black |fc=black |
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The share of [[Baltic Germans]] in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by 1934,<ref name="ethnic minor"/><ref name="baltic germans">{{cite web |title=Baltic Germans in Estonia |url=http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223082557/http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/factsheets_uus_kuju/baltic_germans.htm |archive-date=23 December 2007 |publisher=Estonian Institute}}</ref> mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification at the end of the 19th century{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century. |
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|text=<small>50 km</small> |
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Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet occupation and programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Soviet deportations from Estonia|mass deportations]] and executions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulag.online/articles/soviet-repression-and-deportations-in-the-baltic-states?locale=en|title=Soviet repression and deportations in the Baltic states|website=Gulag Online |first1=Štěpán |last1=Černoušek |date=June 2020 |access-date=October 29, 2021}}</ref> By 1989, ethnic minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold. |
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At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a [[disaster|national catastrophe]]. This was a result of the [[human migration|migration]] policies essential to the [[Sovietization of the Baltic states|Sovietization program]], which aimed to [[Russification|russify]] Estonia.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} In the decade after the restoration of Estonian independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of Russian military bases in 1994 caused{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006. |
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Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country, but this historical homogeneity is a feature of 13 of the country's 15 ''maakond'' (counties). The mostly Russian-speaking immigrant population is concentrated in urban areas which administratively belong to two counties. Thus 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city Tallinn) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. The [[History of Russians in Estonia|ethnic Russian]] immigrant minority makes up about 24% of the country's total population today, but accounts for 35% of the population in Harju county and for a near-70% majority in Ida-Viru county. |
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The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David James|title=The Baltic States and Their Region: New Europe Or Old? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRvH4quutCUC&pg=PA211 |page=211|year=2005|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-1666-8}}</ref> Cultural autonomies could be granted to [[minorities]] numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet occupation]], the German and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of ''[[Estonian Swedes|rannarootslased]]'' ("Coastal Swedes"). |
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In recent years, the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering almost 500 people by 2008, owing to property reforms enacted in the early 1990s. In 2004, the [[Ingrian Finnish]] minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.<ref name="National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act (2019 version)">{{Cite web|title=National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/504042019005/consolide|access-date=2022-04-07|website=Riigi Teataja }}</ref> |
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During the Russo-Ukrainian war of 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian refugees have arrived in Estonia. |
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There is also a [[Romani people|Roma]] community in Estonia. Approximately 1,000-1,500 Roma live in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en|title=Estonia - Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma |website= European Commission |first1=Mare |last1=Viies |date=July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216002737/https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=8967&langId=en |archive-date= Dec 16, 2023 }}</ref> |
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===Society=== |
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{{See also|Human rights in Estonia|Nordic identity in Estonia|Estonian alien's passport}} |
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The Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members|work=[[The Baltic Times]]|date=May 1, 2018|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar. |title=Töötuse määr |trans-title=Unemployment rate |publisher=Statistics Estonia |language=Estonian |access-date=20 September 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |
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Estonia's population on 31 December 2021 (1,331,824 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2011. 84% of people residing in Estonia in 2021 lived in Estonia at the time of the previous census as well. 11% had been added by births and 5% by immigration over the ten years 2011-2021. Nowadays, 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd in terms of educational attainment). |
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More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia’s population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian, which had still been the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia in 2011 and earlier censuses). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonia. |
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<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been publishedd|date=December 2022|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> |
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<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web |url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 |title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000|date=July 2010|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref> |
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{{as of|2010|July|2}}, 84.1% of Estonian residents were Estonian citizens, 8.6% were citizens of other countries and 7.3% were "citizens with undetermined citizenship".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|title=Citizenship|publisher=Estonia.eu|date=13 July 2010|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827195243/http://estonia.eu/about-estonia/society/citizenship.html|archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref> Since 1992, roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing [[naturalisation]] exams.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/67387/eesti-andis-mullu-kodakondsuse-2124-inimesele/ Eesti andis mullu kodakondsuse 2124 inimesele], ''Postimees''. 9 January 2009</ref> Estonia has also accepted [[European migrant crisis#Relocation and resettlement of asylum seekers|quota refugees]] under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Refugees frustrated and trapped in chilly Baltic states |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40479224 |work=BBC News |date=4 July 2017}}</ref> |
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Ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous at a county level; in most counties, over 90% of residents are ethnic Estonians. In contrast, in the capital city Tallinn and the urban areas of Ida-Viru county (which neighbours Russia) ethnic Estonians account for around 60% of the population and the remainder is mostly composed of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who mostly arrived in Estonia during the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), however now also includes over 62,000 (ca 6% of total population) war refugees from Ukraine who have settled in Estonia in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tambur |first=Silver |date=2022-12-29 |title=Estonia has accepted the largest share of Ukrainian refugees in the EU |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-has-accepted-the-largest-share-of-ukrainian-refugees-in-the-eu/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Estonian World |language=en-GB}}</ref> |
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[[File:Saare küla Piirissaar.JPG|thumb|A [[Russians in Estonia|Russian]] [[Old Believers|Old Believer]] village with a church on [[Piirissaar]] island]] |
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The 2008 [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] report called "extremely credible" the description of the [[Estonian nationality law|citizenship policy of Estonia]] as "discriminatory".<ref>[http://www.osce.org/odihr/34040?download=true Naturalisation in Estonia Statement by the Legal Information Centre for Human Rights (Tallinn, Estonia)] (''[...]the Special Rapporteur considers extremely credible the views of the representatives of the Russian-speaking minorities who expressed that the citizenship policy is discriminatory[...]'')</ref> According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognized that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When compared with results from a 2000 survey, Russians had a more positive attitude toward the future.<ref name="Societal survey">[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf Eesti ühiskond Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902020818/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/195/yhiskond.pdf |date=2 September 2011}}. (2006, PDF in Estonian/English). Retrieved 23 December 2011.</ref> |
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Estonia was the first former Soviet republic to legalize civil unions for same-sex couples, with a law approved in October 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/estonia-passes-law-recognizing-gay-partnerships-1412857097 |title=Estonia Passes Law Recognizing Gay Partnerships |first=Liis |last=Kangsepp |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=9 October 2014 |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref> Political disagreements delayed adoption of the necessary implementing legislation, and same-sex couples were not able to sign [[Recognition of same-sex unions in Estonia|cohabitation agreements]] until January 1, 2016. |
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===Urbanization=== |
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{{Main list|List of cities and towns in Estonia}} |
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Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia, and lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 ''linn''a, with "linn" in English meaning both "cities" and "towns". More than 70% of the population lives in towns. |
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{{Largest cities |
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| kind = [[List of cities and towns in Estonia|cities and towns]] |
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| country = Estonia |
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| stat_ref = 2024<ref>{{cite web | title=RV068: POPULATION BY CITIZENSHIP AND PLACE OF RESIDENCE, 1 JANUARY | website=PxWeb | url=https://andmed.stat.ee/en/stat/rahvastik__rahvastikunaitajad-ja-koosseis__rahvaarv-ja-rahvastiku-koosseis/RV068 | access-date=30 January 2024}}</ref> |
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| list_by_pop = Demographics of Estonia |
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| div_name = |
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| div_link = Counties of Estonia{{!}}County |
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| city_1 = Tallinn | div_1 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_1 = 457,572 | img_1 = Tallinna vanalinn päikesetõusu ajal.jpg |
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| city_2 = Tartu | div_2 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_2 = 97,759 | img_2 = Tartu downtown 2.jpg |
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| city_3 = Narva | div_3 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_3 = 53,360 | img_3 = |
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| city_4 = Pärnu | div_4 = Pärnu County{{!}}Pärnu | pop_4 = 41,520 | img_4 = |
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| city_5 = Kohtla-Järve | div_5 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_5 = 33,434 |
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| city_6 = Viljandi | div_6 = Viljandi County{{!}}Viljandi | pop_6 = 17,255 |
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| city_7 = Maardu | div_7 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_7 = 17,017 |
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| city_8 = Rakvere | div_8 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_8 = 15,695 |
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| city_9 = Kuressaare | div_9 = Saare County{{!}}Saare | pop_9 = 13,185 |
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| city_10 = Sillamäe | div_10 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_10 = 12,352 |
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| city_11 = Valga, Estonia{{!}}Valga | div_11 = Valga County{{!}}Valga | pop_11 = 12,173 |
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| city_12 = Võru | div_12 = Võru County{{!}}Võru | pop_12 = 12,112 |
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| city_13 = Keila | div_13 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_13 = 10,964 |
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| city_14 = Jõhvi | div_14 = Ida-Viru County{{!}}Ida-Viru | pop_14 = 10,880 |
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| city_15 = Haapsalu | div_15 = Lääne County{{!}}Lääne | pop_15 = 9,693 |
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| city_16 = Paide | div_16 = Järva County{{!}}Järva | pop_16 = 8,073 |
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| city_17 = Saue | div_17 = Harju County{{!}}Harju | pop_17 = 6,227 |
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| city_18 = Elva, Estonia{{!}}Elva | div_18 = Tartu County{{!}}Tartu | pop_18 = 5,692 |
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| city_19 = Põlva | div_19 = Põlva County{{!}}Põlva | pop_19 = 5,498 |
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| city_20 = Tapa, Estonia{{!}}Tapa | div_20 = Lääne-Viru County{{!}}Lääne-Viru | pop_20 = 5,492 |
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<!--next: Rapla - 5355--> |
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}} |
}} |
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By far the largest [[conurbation]] is the [[Tallinn]]s [[region]], including cities of [[Maardu]], [[Saue]] and smaller municipalities of [[Viimsi]], [[Tabasalu]], [[Vääna-Jõesuu]] and [[Männiku]]. |
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===Ethnic and cultural diversity=== |
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{{main|Estonian Germans|Estonian Swedes|Estonian Russians|Estonian Jews|Setos|Võros}} |
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Different nationalities have always lived together in Estonia. Tolerance and democracy are illustrated by the Law on the [http://www.einst.ee/factsheets/cult_auton/ Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities], passed already in [[1925]], which was not only the first in [[Europe]] at the time but also very progressive. Before the [[World War II]], Estonia was a relatively [[homogeneous]] [[society]] – national minorities constituted about 12% of the population. The largest minority groups in [[1934]] were [[Russians]], [[Germans]], [[Swedes]], [[Latvians]], [[Jews]], [[Poles]], [[Finns]] and [[Ingrians]]. Cultural autonomies could be granted to [[minorities]] numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Prior to the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet occupation]], the Germans and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in [[1993]]. In [[2005]], the [[Ingrian Finnish]] minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The [[Estonian Swedes|Estonian Swedish]] minority similarly received cultural autonomy in [[2007]]. |
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{| style="background:transparent;" cellspacing="2px" |
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| |
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{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%" |
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|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:left" |
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!width="400px"|[[List of countries in Europe|Estonia]]!!width="300px"|[[Population]] |
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!!width="100px"|[[demographics|%]]</tr> |
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|- |
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| [[Estonians]] ||921,062|| style="text-align:right"|68.6% |
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|- |
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| [[Russians]] ||344,280|| style="text-align:right"|25.6% |
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|- |
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| [[Ukrainians]] ||28,158||style="text-align:right"|2.1% |
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|- |
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| [[Belarussians]] ||16,134|| style="text-align:right"|1.2% |
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|- |
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| [[Finns]] ||11,035||style="text-align:right"|0.8% |
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|- |
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| [[Tatars]] ||2,487|| style="text-align:right"|0.2% |
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|- |
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| [[Latvians]] ||2,216|| style="text-align:right"|0.2% |
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|- |
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| [[Poles]] ||2,216|| style="text-align:right"|0.2% |
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|- |
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| [[Lithuanians]] ||2,077|| style="text-align:right"|0.1% |
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|- |
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| [[Jews]] ||1,900|| style="text-align:right"|0.1% |
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|- |
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| [[Germans]] ||1,900|| style="text-align:right"|0.1% |
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|- |
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| ''[[Others]]'' ||9,084|| style="text-align:right"|0.7% |
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|- |
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|} |
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|Historically, large parts of Estonia’s north-western coast and islands have been populated by indigenous ethnically [[Estonian Swedes|''Rannarootslased'']] (Coastal Swedes). The majority of Estonia's Swedish population of 3,800 fled to [[Sweden]] or were deported in [[1944]], escaping the advancing [[Red Army]]. In the recent years the numbers of Coastal Swedes has risen again, numbering in [[2008]] almost 500 people, due to the property reforms in the beginning of [[1990s]]. |
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===Religion=== |
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World War II along with [[Soviet]] and [[Nazi]] [[occupations]] interrupted the natural development of inter-ethnic relations, deforming the inner features of Estonian society. By [[1989]], minorities constituted more than 1/3 of the population, the number of non-Estonians had grown almost 5-fold, while the percentage of ethnic Estonians in the total population decreased by 27%. At the end of the [[1980s]], [[Estonians]] perceived their demographic change as a [[disaster|national catastrophe]]. This was a result of the [[migration]] policies essential to the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet Nationalisation Programme]] aiming to [[russify]] Estonia – forceful administrative and military immigration of [[Soviets|non-Estonians]] from the [[USSR]] coupled with the mass deportations of Estonians to the USSR. During the purges up to 110,000 Estonians were killed or deported. |
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{{Main|Religion in Estonia}} |
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{{Pie chart |
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|thumb = right |
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|caption = Religion in Estonia (2011)<ref name=stat2011>{{cite web|url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0454&lang=1|title= PC0454: at least 15-year-old persons by religion, sex, age group, ethnic nationality and county, 31 December 2011|date= 31 December 2011|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|title= PHC 2011: over a quarter of the population are affiliated with a particular religion|date= 29 April 2013|access-date= 9 January 2014|publisher= [[Statistics Estonia]]|archive-date= 24 November 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171124002736/https://www.stat.ee/65352?parent_id=39113|url-status= dead}}</ref> |
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|label1 = Unaffiliated |
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|value1 = 64.87 |
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|color1 = WhiteSmoke |
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|label2 = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] |
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|value2 = 19.87 |
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|color2 = Orchid |
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|label3 = [[Lutheran]] |
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|value3 = 12.02 |
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|color3 = RoyalBlue |
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|label4 = Other [[Christianity|Christian]] |
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|value4 = 1.20 |
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|color4 = DodgerBlue |
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|label5 = [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and other neoprotestant denominations |
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|value5 = 0.93 |
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|color5 = DeepSkyBlue |
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|label6 = Other religions |
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|value6 = 1.10 |
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|color6 = Black |
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}} |
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Estonia has a diverse religious history, but in recent years it has become increasingly secular, with either a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] or a [[majority]] of the population declaring themselves [[Irreligion|nonreligious]] in recent censuses, followed by those who identify as religiously "undeclared". The largest minority groups are the various [[Christian denomination]]s, principally Lutheran and Orthodox Christians, with very small numbers of adherents in non-Christian faiths, namely [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]]. Other polls suggest the country is broadly split between Christians and the non-religious / religiously undeclared. |
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Before the [[Second World War]], Estonia was approximately 80% [[Protestant]], overwhelmingly [[Lutheran]],<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language= en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref> |
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{{cite web|title=Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world |
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|last= Ringvee |
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|first= Ringo |
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|date= 16 September 2011 |
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|work= The Guardian |
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|access-date= 14 October 2014 |
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|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940. |
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}} |
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</ref><ref name=MarshallCavendish2010>{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland|year=2010|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=9780761478966|page=1066|first1=Triin |last1=Edovald |first2=Michelle |last2=Felton |first3=John |last3=Haywood |first4=Rimvydas |last4=Juskaitis |author5=Michael Thomas Kerrigan |first6=Simon |last6=Lund-Lack |first7=Nicholas |last7=Middleton |first8=Josef |last8=Miskovsky |first9=Ihar |last9=Piatrowicz |first10=Lisa |last10=Pickering |first11=Dace |last11=Praulins |first12=John |last12=Swift |first13=Vytautas |last13=Uselis |first14=Ilivi |last14=Zajedova |quote=It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. Estonia is the European Union (EU) country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned. Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from 1941 through 1944, and in World War II (1939–1945), and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.}}</ref> followed by [[Calvinism]] and other Protestant branches. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.country-studies.com/estonia/religion.html |title=Estonia – Religion |publisher=Country Studies |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> There has historically been a small but noticeable minority of [[Old Believers|Russian Old-believers]] near the [[Lake Peipus]] area in [[Tartu County|Tartu county]]. |
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Today, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.<ref>[[Constitution of Estonia#Chapter 2: Fundamental Rights, Liberties, and Duties]] Article 40.–42.</ref> According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the [[Irreligion by country|least religious]] countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be [[irreligion|irreligious]]. The [[Eurobarometer]] Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |title=Social Values|access-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524004644/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2006 }}</ref> A 2009 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found similar results, with only 16% of Estonians describing religion as "important" in their daily lives, making Estonia the most irreligious of the nations surveyed.<ref name=gallup-religiosity-poor-nations>{{cite web|last1=Crabtree|first1=Steve|title=Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations|date=31 August 2010 |url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/142727/religiosity-highest-world-poorest-nations.aspx|publisher=Gallup|access-date=27 May 2015}} (in which numbers have been rounded)</ref> |
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[[File:Ruhnu puukirik.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ruhnu]] stave church, built in 1644, is the oldest surviving wooden building in Estonia]] |
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New polls about religiosity in the [[European Union]] in 2012 by [[Eurobarometer]] found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting for 45% of [[Estonians]].<ref name=EUROBAROMETER>{{citation|title=Discrimination in the EU in 2012 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2012 |series=383 |page=233 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |access-date=14 August 2013 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=European Union |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202023700/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_393_en.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2012 }} The question asked was "Do you consider yourself to be...?" With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu, Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.</ref> [[Eastern Orthodox]] are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens,<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/> while [[Protestant]]s make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. [[Agnostic|Non believer/Agnostic]] account 22%, [[Atheist]] accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.<ref name="EUROBAROMETER"/> |
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The most recent [[Pew Research Center]], found that in 2015, 51% of the population of Estonia declared itself Christian, 45% [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]]—a category which includes [[atheists]], agnostics and those who describe their religion as "[[Nothing in Particular|nothing in particular]]", while 2% belonged to other faiths.<ref name="Religious Belief in Central and Eastern Europe">{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe |date=10 May 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513130508/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2017/05/10104119/CEUP-FULL-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2017 }}</ref> The Christians divided between 25% Eastern Orthodox, 20% Lutherans, 5% other Christians and 1% Catholic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/ |title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe | Pew Research Center |date=10 May 2017 |publisher=Pewforum.org |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> While the [[Irreligion|religiously unaffiliated]] divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics and 35% as [[Nothing in Particular]].<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-affiliation/ Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: 1. Religious affiliation]; [[Pew Research Center]], 10 May 2017</ref> |
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Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country was [[Lutheranism]], which was adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population) according to the 2000 census, principally ethnic Estonians. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination has 180,000 registered members.<ref>{{cite web|title=Churches in Estonia|url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|publisher=lutheranworld.org|access-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305170631/https://www.lutheranworld.org/country/estonia|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other organisations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church|date=January 1948|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/estonian-evangelical-lutheran-church|publisher=oikoumene.org|access-date=22 September 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923060012/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/estonian-evangelical-lutheran-church|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additionally, there are between 8,000 and 9,000 members abroad. |
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However, the 2011 census indicated that [[Eastern Orthodox]]y had surpassed Lutheranism, accounting for 16.5% of the population (176,773 people). While not being a [[State religion|state church]], the Lutheran church had historically been the [[national church]] of Estonia with an agreement giving preferential status to the Lutheran church ending in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ERR |first=ERR, Indrek Kiisler, ERR News {{!}} |date=2023-05-27 |title=Estonian government ends long-standing agreement with Lutheran Church |url=https://news.err.ee/1608990614/estonian-government-ends-long-standing-agreement-with-lutheran-church |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=ERR |language=en}}</ref> |
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Eastern Orthodoxy is practised chiefly by the ethnic Russian minority, as well as by the small ethnic Estonian [[Setos|Seto]] minority. The [[Estonian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate|Estonian Orthodox Church]], affiliated with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], is the primary Orthodox denomination. The [[Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church]], under the Greek-Orthodox [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]], claims another 28,000 members.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} |
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Catholics are a small minority in Estonia. They are organised under the Latin [[Apostolic Administration of Estonia]] and two Greek Catholic parishes. |
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According to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the [[Taaraism|Taara faith]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maavald.ee/eng/uudised.html?rubriik=50&id=363&op=lugu |title=Maavald |publisher=Maavald.ee |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |title=Old Estonian Religions |first=Ahto |last=Kaasik |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811050822/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/estonianculture/II_MMIII/kaasik.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/09/world/europe/09iht-estonia.4.18535971.html |title=Some Estonians return to pre-Christian animist traditions |newspaper=The New York Times |first=Ellen |last=Barry |date=9 November 2008 |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> or [[Maausk]] in Estonia (see [[Maavalla Koda]]). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see [[History of the Jews in Estonia]]), and the Muslim community numbers just over 1,400. Around 68,000 people consider themselves [[atheists]].<ref name="pub.stat.ee">{{cite web |url= http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/16Religious_affiliation/16Religious_affiliation.asp |title=Statistical database: Population Census 2000 – Religious affiliation |publisher=Statistics Estonia |date=22 October 2002 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> |
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===Languages=== |
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{{main|Languages of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Finnic languages 2.png|thumb|left|Distribution of [[Finnic languages]] in [[Northern Europe]]]] |
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The official language, [[Estonian language|Estonian]], is a [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] language, and is conventionally classified as a member of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic language family]]. Estonian is closely related to Finnish, and one of the few languages of Europe that is not of [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origin. <!--Despite some overlaps in the vocabulary due to borrowings, in terms of their origin,-->Unlike Estonian and Finnish, the languages of their nearest geographical neighbouring countries, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and Russian, are all Indo-European languages. |
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The Estonian language is the world's second-most spoken Finnic language as well as the world's third-most spoken Uralic language (after [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]]). |
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Although the Estonian and [[Germanic language]]s are of different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], mainly from Low Saxon ([[Middle Low German]]) during the period of [[History of Estonia#Estonian Crusade: The Middle Ages|German rule]], and [[High German]] (including [[standard German]]). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent. |
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[[South Estonian]] languages are spoken by 100,000 people and include the dialects of [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]]. The languages are spoken in South-Eastern Estonia and are [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genealogically]] distinct from northern Estonian, but are traditionally and officially considered as [[dialect]]s and "regional forms of the Estonian language", not separate language(s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laakso|first1=Johanna|last2=Sarhimaa|first2=Anneli|last3=Spiliopoulou Åkermark|first3=Sia|last4=Toivanen|first4=Reeta|title=Towards Openly Multilingual Policies and Practices: Assessing Minority Language Maintenance Across Europe|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=Bristol; Buffalo|isbn=9781783094950|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> |
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Russian is the most spoken minority language in the country. There are towns in Estonia with large concentrations of Russian speakers, and there are towns where Estonian speakers are in the minority (especially in the northeast, e.g. [[Narva]]). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by many 40- to 70-year-old ethnic Estonians because Russian was the unofficial language of the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]] from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/30669 |title=Eesti NSV Keeleseadus|publisher=Riigi Teataja |date=7 January 1990 |access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref> In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]) did not speak Estonian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/15102000.htm |title=Kirch, Aksel. "Russians in contemporary Estonia – different strategies of the integration in to the nation-state." |publisher=Ies.ee |date=10 February 1998 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.<ref>[http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/dialog/varval.asp?ma=ML133&ti=POPULATION+AGED+15%2D74+BY+ETHNIC+NATIONALITY+AND+KNOWLEDGE+OF+LANGUAGES&path=../I_databas/Social_life/09Labour_market/02Education/02Educational_level/&search=LANGUAGE&lang=1 Table ML133, Eesti Statistika]. Retrieved 30 April 2011</ref> The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru county]]. |
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From the 13th to the 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands, which today have almost disappeared. |
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From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain. |
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Apart from many other areas, the influence of Swedish is distinct in the [[Noarootsi Parish]] of [[Lääne county]], where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian or Swedish names and street signs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eki.ee/knn/p2y.htm |title=Names of populated places changed with the reform of 1997 |publisher=Institute of the Estonian Language |date=29 September 1998 |access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.noavv.ee/swe |title=Information about the bilingual Estonian/Swedish parish of Noarootsi |publisher=Noavv.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120904104245/http://www.noavv.ee/swe |archive-date=4 September 2012 }}</ref> |
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The most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Foreign Languages Strategy 2009 – 2015|url=http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|publisher=Ministry of Education and Research|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191208/http://contactpoints.ecml.at/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8lWNTiRd1A4%3D&tabid=1319&language=en-GB|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Lotfitka Romani is spoken by the [[Romani people|Roma]] minority in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eestiromad.ee/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Anette-Ross-Estonian-Lotfitka-Romani.pdf|title=ESTONIAN LOTFITKA ROMANI}}</ref> |
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===Education and science=== |
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[[File:Tartu Ülikooli peahoone 2012.jpg|thumb|alt=gray stucco building three-story building with grey slate hip roof, central portico and pediment|The [[University of Tartu]] is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the highest-ranked university in Estonia. According to the Top Universities website, the University of Tartu ranks 285th in the QS Global World Ranking.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/university-tartu|title=University of Tartu|website=www.topuniversities.com}}</ref>]] |
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{{Main|Education in Estonia}} |
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{{See also|List of universities in Estonia|Space science in Estonia|Tiigrihüpe}} |
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The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first [[monastic]] and [[cathedral schools]] were founded.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fl.ut.ee/368372 |title=Ajaloost: Koolihariduse algusest |publisher=University of Tartu |date=24 March 2010 |language=et |access-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the [[University of Tartu]], founded by King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustav II Adolf]] of Sweden in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language. From 2024 all schools will begin to transition to educating solely in the Estonian language.<ref>{{cite web |title=Estonia: Action plan approved for transition to Estonian-language education |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/news/estonia-action-plan-approved-transition-estonian-language-education |date=16 December 2022}}</ref> |
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Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hm.ee/index.php |title=Haridus- ja Teadusministeerium |publisher=Hm.ee |access-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |title=Koolide, huvikoolide, koolieelsete lasteasutuste kontaktandmed |access-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617071702/http://www.ekk.edu.ee/ehis/failid/koolide_kontaktid.xls |archive-date=17 June 2009}}. Estonian Education Infosystem, (in Estonian)</ref> |
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Estonia started connecting all its schools to the Internet very early. [[Tiigrihüpe]] (Estonian for Tiger Leap) was a project undertaken by the state to heavily invest in the development and expansion of computer and network infrastructure in Estonia, with a particular emphasis on education.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct1x41|title=BBC World Service – Witness History, Estonia's internet 'Tiger Leap'|website=BBC}}</ref> |
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In the 2018 [[Programme for International Student Assessment|Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)]] report, Estonia's students rank 1st in Europe. In the world, Estonia's students rank 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics and 4th in sciences.<ref name="LoC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.educationestonia.org/pisa-2018-estonian-students-rank-1st-in-europe/|title=PISA 2018: Estonian students rank 1st in Europe|date=28 May 2020 |website=Education Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations}}</ref> Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialized world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/estonia/.|title=OECD Better Life Index|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> |
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[[File:Building of Estonian Students' Society.jpg|thumb|left|<!--alt=House of the Estonian Students' Society (built 1902) in Tartu. The [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Finnish)|Treaty of Tartu]] between Finland and Soviet Russia was signed in the building in 1920.|-->House of the [[Estonian Students' Society]], built-in 1901–1902 in Tartu, and considered the first example of the Estonian [[architectural style|style]] of urban architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://register.muinas.ee/|title=National Registry of Cultural Monuments 7010 Eesti Üliõpilaste Seltsi hoone Tartus, J.Tõnissoni 1, 1901.a.|access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref>]] |
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Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties, the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit.<ref name="EurydiceSummary">{{cite web|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|title=National summary sheets on education systems in Europe and ongoing reforms: Estonia|date=February 2009|publisher=[[Eurydice]]|access-date=19 September 2009|archive-date=16 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316213225/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Estonia:Higher_Education|url-status=dead}}</ref> Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions. In addition to organizing the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |title=Implementation of Bologna Declaration in Estonia |publisher=Bologna-berlin2003.de |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709041912/http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/en/national_reports/index.htm |archive-date= 9 July 2009 }}</ref> Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the [[University of Tartu]], [[Tallinn University of Technology]], [[Tallinn University]], [[Estonian University of Life Sciences]], [[Estonian Academy of Arts]]; the largest private university is [[Estonian Business School]]. |
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[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg|thumb|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia|[[ESTCube-1]] is the first Estonian satellite.]] |
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The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centers were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.<ref name=Kalja>{{cite book|editor-first=Detlef|editor-last=Kochan|title=Software for manufacturing: proceedings of the 7th International IFIP/IFAC Conference on Software for Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Dresden, German Democratic Republic, 14–17 June 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EiaAAAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=North-Holland|isbn=978-0-444-87342-2|author1=A. Kalja |author2=J. Pruuden |author3=B. Tamm |author4=E. Tyugu |chapter=Two Families of Knowledge Based CAD Environments|pages=125–134}}</ref><ref name=Jaakkola> |
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{{cite journal|author1=H. Jaakkola |author2=A. Kalja |title=Estonian Information Technology Policy in Government, Industry and Research|journal=Technology Management: Strategies and Applications|volume= 3|issue= 3|year= 1997|pages= 299–307}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart|year=2015|publisher=World Bank|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref> Estonia was ranked 16th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2023-10-23 |website=www.wipo.int |date=18 April 2024 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |language=en}}</ref> |
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Some of the best-known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], [[Ernst Öpik]] and [[Jaan Einasto]], biologist [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], [[Jakob von Uexküll]], chemists [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and [[Carl Schmidt (chemist)|Carl Schmidt]], economist [[Ragnar Nurkse]], mathematician [[Edgar Krahn]], medical researchers [[Ludvig Puusepp]] and [[Nikolay Pirogov]], physicist [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], political scientist [[Rein Taagepera]], psychologist [[Endel Tulving]] and [[Risto Näätänen]], semiotician [[Juri Lotman]]. |
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According to ''New Scientist'', Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information services sponsored by the state. They aim to minimize and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for 100,000 of its 1.3 million citizens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2165318-estonia-to-give-genetic-testing-and-advice-to-100000-residents/|title=Estonia to give genetic testing and advice to 100,000 residents|work=New Scientist|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> |
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According to the [[2000]] [[census]], altogether 109 languages are spoken in Estonia. 83.4% of Estonian citizens speak [[Estonian]] as their mother tongue, 15.3% – [[Russian language|Russian]] and 1% speak other languages. Of Estonian residents, 83.6% are Estonian citizens, 7.4% are citizens of other countries and 9% – citizens with undetermined citizenship. The number of Estonian citizens who have become citizens through [[naturalization]] process (more than 140,000 persons) exceeds the number of residents of undetermined citizenship (120,000 persons).<ref>http://www.vm.ee/estonia/kat_399/pea_172/4305.html Population by Nationality </ref> |
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{{main|Estonian language|Võro language|Seto language}} |
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The country's official language is [[Estonian language|Estonian]], a [[Finno-Ugric language]] which is closely related to [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. It has been influenced by [[German language|German]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]]. Russian is widely spoken as a secondary language by thirty- to seventy-year-old ethnic Estonians, |
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[[Image:Estonians-in-ethnic-clothing.jpg|thumb|right|240px|<small>[[Estonians]] in their ethnic clothing in [[2007]].</small>]] |
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because Russian was the unofficial language of the [[Estonian SSR|occupied Estonia]] from [[1944]] to [[1991]] taught as a compulsory second language during the [[Soviet]] [[era]]. First and second generation of industrial immigrants from various parts of the former Soviet Union (mainly [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]]) do not speak [[Estonian language|Estonian]].<ref>[http://www.ies.ee/15102000.htm Kirch, Aksel. "Russians in contemporary Estonia — different strategies of the integration in to the nation-state."]</ref> The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city ([[Tallinn]]) and the industrial urban areas in [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Virumaa]]. Many younger Estonians can speak [[English language|English]], having learned it as their first foreign language. Most common foreign languages learned by Estonians are English, German, Russian, Swedish, Finnish and in recent years also Latvian. |
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==Science== |
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===Education=== |
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==Culture== |
==Culture== |
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{{Main|Culture of Estonia}} |
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===Cinema and media=== |
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{{See also|List of Estonians}} |
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[[Image:MiffrevolutionofpigsJaakKilmiandReneReinumagi11.jpg|thumb| Director [[Rene Reinumägi]] and Jaak Kilmi in Moscow 26. International Film Festival /Russia |
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[[File:Eesti Rahva Muuseumi peahoone 13.jpg|thumb|The [[Estonian National Museum]] in Tartu]] |
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Special Jury Prize Silver St. George (For film that could show the past but represent the future)]] |
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The [[culture of Estonia]] incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the [[sauna]], with mainstream [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Germany, Sweden and Russia, for this reason it aspires more to be [[Nordic identity in Estonia|considered a Nordic state]].<ref>[https://vm.ee/et/node/42622 Estonia as a Nordic Country] – Välisministeerium</ref><ref>[https://icds.ee/en/nordic-ideals-of-estonia-and-finland-a-longing-for-a-strong-leader-sets-finland-and-estonia-apart-from-scandinavia/ Nordic ideals of Estonia and Finland: a longing for a strong leader sets Finland and Estonia apart from Scandinavia] – ICDS</ref> |
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Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with a popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The [[Protestant work ethic]] remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. As the mainstream culture in the Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread [[egalitarianism]] out of practical reasons (see: [[Everyman's right]] and [[universal suffrage]]), and the ideals of closeness to nature and [[self-sufficiency]] (see: [[summer cottage]]). |
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2004 Estonian cult film [[Revolution of Pigs]] awarded in Moscow 26. International Film Festival Special Jury Prize Silver St. George - For film that could show the past but represent the future. |
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The [[Estonian Academy of Arts]] (Estonian: ''Eesti Kunstiakadeemia'', EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while the [[University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy]] has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/616164/eesti-245-muuseumis-sailitatakse-10-miljonit-museaali/ Eesti 245 muuseumis säilitatakse 10 miljonit museaali]. ''Postimees'', 30 October 2011. (in Estonian)</ref> |
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===Music=== |
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{{Main|Music of Estonia}} |
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{{See also|Estonian national awakening|Estonian Song Festival|Estonia in the Eurovision Song Contest}} |
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[[File:Tallinna laululava ansambel, 1960.a.*.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Estonian Song Festival]] is [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]].]] |
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The earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to [[Saxo Grammaticus]] {{lang|la|Gesta Danorum}} ({{Circa|1179}}).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sir George Grove|first2=Stanley|last2=Sadie|title=The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I4YAAAAIAAJ|date=June 1980|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|isbn=978-0-333-23111-1|page=358}}</ref> Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older [[Folk music|folk songs]] are also referred to as ''regilaulud'', songs in the traditional ''regivärss'' [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metre]] shared by all [[Baltic Finns]]. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Jan |last2=Lehiste |first2=Ilse |title=The Temporal Structure of Estonian Runic Songs |date=2002 |publisher=DeGruyter Mouton |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110170320 |page=9 |doi=10.1515/9783110885996 |edition=Reprint 2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885996 |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> |
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Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by [[shepherd]]s were once widespread, and are now becoming more commonly played once more. Other instruments, including the [[fiddle]], [[zither]], [[concertina]], and [[accordion]] are used to play [[polka]] or other dance music. The [[kannel (instrument)|kannel]] is a native instrument that is again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in [[Viljandi]].<ref>Margus Haav [http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php Pärimusmuusika ait lööb uksed valla (Estonian Native Music Preserving Centre is opened)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120912151814/http://wwx.postimees.ee/270308/esileht/kultuur/319974.php |date=12 September 2012}}. Postimees. 27 March 2008 (in Estonian)</ref> |
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[[File:Arvo Pärt.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Arvo Pärt bearded balding man facing left|[[Arvo Pärt]] was the world's most performed living composer from 2010 to 2018.]] |
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The tradition of [[Estonian Song Festival]]s (''Laulupidu'') started at the height of the [[Estonian national awakening]] in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur [[choral]] events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, [[the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]] (''Lauluväljak'') have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2019. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017.<ref>[http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ The 12th Estonian youth song and dance celebration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706073054/http://sa.laulupidu.ee/en/ |date=6 July 2017}}. Estonian Song and Dance Celebration Foundation</ref> |
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Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as [[Aleksander Eduard Thomson]], [[Rudolf Tobias]], [[Miina Härma]], [[Mart Saar]], [[Artur Kapp]], [[Juhan Aavik]], [[Aleksander Kunileid]], [[Artur Lemba]] and [[Heino Eller]] emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are [[Arvo Pärt]], [[Eduard Tubin]], and [[Veljo Tormis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Popular awareness in Estonian music |url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Music/Popular_awareness_in_Estonian_music/ |website=Estonica.org |access-date=15 October 2022 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125222342/http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Music/Popular_awareness_in_Estonian_music/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bachtrack.com/top-ten-statistics-classical-music-2014 |title=2014 Classical music statistics: Lis(z)tmania |publisher=Bachtrack.com |date=8 January 2015 |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> |
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In the 1950s, Estonian [[baritone]] [[Georg Ots]] rose to worldwide prominence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mus-col.com/en/the-authors/22453/ |title=Ots, Georg |website=Museum Collection |date=2021 |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref> In popular music, Estonian artist [[Kerli Kõiv]] has become popular in Europe, also gaining in popularity in North America.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} |
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Estonia won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 2001 with the song "[[Everybody (Eurovision song)|Everybody]]" performed by [[Tanel Padar]] and [[Dave Benton]]. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. [[Maarja-Liis Ilus]] competed for Estonia in 1996 and 1997, while [[Eda-Ines Etti]], [[Koit Toome]] and [[Evelin Samuel]] partly owe their popularity to the song contest. [[Lenna Kuurmaa]] gained recognition in Europe performing with her band [[Vanilla Ninja]]. "[[Rändajad]]" by [[Urban Symphony]] was the first song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium and Switzerland.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} |
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Estonian country guitar player [[Laur Joamets]] won a [[Grammy Award]] with the country singer [[Sturgill Simpson]] in 2017 for the Best Country Record of the year, [[A Sailor's Guide to Earth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://estonianworld.com/culture/estonian-guitarist-laur-joamets-among-grammy-winners/ |title=Estonian guitarist Laur Joamets is among the Grammy winners |date=13 February 2017 }}</ref> |
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===Literature=== |
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{{Main|Literature of Estonia}} |
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{{See also|Estophile}} |
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[[File:Jaan Kross in 2004.jpg|thumb|[[Jaan Kross]] is the most translated Estonian writer.]] |
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[[Estonian literature]] refers to literature written in the [[Estonian language]] (ca. 1 million speakers).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/193608/Estonian-literature|title=Estonian literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=27 March 2015}}</ref> The domination of Estonia after the [[Northern Crusades]], from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia, resulted in few early literary works being written in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. ''Originates Livoniae'' in the [[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]] contains Estonian place names, words and sentence fragments. The ''[[Liber Census Daniae]]'' (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.<ref name="DWE">{{cite book|first=George|last=Kurman|title=The development of written Estonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmxkAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780877500360 }}</ref> Many folk tales are told to this day and some have been written down and translated to make them accessible to an international readership.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tiidu the Piper|date=2014|publisher=Collegium Basilea|location=Basel|isbn=9781500941437}}</ref> ''[[ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele]]'', an Estonian-language [[alphabet book]] by [[Otto Wilhelm Masing]], was published in 1795.<ref>[https://elk.ee/en/childrens-literature/ajalugu/ History] – [[Estonian Children's Literature Centre]]</ref><ref>[https://www.vabaeestisona.com/spotted-mother-tongue/ Spotted Mother Tongue] – ''[[Vaba Eesti Sõna]]''</ref> |
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The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few, albeit remarkable, exceptions, this archaic form has not been widely employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in the field is the national epic ''[[Kalevipoeg]]''. At a professional level, the traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer [[Veljo Tormis]]. |
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[[Oskar Luts]] was the most prominent prose writer of early Estonian literature and is still widely read today, particularly his lyrical school novel ''Kevade'' (Spring).<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Seeking_the_contours_of_a_%E2%80%98truly%E2%80%99_Estonian_literature/ Seeking the contours of a 'truly' Estonian literature] Estonica.org</ref> [[A. H. Tammsaare]]'s social epic and psychological realist [[pentalogy]], ''[[Truth and Justice]]'', captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ Literature and an independent Estonia ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121155209/http://www.estonica.org/en/Culture/Literature/Literature_and_an_independent_Estonia/ |date=21 November 2018 }} Estonica.org</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |title=Anton Tammsaare |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005054341/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tammsaar.htm |archive-date= 5 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In modern times, [[Jaan Kross]] and [[Jaan Kaplinski]] are Estonia's best-known and most-translated writers.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?as_q=&btnG=Google+Search&&as_auth=Jaan+Kross Jaan Kross] at google.books</ref> Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are [[Tõnu Õnnepalu]] and [[Andrus Kivirähk]], who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and [[grotesque]].<ref>[http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 Andrus Kivirähk. The Old Barny (novel)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504012509/http://www.estlit.ee/?id=11665&author=10876&tpl=1063&c_tpl=1071 |date=4 May 2011}} Estonian Literature Centre</ref> |
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===Media=== |
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{{Main|Media of Estonia}} |
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{{See also|List of Estonian films|List of Estonian war films}} |
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The [[cinema of Estonia]] started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King [[Gustav V of Sweden|Gustav V]]'s visit to Tallinn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |title=Cinema of Estonia |publisher=Einst.ee |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807061344/http://www.estinst.ee/publications/kultuur/cinema.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 }}</ref> The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licences for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990. |
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The most internationally known Estonian films include ''[[Those Old Love Letters]]'', ''[[The Heart of the Bear]]'', ''[[Names in Marble (film)|Names in Marble]]'', ''[[The Singing Revolution]]'', ''[[Autumn Ball]]'', ''[[1944 (film)|1944]]'', ''[[The Fencer]]'' and ''[[November (2017 film)|November]]''. Internationally known Estonian film actors include [[Lembit Ulfsak]], [[Jaan Tätte]], and [[Elmo Nüganen]], who also known as a film director. <!--Estonia and its capital Tallinn have also served as a filming location for international productions, such as a 2020 British-American film ''[[Tenet (film)|Tenet]]'', directed by [[Christopher Nolan]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Whyte |first=Andrew |date=June 7, 2019 |url=https://news.err.ee/950253/tartu-keen-on-nolan-movie-filming-should-tallinn-fall-through |title=Tartu keen on Nolan movie filming should Tallinn fall through |website=ERR |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190608231857/https://news.err.ee/950253/tartu-keen-on-nolan-movie-filming-should-tallinn-fall-through |archive-date=June 8, 2019 |access-date=December 28, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Vahtla |first=Aili |date=June 11, 2019 |url=https://news.err.ee/951234/gallery-christopher-nolan-john-david-washington-arrive-in-tallinn |title=Gallery: Christopher Nolan, John David Washington arrive in Tallinn |website=ERR |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190614133043/https://news.err.ee/951234/gallery-christopher-nolan-john-david-washington-arrive-in-tallinn |archive-date=June 14, 2019 |access-date=December 28, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>--> |
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Estonian media sector has a large number of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of nine domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 [[Press Freedom Index]] by [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2011–2012 – Reporters Without Borders |access-date=27 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230901/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012%2C1043.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref> |
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Estonia has two news agencies. The [[Baltic News Service]] (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by ''[[Eesti Rahvusringhääling]]'' which is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate [[Eesti Raadio]] and [[Eesti Televisioon]] under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe on a Shoestring|last=Johnstone|first=Sarah|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet|page=325|isbn=978-1-74104-591-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xvS1r8Ql0AC&pg=PA325}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Campaigning in Europe|last=Maier|first=Michaela|year=2006|publisher=LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-9322-4|page=398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9NjsybIcgoC&pg=PA398}}</ref> |
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====Freedom of speech==== |
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{{Update section|date=July 2023|reason=antiquated already when it was added}} |
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According to the rating of the international organization [[Reporters Without Borders]], in 2013, Estonia dropped from 3rd to 11th place in the world in terms of freedom of speech.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2013,1054.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2013 — Reporters Without Borders |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215183842/http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2013,1054.html |archive-date=2013-02-15 }}</ref> The American non-governmental organization [[Freedom House]] shares a similar opinion about the high level of freedom of speech in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Freedom in the World 2011 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet_1_11_11.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124031819/http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW%202011%20Booklet_1_11_11.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-24}}</ref> |
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In March 2011, the [[European Parliament]] adopted a resolution expressing serious concern about media pluralism and freedom in several EU countries, including Estonia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/en/pressroom/content/20110310IPR15259/html/Hungarian-media-needs-to-be-changed-further-says-European-Parliament |title=Hungarian media law needs to be changed further, says European Parliament |access-date=2011-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314003518/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/en/pressroom/content/20110310IPR15259/html/Hungarian-media-needs-to-be-changed-further-says-European-Parliament |archive-date=2011-03-14}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dzd.ee/?id=400691 Европарламент беспокоит свобода СМИ в Эстонии], dzd.ee</ref> In 2008, the Estonian Journalists' Union named Ansip the main opponent of freedom of speech in Estonia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.izbrannoe.ru/24310.html |title=Свобода слова, эстонская версия |trans-title=Freedom of speech, Estonian version |language=ru |access-date=2011-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321100424/http://www.izbrannoe.ru/24310.html |archive-date=2008-03-21}}</ref> |
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===Architecture=== |
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{{Main|Architecture of Estonia}} |
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[[File:Musée de plein air (Tallinn) (7644656256).jpg|thumb|right|A traditional farmhouse built in the [[Estonian vernacular architecture|Estonian vernacular style]]]] |
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The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/822/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved [[hill fort]]s dating from pre-Christian times,<ref>{{cite web |title=Pada hill forts |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/pada-hill-forts |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Varbola hill fort |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/varbola-hill-fort |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref> a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches,<ref>{{cite web |title=10 Historic Estonian Castles |url=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2017/11/10-estonian-castles/115487 |website=HeritageDaily.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |date=25 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Castles & manors |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/castles-manors |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Churches |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/history-culture/churches |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=12 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of wooden manor houses from earlier centuries. |
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===Holidays=== |
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{{main|Public holidays in Estonia}} |
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The Estonian [[National Day]] is the [[Independence Day (Estonia)|Independence Day]] celebrated on 24 February, the day the [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] was issued. {{As of|2013}}, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus|url=https://www.riigiteataja.ee/akt/13276841|publisher=Riigi Teataja|access-date=19 December 2010|language=et|quote=In effect since 26 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Estonian Holidays in 2010 |url=http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |publisher=Estonian Foreign Ministry |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106162819/http://www.vm.ee/en/node/5753 |archive-date= 6 January 2011 }}</ref> |
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{{Holidays of Estonia}} |
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===Cuisine=== |
===Cuisine=== |
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{{Main|Estonian cuisine}} |
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===Society=== |
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{{See also|Kama (food)|Kalev (confectioner)|Kohuke|Verivorst}} |
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Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201,8 |title=Estonian Food Inforserver |access-date=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217022649/http://www.eestitoit.ee/pages.php/010201%2C8 |archive-date=17 December 2007 }} (in Estonian)</ref> Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer. |
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A cardamom-spiced bread roll with almond paste ''[[Semla|vastlakukkel]]'' is a traditional Estonian [[sweet roll]], especially popular from Christmas to Easter.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rosa |first1=Natalia |title=A first timer's guide to wholesome and delicious Estonian Food |url=https://www.trafalgar.com/real-word/first-timers-guide-estonian-food/ |website=Trafalgar.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=27 February 2020}}</ref> |
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Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and preserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and preserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.{{clarification needed|date=November 2023}} |
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===Sports=== |
===Sports=== |
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{{Main|Sport in Estonia}} |
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[[File:Tartu_Maraton_2006-3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=large crowd of skiers participating in the marathon |[[Tartu Maraton|Tartu Ski Marathon]] in 2006]] |
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<!--Sport plays an important role in Estonian culture. After declaring independence from Russia in 1918, -->Estonia first competed as an independent nation at the [[1920 Summer Olympics]]<!--, although the National Olympic Committee was established in 1923-->. Estonian athletes took part in the 1952–1988 Olympic Games under the Soviet flag, as the country had been occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The [[1980 Summer Olympics]] [[Sailing|Sailing regatta]] was held in the capital city [[Tallinn]]. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in [[Track and field|athletics]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[wrestling]], and [[cross-country skiing (sport)|cross-country skiing]]. Estonia has been one of the most successful nations at the Olympics in terms of medals won per capita.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tambur |first1=Silver |title=Estonia at the Olympics |url=https://estonianworld.com/life/estonia-at-the-olympics/ |website=EstonianWorld.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |date=23 July 2021}}</ref> Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the total medals' table at the [[1936 Summer Olympics medal table|1936 Summer Olympics]], and 12th at the [[2006 Winter Olympics medal table|2006 Winter Olympics]]. |
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Estonia has many indoor and outdoor facilities dedicated to various sports branches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports and games |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/what-to-see-do/activities-adventure/sports-games |website=VisitEstonia.com |access-date=1 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Estonia-Ale Coq Football Arena in Tallinn.jpg|250px|right|thumb|<small>The biggest [[football]] [[stadium]] in [[Tallinn]]: Ale Coq Arena.</small>]] |
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[[Kiiking]], a relatively new sport, was invented in 1993 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A wild sport invented in Estonia - kiiking {{!}} Visit Estonia |url=https://www.visitestonia.com/en/why-estonia/kiiking-a-wild-sport-invented-in-estonia |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Visitestonia.com |language=en}}</ref> |
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<!-- |
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Basketball is also a notable sport in Estonia. The domestic top-tier basketball championship is called the [[Korvpalli Meistriliiga]]. [[BC Kalev/Cramo]] are the most recent champions, having won the league in the [[2016–17 KML season|2016–17 season]]. [[Tartu Ülikool/Rock|University of Tartu]] team has won the league a record 26 times. Estonian clubs also participate in European and regional competitions. [[Estonia national basketball team]] previously participated in [[Basketball at the 1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Summer Olympics]], appeared in [[EuroBasket]] four times. Estonian national team also competed at the [[EuroBasket 2015]] |
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--> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{ |
{{Portal|Estonia|Europe}} |
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* [[Outline of Estonia]] |
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* [[Index of Estonia-related articles]] |
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{{Clear}} |
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==Notes== |
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{{notelist}} |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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<small>*{{cite book|last=Hiden|first=John|coauthors=and Patrick Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|id=ISBN 0-582-08246-3}} |
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* [[Giuseppe D'Amato]] ''[http://www.europarussia.com/books/viaggio_nellhansa_baltica/travel-to-the-baltic-hansa Travel to the Baltic Hansa]''. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. Book in Italian. ''Viaggio nell'Hansa baltica''. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Greco&Greco editori, Milano, 2004. {{ISBN|88-7980-355-7}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|authorlink=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944-1956|year=1992|others=trans. Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C.|id=ISBN 0-929590-08-2}} |
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*{{ |
*{{Cite book|last1=Hiden|first1=John|first2=Patrick|last2=Salmon|title=The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century|year=1991|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=0-582-08246-3}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Kangilaski|first=Jaak|display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 |language=et |publisher=Justiitsministeerium |isbn=9985-70-194-1 |url=http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503200228/http://www.riigikogu.ee/public/Riigikogu/ValgeRaamat.pdf}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|id=ISBN 0-8179-8511-5}} |
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* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Esthonia |volume= 9 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas |last3= Eliot |first3= Charles Norton Edgcumbe |author3-link= Charles Eliot (diplomat) |pages = 797–798 }} |
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*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|id=ISBN 0-415-26728-5}} |
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*{{ |
*{{Cite book|last=Laar|first=Mart|author-link=Mart Laar|title=War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956|year=1992|translator=Tiina Ets|publisher=Compass Press|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-929590-08-2}} |
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*{{ |
*{{Cite book|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|author-link=Anatol Lieven|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=0-300-05552-8}} |
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*{{cite EB1922 |wstitle=Esthonia |last1= Meyendorff |first1= Alexander Feliksovich |last2= |first2= }} |
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*{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th ed.|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|id=ISBN 1-84162-095-5}} |
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*{{ |
*{{Cite book|last=Naylor|first=Aliide|title=[[The Shadow in the East: Vladimir Putin and the New Baltic Front]]|year=2020|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=9781788312523}} |
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*{{ |
*{{Cite book|last=Raun|first=Toivo U.|title=Estonia and the Estonians|year=1987|publisher=Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=0-8179-8511-5}} |
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*{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=David J.|title=Estonia: Independence and European Integration|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26728-5}} |
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</small> |
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*{{Cite book|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Graham|title=The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=1994|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|isbn=0-312-12060-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/balticstates00grah}} |
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*{{Cite book|editor-last=Subrenat|editor-first=Jean-Jacques |editor-link=Jean-Jacques Subrenat|year=2004 |title=Estonia, identity and independence|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-420-0890-3|place=Amsterdam & New York}} |
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*{{Cite book|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|title=Estonia: Return to Independence|year=1993|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=0-8133-1199-3}} |
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*{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Neil|title=Estonia|year=2004|edition=4th|publisher=Bradt|location=Chalfont St. Peter|isbn=1-84162-095-5}} |
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*{{Cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Nicola|first2=Debra |last2=Herrmann |first3=Cathryn |last3=Kemp |title=Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania|year=2003|edition=3rd|publisher=Lonely Planet|location=London|isbn=1-74059-132-1}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==Notes and references== |
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[[Image:Eesti90 595x215px t.gif|220px]]<br />'''Estonia 90''' |
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* [[90th Anniversary of Estonian Republic]] |
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* [https://www.eesti.ee Official Estonian Portal] |
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* [http://www.riik.ee/en E-Estonia Portal] |
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* [http://www.valitsus.ee/?lang=en Estonian E-Government] |
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* [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica] |
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* [http://www.vm.ee/eng Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs] |
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* [http://www.estlandia.de/en.html Estonia Travel Guide] |
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* [http://www.einst.ee/ Estonian Institute] |
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* [http://www.stat.ee/ Statistical Office of Estonia] |
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* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Estonia/|Estonia}} |
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* [http://www.visitestonia.com/ Visit-Estonia Portal] |
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*[http://eesti.info/viited/ I-Estonia Info Portal] |
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'''Pictures''' |
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* [http://pildid.mil.ee Military of Estonia Gallery] |
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* [http://www.zone.ee/linnud Nature of Estonia Gallery] |
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* [http://www.president.ee/en/index.html The President of Estonia] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220152012/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/EN.html |date=20 February 2019 }} |
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* [http://maps.google.co.uk/maps?q=estonia+map&ll=58.608334,25.004883&spn=13.048165,32.915039&gl=uk&t=p&z=5 google.com map of Estonia] |
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===General information=== |
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* [http://www.estonica.org/ Encyclopedia Estonica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413215407/http://www.estonica.org/ |date=13 April 2010 }} |
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* [http://www.estinst.ee/ Estonian Institute] |
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*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/ Estonia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. |
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* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17220810 BBC News – Estonia country profile] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011192732/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/estonia.htm Estonia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' |
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{{coor title dm|59|00|N|26|00|E|type:country_scale:9000000_region:EN}} <ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2011.html Estonia´s geographic coordinates</ref> |
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Latest revision as of 07:44, 23 May 2024
Republic of Estonia Eesti Vabariik (Estonian) | |
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Anthem: Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm (English: "My Fatherland, My Happiness and Joy"[1]) | |
Capital and largest city | Tallinn 59°25′N 24°45′E / 59.417°N 24.750°E |
Official language | Estonian[a] |
Ethnic groups (2024[9]) |
|
Religion (2021[10]) |
|
Demonym(s) | Estonian |
Government | Unitary parliamentary republic |
Alar Karis | |
Kaja Kallas | |
Legislature | unicameral Riigikogu |
Independence | |
23–24 February 1918 | |
• Joined the League of Nations | 22 September 1921 |
1940–1991 | |
20 August 1991 | |
• Joined the European Union | 1 May 2004 |
Area | |
• Total | 45,335[11] km2 (17,504 sq mi) (129thd) |
• Water (%) | 4.6 |
Population | |
• 2024 estimate | 1,373,101[12] |
• 2021 census | 1,331,824[13] |
• Density | 30.3/km2 (78.5/sq mi) (148th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $60.997 billion[14] (113th) |
• Per capita | $47,383[14] (41st) |
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $41.799 billion[14] (102nd) |
• Per capita | $33,018[14] (36th) |
Gini (2021) | 30.6[15] medium |
HDI (2022) | 0.899[16] very high (31st) |
Currency | Euro (€) (EUR) |
Time zone | UTC+02:00 (EET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+03:00 (EEST) |
Driving side | right |
Calling code | +372 |
ISO 3166 code | EE |
Internet TLD | .ee |
|
Estonia,[b] officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe.[c] It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia. The territory of Estonia consists of the mainland, the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,300 other islands and islets on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea,[11] covering a total area of 45,335 square kilometres (17,504 sq mi). Tallinn, the capital city, and Tartu are the two largest urban areas of the country. The Estonian language is the indigenous and official language of Estonia, and it is the first language of the majority of the country's population of 1.4 million.[13]
The land of present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BCE. The medieval indigenous population of Estonia was one of the last pagan civilisations in Europe to adopt Christianity following the Papal-sanctioned Northern Crusades in the 13th century.[21] After centuries of successive rule by the Teutonic Order, Denmark, Sweden, and the Russian Empire, a distinct Estonian national identity began to emerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 24 February 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence from the then-warring Russian and German empires. Democratic throughout most of the interwar period, Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II, however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied; first by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR). Throughout the 1944–1991 Soviet occupation,[22] Estonia's de jure state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile. Following the bloodless Estonian "Singing Revolution" of 1988–1990, the nation's de facto independence from the Soviet Union was restored on 20 August 1991.
Estonia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy, ranking 31st (out of 191) in the Human Development Index.[23] The sovereign state of Estonia is a democratic unitary parliamentary republic, administratively subdivided into 15 maakond (counties). With a population of just around 1.4 million, it is one of the least populous members of the European Union, the Eurozone, the OECD, the Schengen Area, and NATO. Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for quality of life,[24] education,[25] press freedom, digitalisation of public services[26][27] and the prevalence of technology companies.[28]
Name
The name Estonia (Estonian: Eesti [ˈeːsʲti] ) has been connected to Aesti, a people first mentioned by Ancient Roman historian Tacitus around 98 CE. Some modern historians believe he was referring to Balts, while others have proposed that the name then applied to the whole eastern Baltic Sea region.[29] Scandinavian sagas and Viking runestones[30] referring to Eistland are the earliest known sources that definitely use the name in its modern geographic meaning.[31] From Old Norse the toponym spread to other Germanic vernaculars and reached literary Latin by the end of 12th century.[32][33]
History
Prehistory and Viking Age
Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the ice from the last glacial era melted. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, on the banks of Pärnu river in southwest Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating, it was settled around 11,000 years ago.[34]
The earliest human habitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to the Kunda culture. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in semi-nomadic communities near bodies of water. Subsistence activities consisted of hunting, gathering and fishing.[35] Around 4900 BCE, ceramics appear of the neolithic period, known as Narva culture.[36] Starting from around 3200 BC the Corded Ware culture appeared; this included new activities like primitive agriculture and animal husbandry.[37] The Bronze Age started around 1800 BCE, and saw the establishment of the first hill fort settlements.[38] A transition from hunter-fisher subsistence to single-farm-based settlement started around 1000 BC, and was complete by the beginning of the Iron Age around 500 BC.[34][39] The large amount of bronze objects indicate the existence of active communication with Scandinavian and Germanic tribes.[40]
The middle Iron Age produced threats appearing from different directions. Several Scandinavian sagas referred to major confrontations with Estonians, notably when in the early 7th century "Estonian Vikings" defeated and killed Ingvar Harra, the King of Swedes.[41][additional citation(s) needed] Similar threats appeared to the east, where East Slavic principalities were expanding westward. Around 1030 the troops of Kievan Rus led by Yaroslav the Wise defeated Estonians and established a fort in modern-day Tartu. This foothold may have lasted until ca 1061 when an Estonian tribe, the Sosols, destroyed it.[42][43][44][45] Around the 11th century, the Scandinavian Viking era around the Baltic Sea was succeeded by the Baltic Viking era, with seaborne raids by Curonians and by Estonians from the island of Saaremaa, known as Oeselians. In 1187 Estonians (Oeselians), Curonians or/and Karelians sacked Sigtuna, which was a major city of Sweden at the time.[46][47]
Estonia could be divided into two main cultural areas. The coastal areas of north and west Estonia had close overseas contacts with Scandinavia and Finland, while inland south Estonia had more contacts with Balts and Pskov.[48] The landscape of Ancient Estonia featured numerous hillforts.[49] Prehistoric or medieval harbour sites have been found on the coast of Saaremaa.[49] Estonia also has a number of graves from the Viking Age, both individual and collective, with weapons and jewellery including types found commonly throughout Northern Europe and Scandinavia.[49][50] In the early centuries AD, political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (Estonian: kihelkond) and the county (Estonian: maakond), which consisted of multiple parishes. A parish was led by elders and centered on a hill fort; in some rare cases a parish had multiple forts. By the 13th century, Estonia comprised eight major counties: Harjumaa, Järvamaa, Läänemaa, Revala, Saaremaa, Sakala, Ugandi, and Virumaa; and six minor, single-parish counties: Alempois, Jogentagana, Mõhu, Nurmekund, Soopoolitse, and Vaiga. Counties were independent entities and engaged only in a loose cooperation against foreign threats.[51][52]
Little is known of medieval Estonians' spiritual and religious practices before Christianization. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia mentions Tharapita as the superior deity of the then inhabitants of Saaremaa (Oeselians). There is some historical evidence about sacred groves, especially groves of oak trees, having served as places of "pagan" worship.[53][54]
Crusades and the Catholic Era
In 1199, Pope Innocent III declared a crusade to "defend the Christians of Livonia".[55] Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King Valdemar II unsuccessfully invaded Saaremaa. The German Livonian Brothers of the Sword, who had previously subjugated Livonians, Latgalians, and Selonians, started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was Lembitu, an elder of Sakala County, but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day, where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at Lindanise, defeated the Estonians in the Battle of Lyndanisse, and started conquering Northern Estonia.[56][57] The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were repelled by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Reval, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last maakond (county) to surrender.[58][59]
After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named Terra Mariana; later on it became known simply as Livonia.[60] Northern Estonia became the Danish Duchy of Estonia, while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and prince-bishoprics of Dorpat and Ösel–Wiek. In 1236, after suffering a major defeat, the Sword Brothers merged into the Teutonic Order becoming the Livonian Order.[61] In the next decades there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major uprising encompassed over north Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.[62][63] The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.[64] For the subsequent centuries Low German remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.[65]
Reval (Tallinn), the capital of Danish Estonia founded on the site of Lindanise, adopted the Lübeck law and received full town rights in 1248.[66] The Hanseatic League controlled trade on the Baltic Sea, and overall the four largest towns in Estonia became members: Reval, Dorpat (Tartu), Pernau (Pärnu), and Fellin (Viljandi). Reval acted as a trade intermediary between Novgorod and western Hanseatic cities, while Dorpat filled the same role with Pskov. Many artisans' and merchants guilds were formed during the period.[67] Protected by their stone walls and membership in the Hansa, prosperous cities like Reval and Dorpat often defied other rulers of the medieval Livonian Confederation.[68][d]
Post-Reformation Era
The Reformation began in central Europe in 1517, and soon spread northward to Livonia despite some opposition by the Livonian Order.[70] Towns were the first to embrace Protestantism in the 1520s, and by the 1530s the majority of the landowners and rural population had adopted Lutheranism.[71][72] Church services were now conducted in vernacular language, which initially meant Low German, but already from the 1530s onward the regular religious services were held in Estonian.[71][73]
During the 16th century, the expansionist monarchies of Muscovy, Sweden, and Poland–Lithuania consolidated power, posing a growing threat to decentralised Livonia weakened by disputes between cities, nobility, bishops, and the Order.[71][74]
In 1558, Tsar Ivan the Terrible of Russia (Muscovy) invaded Livonia, starting the Livonian War. The Livonian Order was decisively defeated in 1560. The majority of Livonia accepted Polish rule, while Reval and the nobles of Northern Estonia swore loyalty to the Swedish king, and the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek sold his lands to the Danish king. Russian forces gradually conquered the majority of Livonia, but in the late 1570s the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish armies started their own offensives and the bloody war finally ended in 1583 with Russian defeat.[74][75] As a result of the war, Northern Estonia became Swedish Duchy of Estonia, Southern Estonia became Polish Duchy of Livonia, and Saaremaa remained under Danish control.[76]
In 1600, the Polish–Swedish War broke out, causing further devastation. The protracted war ended in 1629 with Sweden gaining Livonia, including the regions of Southern Estonia and Northern Latvia.[77] Danish Saaremaa was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[78] The wars had halved the population of Estonia from about 250–270,000 people in the mid 16th century to 115–120,000 in the 1630s.[79]
While large parts of the rural population remained in serfdom during the Swedish rule, legal reforms strengthened both serfs' and free tenant farmers' land usage and inheritance rights – hence this period got the reputation of "The Good Old Swedish Time" in historical memory.[80] Swedish King Gustaf II Adolf established gymnasiums in Reval and Dorpat; the latter was upgraded to Tartu University in 1632. Printing presses were also established in both towns. In the 1680s the beginnings of Estonian elementary education appeared, largely due to efforts of Bengt Gottfried Forselius, who also introduced orthographical reforms to written Estonian.[81] The population of Estonia grew rapidly until the Great Famine of 1695–97 in which 70,000–75,000 people died – about 20% of the population.[82]
During the 1700–1721 Great Northern War, the Tsardom of Russia (Muscovy) conquered the whole of Estonia by 1710.[83] The war again devastated the population of Estonia, with the 1712 population estimated at only 150,000–170,000.[84] In 1721, Estonia was divided into two governorates: the Governorate of Estonia, which included Tallinn and the northern part of Estonia, and the southern Governorate of Livonia, which extended to the northern part of Latvia.[85] Russian administration restored all the political and landholding rights of Baltic Germans.[86] The rights of local farmers reached their lowest point, as serfdom completely dominated agricultural relations during the 18th century.[87] Serfdom was formally abolished in 1816–1819, but this initially had very little practical effect; major improvements in farmers' rights started with reforms in the mid-19th century.[88]
National Awakening
The Estonian national awakening began in the 1850s as several leading figures started promoting an Estonian national identity among the general populace. Widespread farm buyouts by Estonians and the resulting rapidly growing class of land-owning farmers provided the economic basis for the formation of this new "Estonian identity". In 1857 Johann Voldemar Jannsen started publishing one of the first successful circulating Estonian-language weekly newspapers, Perno Postimees ehk Näddalileht, and began popularising the denomination of oneself as eestlane (Estonian).[89] Schoolmaster Carl Robert Jakobson and clergyman Jakob Hurt became leading figures in a national movement, encouraging Estonian farmers to take pride in their ethnic Estonian identity.[90] The first nationwide movements formed, such as a campaign to establish the Estonian language Alexander School, the founding of the Society of Estonian Literati and the Estonian Students' Society, and the first national song festival, held in 1869 in Tartu.[91][92][93] Linguistic reforms helped to develop the Estonian language.[94] The national epic Kalevipoeg was published in 1862, and 1870 saw the first performances of Estonian theatre.[95][96] In 1878 a major split happened in the national movement. The moderate wing led by Hurt focused on development of culture and Estonian education, while the radical wing led by Jakobson started demanding increased political and economical rights.[92]
At the end of the 19th century, Russification began, as the central government initiated various administrative and cultural measures to tie Baltic governorates more closely to the empire.[91] The Russian language replaced German and Estonian in most secondary schools and universities, and many social and cultural activities in local languages were suppressed.[96] In the late 1890s, there was a new surge of nationalism with the rise of prominent figures like Jaan Tõnisson and Konstantin Päts. In the early 20th century, Estonians started taking over control of local governments in towns from Germans.[97]
During the 1905 Revolution, the first legal Estonian political parties were founded. An Estonian national congress was convened and demanded the unification of Estonian areas into a single autonomous territory and an end to Russification. The unrest was accompanied by both peaceful political demonstrations and violent riots with looting in the commercial district of Tallinn and in a number of wealthy landowners' manors in the Estonian countryside. The Tsarist government responded with a brutal crackdown; some 500 people were executed and hundreds more jailed or deported to Siberia.[98][99]
Independence
In 1917, after the February Revolution, the governorate of Estonia was expanded by the Russian Provisional Government to include Estonian-speaking areas of Livonia and was granted autonomy, enabling the election of the Estonian Provincial Assembly.[100] The Bolsheviks seized power in Estonia in November 1917, and the Provincial Assembly was disbanded. However, the Provincial Assembly established the Salvation Committee, and during the short interlude between Bolshevik retreat and German arrival, the committee declared independence and formed the Estonian Provisional Government on 24 February 1918 in the capital Tallinn. German occupation immediately followed, but after their defeat in World War I, the Germans were forced to hand over power back to the Provisional Government of independent Estonia on 19 November 1918.[101][102]
On 28 November 1918, Soviet Russia invaded, starting the Estonian War of Independence.[103] The Red Army came within 30 km of Tallinn, but in January 1919, the Estonian Army, led by Johan Laidoner, went on a counter-offensive, ejecting Bolshevik forces from Estonia within a few weeks. Renewed Soviet attacks failed, and in the spring of 1919, the Estonian army, in co-operation with White Russian forces, advanced into Russia and Latvia.[104][105] In June 1919, Estonia defeated the German Landeswehr which had attempted to dominate Latvia, restoring power to the government of Kārlis Ulmanis there. After the collapse of the White Russian forces, the Red Army launched a major offensive against Narva in late 1919, but failed to achieve a breakthrough. On 2 February 1920, the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed by Estonia and Soviet Russia, with the latter pledging to permanently give up all sovereign claims to Estonia.[104][106]
In April 1919, the Estonian Constituent Assembly was elected. The Constituent Assembly passed a sweeping land reform expropriating large estates, and adopted a new highly liberal constitution establishing Estonia as a parliamentary democracy.[107][108] In 1924, the Soviet Union organised a communist coup attempt, which quickly failed.[109] Estonia's cultural-autonomy law for ethnic minorities, adopted in 1925, is widely recognised as one of the most liberal in the world at that time.[110] The Great Depression put heavy pressure on Estonia's political system, and in 1933, the right-wing Vaps movement spearheaded a constitutional reform establishing a strong presidency.[111][112] On 12 March 1934 the acting head of state, Konstantin Päts, extended a state of emergency over the entire country, under the pretext that the Vaps movement had been planning a coup. Päts went on to rule by decree for several years, while the parliament did not reconvene ("era of silence").[113] A new constitution was adopted in a 1937 referendum, and in 1938 a new bicameral parliament was elected in a popular vote, where both pro-government and opposition candidates participated.[114] The Päts régime was relatively benign compared to other authoritarian régimes in interwar Europe, and the régime never used violence against political opponents.[115]
Estonia joined the League of Nations in 1921.[116] Attempts to establish a larger alliance together with Finland, Poland, and Latvia failed, with only a mutual-defence pact being signed with Latvia in 1923, and later was followed up with the Baltic Entente of 1934.[117][118] In the 1930s, Estonia also engaged in secret military co-operation with Finland.[119] Non-aggression pacts were signed with the Soviet Union in 1932, and with Germany in 1939.[116][120] In 1939, Estonia declared neutrality, but this proved futile in World War II.[121]
World War II
A week before the outbreak of World War II, on 23 August 1939, Nazi Germany and the Stalinist Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In the pact's secret protocol Poland, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland were divided between USSR and Germany into "spheres of influence", with Estonia assigned to the Soviet "sphere".[122] On 24 September 1939, the Soviet dictator Stalin presented the Estonian government an ultimatum demanding that Estonia immediately sign a treaty that would allow the USSR to establish military bases in Estonia, or else face war. The Estonian government decided to avoid military conflict, and a "mutual assistance treaty" was signed in Moscow on 28 September 1939.[123] On 14 June 1940 the Soviet Union instituted a full naval and air blockade on Estonia. On the same day, the airliner Kaleva was shot down by the Soviet Air Force. On 16 June, the USSR presented an ultimatum demanding completely free passage of the Red Army into Estonia and the establishment of a pro-Soviet government. Feeling that resistance was hopeless, the Estonian government complied and, on the next day, the whole country was occupied.[124][125] On 6 August 1940, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR.[126]
The USSR established a repressive wartime regime in occupied Estonia. Many of the country's high-ranking civil and military officials, intelligentsia and industrialists were arrested. Soviet repressions culminated on 14 June 1941 with mass deportation of around 11,000 people to Russia.[127][128] When Operation Barbarossa (accompanied by Estonian guerrilla soldiers called "Forest Brothers"[129]) began against the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 in the form of the "Summer War" (Estonian: Suvesõda), around 34,000 young Estonian men were forcibly drafted into the Red Army, fewer than 30% of whom survived the war. Soviet destruction battalions initiated a scorched earth policy. Political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD.[130][131] Many Estonians went into the forest, starting an anti-Soviet guerrilla campaign. In July, German Wehrmacht reached south Estonia. The USSR evacuated Tallinn in late August with massive losses, and capture of the Estonian islands was completed by German forces in October.[132]
Initially, many Estonians were hopeful that Germany would help to restore Estonia's independence, but this soon proved to be in vain. Only a puppet collaborationist administration was established, and occupied Estonia was merged into Reichskommissariat Ostland, with its economy being fully subjugated to German military needs.[133] About a thousand Estonian Jews who had not managed to leave were almost all quickly killed in 1941. Numerous forced labour camps were established where thousands of Estonians, foreign Jews, Romani, and Soviet prisoners of war perished.[134] German occupation authorities started recruiting men into small volunteer units but, as these efforts provided meagre results and the military situation worsened, forced conscription was instituted in 1943, eventually leading to formation of the Estonian Waffen-SS division.[135] Thousands of Estonians who did not want to fight in the German military secretly escaped to Finland, where many volunteered to fight together with Finns against Soviets.[136]
The Red Army reached the Estonian borders again in early 1944, but its advance into Estonia was stopped in heavy fighting near Narva for six months by German forces, including numerous Estonian units.[137] In March, the Soviet Air Force carried out heavy bombing raids against Tallinn and other Estonian towns.[138] In July, the Soviets started a major offensive from the south, forcing the Germans to abandon mainland Estonia in September and the Estonian islands in November.[137] As German forces were retreating from Tallinn, the last pre-war prime minister Jüri Uluots appointed a government headed by Otto Tief in an unsuccessful attempt to restore Estonia's independence.[139] Tens of thousands of people, including most of the Estonian Swedes, fled westwards to avoid the new Soviet occupation.[140]
Overall, Estonia lost about 25% of its population through deaths, deportations and evacuations in World War II.[141] Estonia also suffered some irrevocable territorial losses, as the Soviet Union transferred border areas comprising about 5% of Estonian pre-war territory from the Estonian SSR to the Russian SFSR.[142]
Second Soviet occupation
Thousands of Estonians opposing the second Soviet occupation joined a guerrilla movement known as the "Forest Brothers". The armed resistance was heaviest in the first few years after the war, but Soviet authorities gradually wore it down through attrition, and resistance effectively ceased to exist in the mid-1950s.[143] The Soviets initiated a policy of collectivisation, but as farmers remained opposed to it a campaign of terror was unleashed. In March 1949 about 20,000 Estonians were deported to Siberia. Collectivization was fully completed soon afterwards.[127][144]
The Russian-dominated occupation authorities under the Soviet Union began Russification, with hundreds of thousands of ethnic Russians and other "Soviet people" being induced to settle in occupied Estonia, in a process which eventually threatened to turn indigenous Estonians into a minority in their own native land.[145] In 1945 Estonians formed 97% of the population, but by 1989 their share of the population had fallen to 62%.[146] Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers which led to Estonia losing 3% of its native population.[147] By March 1949, 60,000 people were deported from Estonia and 50,000 from Latvia to the gulag system in Siberia, where death rates were 30%. The occupying regime established an Estonian Communist Party, where Russians were the majority in party membership.[148] Economically, heavy industry was strongly prioritised, but this did not improve the well-being of the local population, and caused massive environmental damage through pollution.[149] Living standards under the Soviet occupation kept falling further behind nearby independent Finland.[145] The country was heavily militarised, with closed military areas covering 2% of territory.[150] Islands and most of the coastal areas were turned into a restricted border zone which required a special permit for entry.[151] Estonia was quite closed until the second half of the 1960s, when gradually Estonians began to covertly watch Finnish television in the northern parts of the country, thus getting a better picture of the way of life behind the Iron Curtain.[152]
The majority of Western countries considered the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union illegal.[153] Legal continuity of the Estonian state was preserved through the government-in-exile and the Estonian diplomatic representatives which Western governments continued to recognise.[154][155]
Independence restored
The introduction of perestroika by the Soviet central government in 1987 made open political activity possible again in Estonia, which triggered an independence restoration process later known as laulev revolutsioon ("the Singing revolution").[156] The environmental Fosforiidisõda ("Phosphorite war") campaign became the first major protest movement against the central government.[157] In 1988, new political movements appeared, such as the Popular Front of Estonia, which came to represent the moderate wing in the independence movement, and the more radical Estonian National Independence Party, which was the first non-communist party in the Soviet Union and demanded full restoration of independence.[158] On 16 November 1988, after the first non-rigged multi-candidate elections in half a century, the parliament of Soviet-controlled Estonia issued the Sovereignty Declaration, asserting the primacy of Estonian laws. Over the next two years, many other administrative parts (or "republics") of the USSR followed the Estonian example, issuing similar declarations.[159][160] On 23 August 1989, about 2 million Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians participated in a mass demonstration, forming the Baltic Way human chain across the three countries.[161] In February 1990, elections were held to form the Congress of Estonia.[162] In March 1991, a referendum was held where 78.4% of voters supported full independence. During the coup attempt in Moscow, Estonia declared restoration of independence on 20 August 1991.[163]
Soviet authorities recognised Estonian independence on 6 September 1991, and on 17 September Estonia was admitted into the United Nations.[164] The last units of the Russian army left Estonia in 1994.[165]
On 28 September 1994, the MS Estonia sank as the ship was crossing the Baltic Sea, en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed the lives of 852 people (501 of them were Swedes[166]), being one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.[167]
In 1992 radical economic reforms were launched for switching over to a market economy, including privatisation and currency reform.[168] Estonia has been a member of the WTO since 13 November 1999.[169]
Since regaining independence in 1991, Estonian foreign policy has been aligned with other Western democracies, and in 2004 Estonia joined both the European Union and NATO.[170] On 9 December 2010, Estonia became a member of OECD.[171] On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the eurozone and adopted the euro, the single currency of EU.[172] Estonia was a member of the UN Security Council from 2020 to 2021.[173]
Estonia celebrated its centennial anniversary on 24 February 2018, with other celebrations spanning from April 2017 to 2 February 2020, which was 100 years since the Tartu Peace Treaty was signed.[174] A parade took place on 24 February 2018 in Freedom Square.[175]
Geography
Estonia is situated in Europe,[c] on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, on the East European Plain between 57°30′ and 59°49′ N and 21°46′ and 28°13′ E.[176][177][178] It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Lake Peipsi and Russia.[179] Estonian territory covers 45,335 km2 (17,504 sq mi), of which internal waters comprise 4.6%.[176] When including the territorial sea, the Estonian border encompasses 70,177 km2 (27,095 sq mi).[180]
Estonia has a 3,794 kilometres (2,357 mi) long coastline, notable for its limestone cliffs at the northern coast and largest islands.[177][181] The total number of Estonian islands, including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are Saaremaa and Hiiumaa. There are over 1560 natural lakes, the largest being Lake Peipus at the border of Russia, and Võrtsjärv in central Estonia. Additionally there are many artificial water reservoirs. There are over 7000 rivers, streams, and canals in the country; of these, only ten are longer than 100 kilometres (62 mi). The longest rivers of Estonia are Võhandu — 162 kilometres (101 mi) and Pärnu —144 kilometres (89 mi), followed by the Põltsamaa, Pedja, Kasari, Keila, and Jägala rivers. Bogs and mires cover 23.2% of the land. Generally the terrain is flat, average elevation above the sea level being about 50 metres (164 ft). Only 10% of the country's terrain is greater than 100 metres (328 ft) in height, with Haanja Upland containing the highest peak, Suur Munamägi, at 318 metres (1,043 ft).[176]
Location in Europe
Located in Northern Europe, Estonia has also been classified as Eastern or Central Europe in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the United Nations,[17] and Eurovoc[18] classify Estonia as part of Northern Europe, the OECD[19] classifies it as a Central and Eastern European country, the CIA World Factbook[20] classifies it as Eastern Europe. A recent version of the online Encyclopædia Britannica locates it in "northeastern Europe".[182]
Climate
Estonia is situated in the temperate climate zone, and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate, characterized by warm summers and fairly mild winters. Primary local differences are caused by the Baltic Sea, which warms the coastal areas in winter, and cools them in the spring.[176][177] Average temperatures range from 17.8 °C (64.0 °F) in July, the warmest month, to −3.8 °C (25.2 °F) in February, the coldest month, with the annual average being 6.4 °C (43.5 °F).[183] The highest recorded temperature is 35.6 °C (96.1 °F) from 1992, and the lowest is −43.5 °C (−46.3 °F) from 1940.[184] The annual average precipitation is 662 millimetres (26.1 in),[185] with the daily record being 148 millimetres (5.8 in).[186] Snow cover varies significantly on different years.[177] Prevailing winds are westerly, southwesterly, and southerly, with average wind speed being 3–5 m/s inland and 5–7 m/s on coast.[177] The average monthly sunshine duration ranges from 290 hours in August, to 21 hours in December.[187]
Biodiversity
Due to varied climatic and soil conditions, and plethora of sea and internal waters, Estonia is one of the most biodiverse regions among the similar sized territories at the same latitude.[177] Many species extinct in most other European countries can be still found in Estonia.[188]
Recorded species include 64 mammals, 11 amphibians, and 5 reptiles.[176] Large mammals present in Estonia include the grey wolf, lynx, brown bear, red fox, badger, wild boar, moose, roe deer, beaver, otter, grey seal, and ringed seal. The critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa, and the rare Siberian flying squirrel is present in east Estonia.[188] The red deer, once extirpated, has also been successfully reintroduced.[189] In the beginning of the 21st century, an isolated population of European jackals was confirmed in Western Estonia, much further north than their earlier known range. The number of jackals has grown quickly in coastal areas of Estonia and can be found in Matsalu National Park.[190][191] Introduced mammals include sika deer, fallow deer, raccoon dog, muskrat, and American mink.[176]
Over 300 bird species have been found in Estonia, including the white-tailed eagle, lesser spotted eagle, golden eagle, western capercaillie, black and white stork, numerous species of owls, waders, geese and many others.[192] The barn swallow is the national bird of Estonia.[193]
Phytogeographically, Estonia is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Estonia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests.[194] Estonia has a rich composition of floristic groups, with estimated 6000 (3461 identified) fungi, 3000 (2500 identified) algae and cyanobacteria, 850 (786 identified) lichens, and 600 (507 identified) bryophytes. Forests cover approximately half of the country. 87 native and over 500 introduced tree and bush species have been identified, with most prevalent tree species being pine (41%), birch (28%), and spruce (23%).[176] Since 1969, the cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) has been the national flower of Estonia.[195]
Protected areas cover 19.4% of Estonian land and 23% of its total area together with territorial sea. Overall there are 3,883 protected natural objects, including 6 national parks, 231 nature conservation areas, and 154 landscape reserves.[196]
Politics
Estonia is a unitary parliamentary republic. The unicameral parliament Riigikogu serves as the legislature and the government as the executive.[197]
Estonian parliament Riigikogu is elected by citizens over 18 years of age for a four-year term by proportional representation, and has 101 members. Riigikogu's responsibilities include approval and preservation of the national government, passing legal acts, passing the state budget, and conducting parliamentary supervision. On proposal of the president Riigikogu appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the chairman of the board of the Bank of Estonia, the Auditor General, the Legal Chancellor, and the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.[198][199]
The Government of Estonia is formed by the Prime Minister of Estonia at recommendation of the President, and approved by the Riigikogu. The government, headed by the Prime Minister, carries out domestic and foreign policy. Ministers head ministries and represent its interests in the government. Sometimes ministers with no associated ministry are appointed, known as ministers without portfolio.[200] Estonia has been ruled by coalition governments because no party has been able to obtain an absolute majority in the parliament.[197]
The head of the state is the President who has a primarily representative and ceremonial role. There is no popular vote on the election of the president, but the president is elected by the Riigikogu, or by a special electoral college.[201] The President proclaims the laws passed in the Riigikogu, and has the right to refuse proclamation and return law in question for a new debate and decision. If Riigikogu passes the law unamended, then the President has right to propose to the Supreme Court to declare the law unconstitutional. The President also represents the country in international relations.[197][202]
The Constitution of Estonia also provides possibility for direct democracy through referendum, although since adoption of the constitution in 1992 the only referendum has been the referendum on European Union membership in 2003.[203]
Estonia has pursued the development of the e-government, with 99 percent of the public services being available on the web 24 hours a day.[204] In 2005, Estonia became the first country in the world to introduce nationwide binding Internet voting in local elections of 2005.[205] In the 2023 parliamentary elections 51% of the total votes were cast over the internet, becoming the first time when more than half of votes were cast online.[206]
In the most recent parliamentary elections of 2023, six parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the Reform Party, Kaja Kallas, formed the government together with Estonia 200 and Social Democratic Party, while Conservative People's Party, Centre Party and Isamaa became the opposition.[207][208]
Law
The Constitution of Estonia is the fundamental law, establishing the constitutional order based on five principles: human dignity, democracy, rule of law, social state, and the Estonian identity.[209] Estonia has a civil law legal system based on the Germanic legal model.[210] The court system has a three-level structure. The first instance are county courts which handle all criminal and civil cases, and administrative courts which hear complaints about government and local officials, and other public disputes. The second instance are district courts which handle appeals about the first instance decisions.[211] The Supreme Court is the court of cassation, conducts constitutional review, and has 19 members.[212] The judiciary is independent, judges are appointed for life, and can be removed from office only when convicted of a crime.[213] The justice system has been rated among the most efficient in the European Union by the EU Justice Scoreboard.[214] As of June 2023, gay registered partners and married couples have the right to adopt. Gay couples gained the right to marriage in Estonia in 2024.[215][216]
Foreign relations
Estonia was a member of the League of Nations from 22 September 1921, and became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991.[217][218] Since restoration of independence Estonia has pursued close relations with the Western countries, and has been member of NATO and the European Union since 2004.[218] In 2007, Estonia joined the Schengen Area, and in 2011 the Eurozone.[218] The European Union Agency for large-scale IT systems is based in Tallinn, and started operations at the end of 2012.[219] Estonia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the second half of 2017.[220]
Since the early 1990s, Estonia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with Latvia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. Estonia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.[221] Estonia has built close relationship with the Nordic countries, especially Finland and Sweden, and is a member of Nordic-Baltic Eight.[218][222] Joint Nordic-Baltic projects include the education programme Nordplus[223] and mobility programmes for business and industry[224] and for public administration.[225] The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Tallinn with a subsidiaries in Tartu and Narva.[226][227] The Baltic states are members of Nordic Investment Bank, European Union's Nordic Battle Group, and in 2011 were invited to co-operate with Nordic Defence Cooperation in selected activities.[228][229][230][231]
The beginning of the attempt to redefine Estonia as "Nordic" was seen in December 1999, when then Estonian foreign minister (and President of Estonia from 2006 until 2016) Toomas Hendrik Ilves delivered a speech entitled "Estonia as a Nordic Country" to the Swedish Institute for International Affairs,[232] with the potential political calculation behind it being the wish to distinguish Estonia from its more slowly progressing southern neighbours, which could have postponed early participation in European Union enlargement.[233] Andres Kasekamp argued in 2005, that relevance of identity discussions in Baltic states decreased with their entrance into EU and NATO together, but predicted, that in the future, attractiveness of Nordic identity in Baltic states will grow and eventually, five Nordic states plus three Baltic states will become a single unit.[233]
Other Estonian international organisation memberships include OECD, OSCE, WTO, IMF, the Council of the Baltic Sea States,[218][234][235] and on 7 June 2019, was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term that began on 1 January 2020.[236]
Since the Soviet era, the relations with Russia remain generally cold, even though practical co-operation has taken place in between.[237] Since 24 February 2022, the relations with Russia have further deteriorated due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Estonia has very actively supported Ukraine during the war, providing highest support relative to its gross domestic product.[238][239]
Military
The Estonian Defence Forces consist of land forces, navy, and air force. The current national military service is compulsory for healthy men between ages of 18 and 28, with conscripts serving 8- or 11-month tours of duty, depending on their education and position provided by the Defence Forces.[240] The peacetime size of the Estonian Defence Forces is about 6,000 persons, with half of those being conscripts. The planned wartime size of the Defence Forces is 60,000 personnel, including 21,000 personnel in high readiness reserve.[241] Since 2015, the Estonian defence budget has been over 2% of GDP, fulfilling its NATO defence spending obligation.[242]
The Estonian Defence League is a voluntary national defence organisation under management of Ministry of Defence. It is organised based on military principles, has its own military equipment, and provides various different military training for its members, including in guerilla tactics. The Defence League has 17,000 members, with additional 11,000 volunteers in its affiliated organisations.[243][244]
Estonia co-operates with Latvia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives. As part of Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) the three countries manage the Baltic airspace control center, Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) has participated in the NATO Response Force, and a joint military educational institution Baltic Defence College is located in Tartu.[245]
Estonia joined NATO on 29 March 2004.[246] NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence was established in Tallinn in 2008.[247] In response to Russian war in Ukraine, since 2017 a NATO Enhanced Forward Presence battalion battle group has been based in Tapa Army Base.[248] Also part of NATO, the Baltic Air Policing deployment has been based in Ämari Air Base since 2014.[249] In the European Union, Estonia participates in Nordic Battlegroup and Permanent Structured Cooperation.[250][251]
Since 1995, Estonia has participated in numerous international security and peacekeeping missions, including: Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon, Kosovo, and Mali.[252] The peak strength of Estonian deployment in Afghanistan was 289 soldiers in 2009.[253] Eleven Estonian soldiers have been killed in missions of Afghanistan and Iraq.[254]
Administrative divisions
Estonia is a unitary country with a single-tier local government system. Local affairs are managed autonomously by local governments. Since administrative reform in 2017, there are in total 79 local governments, including 15 towns and 64 rural municipalities. All municipalities have equal legal status and form part of a maakond (county), which is an administrative subunit of the state.[255] Representative body of local authorities is municipal council, elected at general direct elections for a four-year term. The council appoints local government. For towns, the head of the local government is linnapea (mayor) and vallavanem for parishes. For additional decentralization the local authorities may form municipal districts with limited authority, currently those have been formed in Tallinn and Hiiumaa.[256]
Separately from administrative units, there are also settlement units: village, small borough, borough, and town. Generally, villages have less than 300, small boroughs have between 300 and 1000, boroughs and towns have over 1000 inhabitants.[256]
Economy
As a member of the European Union and OECD, Estonia is considered a high-income economy by the World Bank. The GDP (PPP) per capita of the country was $46,385 in 2023 according to the International Monetary Fund, ranked 40th.[14]
Estonia ranks highly in international rankings for quality of life,[257] education,[258] press freedom, digitalisation of public services[259][260] and the prevalence of technology companies.[261]
Beginning 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th eurozone member state.[262]
Estonia produces about 75% of its consumed electricity.[263] In 2011, about 85% of it was generated with locally mined oil shale.[264] Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Renewable wind energy was about 6% of total consumption in 2009.[265] Estonia imports petroleum products from western Europe and Russia. Estonia imports 100% of its natural gas from Russia.[266] Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy.[267] The ice-free port of Muuga, near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transhipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and new oil tanker off-loading capabilities.[268]
Because of the global economic recession that began in 2007, the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4th quarter of 2008. The Estonian government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by Riigikogu. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion.[269] In 2010, the economic situation stabilised and started a growth based on strong exports. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Estonian industrial output increased by 23% compared to the year before. The country has been experiencing economic growth ever since.[270]
According to Eurostat data, Estonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2008.[271] In 2017, the average monthly gross salary in Estonia was €1221.[272]
However, there are vast disparities in GDP between different areas of Estonia; currently, over half of the country's GDP is created in Tallinn.[273] In 2008, the GDP per capita of Tallinn stood at 172% of the Estonian average,[274] which makes the per capita GDP of Tallinn as high as 115% of the European Union average, exceeding the average levels of other counties.
The unemployment rate in March 2016 was 6.4%, which is below the EU average,[272] while real GDP growth in 2011 was 8.0%,[275] five times the euro-zone average. In 2012, Estonia remained the only euro member with a budget surplus, and with a national debt of only 6%, it is one of the least indebted countries in Europe.[276]
Economic indicators
Estonia's economy continues to benefit from a transparent government and policies that sustain a high level of economic freedom, ranking 6th globally and 2nd in Europe.[277][278] The rule of law remains strongly buttressed and enforced by an independent and efficient judicial system. A simplified tax system with flat rates and low indirect taxation, openness to foreign investment, and a liberal trade regime have supported the resilient and well-functioning economy.[279] As of May 2018, the Ease of Doing Business Index by the World Bank Group places the country 16th in the world.[280] The strong focus on the IT sector through its e-Estonia program has led to much faster, simpler and efficient public services where for example filing a tax return takes less than five minutes and 98% of banking transactions are conducted through the internet.[281][282] Estonia has the 13th lowest business bribery risk in the world, according to TRACE Matrix.[283]
Estonia is a developed country with an advanced, high-income economy that was among the fastest-growing in the EU since its entry in 2004.[284] The country ranks very high in the Human Development Index,[285] and compares well in measures of economic freedom, civil liberties, education,[286] and press freedom.[287] Estonian citizens receive universal health care,[288] free education,[289] and the longest paid maternity leave in the OECD.[290] One of the world's most digitally-advanced societies,[291] in 2005 Estonia became the first state to hold elections over the Internet, and in 2014, the first state to provide e-residency.[292]
Historic development
In 1928, a stable currency, the kroon, was established. It is issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank. The word kroon (Estonian pronunciation: [ˈkroːn], "crown") is related to that of the other Nordic currencies (such as the Swedish krona and the Danish and Norwegian krone). The kroon succeeded the mark in 1928 and was used until 1940. After Estonia regained its independence, the kroon was reintroduced in 1992.
After restoring full independence, in the 1990s, Estonia styled itself as the "gateway between East and West" and aggressively pursued economic reform and reintegration with the West.[293][294][295][296] In 1994, applying the economic theories of Milton Friedman, Estonia became one of the first countries to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. This rate has since been reduced several times, e.g., to 24% in 2005, 23% in 2006, and to 21% in 2008.[297] The Government of Estonia finalised the design of Estonian euro coins in late 2004, and adopted the euro as the country's currency on 1 January 2011, later than planned due to continued high inflation.[262][298] A Land Value Tax is levied which is used to fund local municipalities. It is a state-level tax, but 100% of the revenue is used to fund Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities.[299] The Land Value Tax is levied on the value of the land only with improvements and buildings not considered. Very few exemptions are considered on the land value tax and even public institutions are subject to the tax.[299] The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%)[299] of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.[300]
In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991, largely because of the impact of the 1998 Russian financial crisis.[301] Estonia joined the WTO in November 1999. With assistance from the European Union, the World Bank and the Nordic Investment Bank, Estonia completed most of its preparations for European Union membership by the end of 2002. Estonia joined the OECD in 2010.[302]
Transport
The Port of Tallinn, taking into account both cargo and passenger traffic, is one of the largest port enterprises of the Baltic Sea. In 2018, the enterprise was listed in Tallinn Stock Exchange. It was the first time in nearly 20 years in Estonia when a state-owned company went public in Estonia. It was also the 2nd largest IPO in Nasdaq Tallinn in the number of retail investors participating. The Republic of Estonia remains the largest shareholder and holds 67% of the company.[303]
Owned by AS Eesti Raudtee, there are many significant railroad connections in Estonia, such as Tallinn–Narva railway, which is 209.6 km (130.2 mi) long main connection to St. Petersburg. The most important highways in Estonia, in other hand, includes Narva Highway (E20), Tartu Highway (E263) and Pärnu Highway (E67).
The Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport in Tallinn is the largest airport in Estonia and serves as a hub for the national airline Nordica, as well as the secondary hub for AirBaltic[304] and LOT Polish Airlines.[305] Total passengers using the airport has increased on average by 14.2% annually since 1998. On 16 November 2012 Tallinn Airport has reached two million passenger landmark for the first time in its history.[306]
Resources
Although Estonia is in general resource-poor, the land still offers a large variety of smaller resources. The country has large oil shale and limestone deposits. In addition to oil shale and limestone, Estonia also has large reserves of phosphorite, pitchblende, and granite that currently are not mined, or not mined extensively.[310]
Significant quantities of rare-earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe.[311] Because of the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3000 tonnes per annum, representing around 2% of world production.[312]
As of 2012, Estonia had forests that covered 48% of the land.[313] Since at least 2009, there has been a substantial increase in logging, and logging occurs not only nationwide in private land, but even in supposedly protected land like the national park.[314] Estonia needs to cut significantly less forest to retain biodiversity and meet the country's carbon sequestration goal,[315] but it is increasing, and in 2022 the government ministry responsible for forestry, the RMK, reported a record profit of 1.4 billion euros.[316]
Industry and environment
Food, construction, and electronic industries are currently among the most important branches of Estonia's industry.[317] In 2007, the construction industry employed more than 80,000 people, around 12% of the entire country's workforce.[318] Another important industrial sector is the machinery and chemical industry, which is mainly located in Ida-Viru county and around Tallinn.
The oil shale-based mining industry, also concentrated in East Estonia, produces around 73% of the entire country's electricity.[319] Although the number of pollutants emitted has been falling since the 1980s,[320] the air is still contaminated with sulphur dioxide from the mining industry the Soviet Union rapidly developed in the early 1950s. In some areas, coastal seawater is polluted, mainly around the Sillamäe industrial complex.[321]
Estonia is dependent on other countries for energy. In recent years, many local and foreign companies have been investing in renewable energy sources.[322][323][324] Wind power has been increasing steadily in Estonia and the total current amount of energy produced from wind is nearly 60 MW; another roughly 399 MW worth of projects are currently being developed and more than 2800 MW being proposed in the Lake Peipus area and coastal areas of Hiiumaa.[325][326][327]
Currently[when?], there are plans to renovate some older units of the Narva Power Plants, establish new power stations, and provide higher efficiency in oil shale-based energy production.[328] Estonia liberalised 35% of its electricity market in April 2010; the electricity market as whole was to be liberalised by 2013.[329]
Together with Lithuania, Poland, and Latvia, the country considered participating in constructing the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace the Ignalina nuclear plant.[330][331] However, due to the slow pace of the project and problems with the nuclear sector (like the Fukushima disaster and bad example of Olkiluoto plant), Eesti Energia shifted its main focus to shale oil production, seen as far more profitable.[332]
The Estonian electricity network forms a part of the Nord Pool Spot network.[333]
Estonia has a strong information technology sector, partly owing to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in the mid-1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-Government of Estonia.[334] The 2014 e-residency program began offering those services to non-residents in Estonia.
Skype was written by Estonia-based developers Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu and Jaan Tallinn, who had also originally developed Kazaa.[335] Other notable startups that originated from Estonia include Bolt, GrabCAD, Fortumo and Wise (formerly known as TransferWise). It has been reported that Estonia has the highest startups per person ratio in the world.[336] As of January 2022, there are 1,291 startups from Estonia, seven of which are unicorns, equalling nearly 1 startup per 1,000 Estonians.[337][338]
Trade
Estonia has had a market economy since the end of the 1990s and one of the highest per capita income levels in Eastern Europe.[339] Proximity to the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, its location between the East and West, competitive cost structure and a highly skilled labour force have been the major Estonian comparative advantages in the beginning of the 2000s (decade). As the largest city, Tallinn has emerged as a financial centre and the Tallinn Stock Exchange joined recently with the OMX system. Several cryptocurrency trading platforms are officially recognised by the government, such as CoinMetro.[340] The current government has pursued tight fiscal policies, resulting in balanced budgets and low public debt.
In 2007, however, a large current account deficit and rising inflation put pressure on Estonia's currency, which was pegged to the Euro, highlighting the need for growth in export-generating industries. Estonia exports mainly machinery and equipment, wood and paper, textiles, food products, furniture, and metals and chemical products.[341] Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually.[341] At the same time Estonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, textiles, food products and transportation equipment.[341] Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually.[341]
Between 2007 and 2013, Estonia received 53.3 billion kroons (3.4 billion euros) from various European Union Structural Funds as direct supports, creating the largest foreign investments into Estonia.[342] Majority of the European Union financial aid will be invested into the following fields: energy economies, entrepreneurship, administrative capability, education, information society, environment protection, regional and local development, research and development activities, healthcare and welfare, transportation and labour market.[343] Main sources of foreign direct investments to Estonia are Sweden and Finland (As of 31 December 2016 48.3%).[344]
Demographics
Before World War II, ethnic Estonians made up 88% of the population, with national minorities constituting the remaining 12%.[346] The largest minority groups in 1934 were Russians, Germans, Swedes, Latvians, Jews, Poles, and Finns. Other smaller minorities in Estonia are Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Moldovans, Chuvash, Karelians and Romani people.[347]
The share of Baltic Germans in Estonia had fallen from 5.3% (~46,700) in 1881 to 1.3% (16,346) by 1934,[346][348] mainly due to emigration to Germany in the light of general Russification at the end of the 19th century[citation needed] and the independence of Estonia in the 20th century.
Between 1945 and 1989, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within the currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet occupation and programme promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and Joseph Stalin's mass deportations and executions.[349] By 1989, ethnic minorities constituted more than one-third of the population, as the number of non-Estonians had grown almost fivefold.
At the end of the 1980s, Estonians perceived their demographic change as a national catastrophe. This was a result of the migration policies essential to the Sovietization program, which aimed to russify Estonia.[citation needed] In the decade after the restoration of Estonian independence, large-scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of Russian military bases in 1994 caused[citation needed] the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006.
Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically homogeneous country, but this historical homogeneity is a feature of 13 of the country's 15 maakond (counties). The mostly Russian-speaking immigrant population is concentrated in urban areas which administratively belong to two counties. Thus 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80% ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being Hiiumaa, where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of Harju (including the capital city Tallinn) and Ida-Viru, however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. The ethnic Russian immigrant minority makes up about 24% of the country's total population today, but accounts for 35% of the population in Harju county and for a near-70% majority in Ida-Viru county.
The Estonian Cultural Autonomy law that was passed in 1925 was unique in Europe at that time.[350] Cultural autonomies could be granted to minorities numbering more than 3,000 people with longstanding ties to the Republic of Estonia. Before the Soviet occupation, the German and Jewish minorities managed to elect a cultural council. The Law on Cultural Autonomy for National Minorities was reinstated in 1993. Historically, large parts of Estonia's northwestern coast and islands have been populated by the indigenous ethnic group of rannarootslased ("Coastal Swedes").
In recent years, the number of Swedish residents in Estonia has risen again, numbering almost 500 people by 2008, owing to property reforms enacted in the early 1990s. In 2004, the Ingrian Finnish minority in Estonia elected a cultural council and was granted cultural autonomy. The Estonian Swedes minority similarly received cultural autonomy in 2007.[351] During the Russo-Ukrainian war of 2022, tens of thousands of Ukrainian refugees have arrived in Estonia.
There is also a Roma community in Estonia. Approximately 1,000-1,500 Roma live in Estonia.[352]
Society
The Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.[353] Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The Gini coefficient has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),[354] although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.[355]
Estonia's population on 31 December 2021 (1,331,824 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2011. 84% of people residing in Estonia in 2021 lived in Estonia at the time of the previous census as well. 11% had been added by births and 5% by immigration over the ten years 2011-2021. Nowadays, 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd in terms of educational attainment).
More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia’s population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian, which had still been the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia in 2011 and earlier censuses). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonia. [356]
As of 2 July 2010, 84.1% of Estonian residents were Estonian citizens, 8.6% were citizens of other countries and 7.3% were "citizens with undetermined citizenship".[358] Since 1992, roughly 140,000 people have acquired Estonian citizenship by passing naturalisation exams.[359] Estonia has also accepted quota refugees under the migrant plan agreed upon by EU member states in 2015.[360]
Ethnic distribution in Estonia is very homogeneous at a county level; in most counties, over 90% of residents are ethnic Estonians. In contrast, in the capital city Tallinn and the urban areas of Ida-Viru county (which neighbours Russia) ethnic Estonians account for around 60% of the population and the remainder is mostly composed of Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who mostly arrived in Estonia during the period of Soviet occupation (1944–1991), however now also includes over 62,000 (ca 6% of total population) war refugees from Ukraine who have settled in Estonia in 2022.[361]
The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council report called "extremely credible" the description of the citizenship policy of Estonia as "discriminatory".[362] According to surveys, only 5% of the Russian community have considered returning to Russia in the near future. Estonian Russians have developed their own identity – more than half of the respondents recognized that Estonian Russians differ noticeably from the Russians in Russia. When compared with results from a 2000 survey, Russians had a more positive attitude toward the future.[363]
Estonia was the first former Soviet republic to legalize civil unions for same-sex couples, with a law approved in October 2014.[364] Political disagreements delayed adoption of the necessary implementing legislation, and same-sex couples were not able to sign cohabitation agreements until January 1, 2016.
Urbanization
Tallinn is the capital and the largest city of Estonia, and lies on the northern coast of Estonia, along the Gulf of Finland. There are 33 cities and several town-parish towns in the country. In total, there are 47 linna, with "linn" in English meaning both "cities" and "towns". More than 70% of the population lives in towns.
Rank | Name | County | Municipal pop. | Rank | Name | County | Municipal pop. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tallinn Tartu |
1 | Tallinn | Harju | 457,572 | 11 | Valga | Valga | 12,173 | |
2 | Tartu | Tartu | 97,759 | 12 | Võru | Võru | 12,112 | ||
3 | Narva | Ida-Viru | 53,360 | 13 | Keila | Harju | 10,964 | ||
4 | Pärnu | Pärnu | 41,520 | 14 | Jõhvi | Ida-Viru | 10,880 | ||
5 | Kohtla-Järve | Ida-Viru | 33,434 | 15 | Haapsalu | Lääne | 9,693 | ||
6 | Viljandi | Viljandi | 17,255 | 16 | Paide | Järva | 8,073 | ||
7 | Maardu | Harju | 17,017 | 17 | Saue | Harju | 6,227 | ||
8 | Rakvere | Lääne-Viru | 15,695 | 18 | Elva | Tartu | 5,692 | ||
9 | Kuressaare | Saare | 13,185 | 19 | Põlva | Põlva | 5,498 | ||
10 | Sillamäe | Ida-Viru | 12,352 | 20 | Tapa | Lääne-Viru | 5,492 |
Religion
Estonia has a diverse religious history, but in recent years it has become increasingly secular, with either a plurality or a majority of the population declaring themselves nonreligious in recent censuses, followed by those who identify as religiously "undeclared". The largest minority groups are the various Christian denominations, principally Lutheran and Orthodox Christians, with very small numbers of adherents in non-Christian faiths, namely Judaism, Islam and Buddhism. Other polls suggest the country is broadly split between Christians and the non-religious / religiously undeclared.
Before the Second World War, Estonia was approximately 80% Protestant, overwhelmingly Lutheran,[368][369][370] followed by Calvinism and other Protestant branches. Many Estonians profess not to be particularly religious because religion through the 19th century was associated with German feudal rule.[371] There has historically been a small but noticeable minority of Russian Old-believers near the Lake Peipus area in Tartu county.
Today, Estonia's constitution guarantees freedom of religion, separation of church and state, and individual rights to privacy of belief and religion.[372] According to the Dentsu Communication Institute Inc, Estonia is one of the least religious countries in the world, with 75.7% of the population claiming to be irreligious. The Eurobarometer Poll 2005 found that only 16% of Estonians profess a belief in a god, the lowest belief of all countries studied.[373] A 2009 Gallup poll found similar results, with only 16% of Estonians describing religion as "important" in their daily lives, making Estonia the most irreligious of the nations surveyed.[374]
New polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer found that Christianity is the largest religion in Estonia accounting for 45% of Estonians.[375] Eastern Orthodox are the largest Christian group in Estonia, accounting for 17% of Estonia citizens,[375] while Protestants make up 6%, and Other Christian make up 22%. Non believer/Agnostic account 22%, Atheist accounts for 15%, and undeclared accounts for 15%.[375]
The most recent Pew Research Center, found that in 2015, 51% of the population of Estonia declared itself Christian, 45% religiously unaffiliated—a category which includes atheists, agnostics and those who describe their religion as "nothing in particular", while 2% belonged to other faiths.[376] The Christians divided between 25% Eastern Orthodox, 20% Lutherans, 5% other Christians and 1% Catholic.[377] While the religiously unaffiliated divided between 9% as atheists, 1% as agnostics and 35% as Nothing in Particular.[378]
Traditionally, the largest religious denomination in the country was Lutheranism, which was adhered to by 160,000 Estonians (or 13% of the population) according to the 2000 census, principally ethnic Estonians. According to the Lutheran World Federation, the historic Lutheran denomination has 180,000 registered members.[379] Other organisations, such as the World Council of Churches, report that there are as many as 265,700 Estonian Lutherans.[380] Additionally, there are between 8,000 and 9,000 members abroad. However, the 2011 census indicated that Eastern Orthodoxy had surpassed Lutheranism, accounting for 16.5% of the population (176,773 people). While not being a state church, the Lutheran church had historically been the national church of Estonia with an agreement giving preferential status to the Lutheran church ending in 2023.[381]
Eastern Orthodoxy is practised chiefly by the ethnic Russian minority, as well as by the small ethnic Estonian Seto minority. The Estonian Orthodox Church, affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church, is the primary Orthodox denomination. The Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church, under the Greek-Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, claims another 28,000 members.[citation needed]
Catholics are a small minority in Estonia. They are organised under the Latin Apostolic Administration of Estonia and two Greek Catholic parishes.
According to the census of 2000 (data in table to the right), there were about 1,000 adherents of the Taara faith[382][383][384] or Maausk in Estonia (see Maavalla Koda). The Jewish community has an estimated population of about 1,900 (see History of the Jews in Estonia), and the Muslim community numbers just over 1,400. Around 68,000 people consider themselves atheists.[385]
Languages
The official language, Estonian, is a Finnic language, and is conventionally classified as a member of the Uralic language family. Estonian is closely related to Finnish, and one of the few languages of Europe that is not of Indo-European origin. Unlike Estonian and Finnish, the languages of their nearest geographical neighbouring countries, Swedish, Latvian, and Russian, are all Indo-European languages.
The Estonian language is the world's second-most spoken Finnic language as well as the world's third-most spoken Uralic language (after Hungarian and Finnish).
Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and German. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one-third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.
South Estonian languages are spoken by 100,000 people and include the dialects of Võro and Seto. The languages are spoken in South-Eastern Estonia and are genealogically distinct from northern Estonian, but are traditionally and officially considered as dialects and "regional forms of the Estonian language", not separate language(s).[386]
Russian is the most spoken minority language in the country. There are towns in Estonia with large concentrations of Russian speakers, and there are towns where Estonian speakers are in the minority (especially in the northeast, e.g. Narva). Russian is spoken as a secondary language by many 40- to 70-year-old ethnic Estonians because Russian was the unofficial language of the Estonian SSR from 1944 to 1990 and was taught as a compulsory second language during the Soviet era. In the period between 1990 and 1995, the Russian language was granted an official special status according to Estonian language laws.[387] In 1995 it lost its official status. In 1998, most first- and second-generation industrial immigrants from the former Soviet Union (mainly the Russian SFSR) did not speak Estonian.[388] However, by 2010, 64.1% of non-ethnic Estonians spoke Estonian.[389] The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities, reside predominantly in the capital city of Tallinn and the industrial urban areas in Ida-Viru county.
From the 13th to the 20th century, there were Swedish-speaking communities in Estonia, particularly in the coastal areas and on the islands, which today have almost disappeared. From 1918 to 1940, when Estonia was independent, the small Swedish community was well treated. Municipalities with a Swedish majority, mainly found along the coast, used Swedish as the administrative language and Swedish-Estonian culture saw an upswing. However, most Swedish-speaking people fled to Sweden before the end of World War II, before the invasion of Estonia by the Soviet army in 1944. Only a handful of older speakers remain.
Apart from many other areas, the influence of Swedish is distinct in the Noarootsi Parish of Lääne county, where there are many villages with bilingual Estonian or Swedish names and street signs.[390][391]
The most common foreign languages learned by Estonian students are English, Russian, German, and French. Other popular languages include Finnish, Spanish, and Swedish.[392]
Lotfitka Romani is spoken by the Roma minority in Estonia.[393]
Education and science
The history of formal education in Estonia dates back to the 13th and 14th centuries when the first monastic and cathedral schools were founded.[395] The first primer in the Estonian language was published in 1575. The oldest university is the University of Tartu, founded by King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden in 1632. In 1919, university courses were first taught in the Estonian language. From 2024 all schools will begin to transition to educating solely in the Estonian language.[396]
Today's education in Estonia is divided into general, vocational, and hobby. The education system is based on four levels: pre-school, basic, secondary, and higher education.[397] A wide network of schools and supporting educational institutions have been established. The Estonian education system consists of state, municipal, public, and private institutions. There are currently 589 schools in Estonia.[398]
Estonia started connecting all its schools to the Internet very early. Tiigrihüpe (Estonian for Tiger Leap) was a project undertaken by the state to heavily invest in the development and expansion of computer and network infrastructure in Estonia, with a particular emphasis on education.[399]
In the 2018 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) report, Estonia's students rank 1st in Europe. In the world, Estonia's students rank 5th in reading, 8th in mathematics and 4th in sciences.[400][401] Additionally, around 89% of Estonian adults aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, one of the highest rates in the industrialized world.[402]
Academic higher education in Estonia is divided into three levels: bachelor's, master's, and doctoral studies. In some specialties, the bachelor's and master's levels are integrated into one unit.[404] Estonian public universities have significantly more autonomy than applied higher education institutions. In addition to organizing the academic life of the university, universities can create new curricula, establish admission terms and conditions, approve the budget, approve the development plan, elect the rector, and make restricted decisions in matters concerning assets.[405] Estonia has a moderate number of public and private universities. The largest public universities are the University of Tartu, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn University, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Estonian Academy of Arts; the largest private university is Estonian Business School.
The Estonian Academy of Sciences is the national academy of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). The first computer centers were established in the late 1950s in Tartu and Tallinn. Estonian specialists contributed in the development of software engineering standards for ministries of the Soviet Union during the 1980s.[406][407] As of 2015, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on Research and Development, compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.[408] Estonia was ranked 16th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[409]
Some of the best-known scientists related to Estonia include astronomers Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, Ernst Öpik and Jaan Einasto, biologist Karl Ernst von Baer, Jakob von Uexküll, chemists Wilhelm Ostwald and Carl Schmidt, economist Ragnar Nurkse, mathematician Edgar Krahn, medical researchers Ludvig Puusepp and Nikolay Pirogov, physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck, political scientist Rein Taagepera, psychologist Endel Tulving and Risto Näätänen, semiotician Juri Lotman.
According to New Scientist, Estonia will be the first nation to provide personal genetic information services sponsored by the state. They aim to minimize and prevent future ailments for those whose genes make them extra prone to conditions like adult-onset diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The government plans to provide lifestyle advice based on the DNA for 100,000 of its 1.3 million citizens.[410]
Culture
The culture of Estonia incorporates indigenous heritage, as represented by the Estonian language and the sauna, with mainstream Nordic and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geography, Estonia's culture has been influenced by the traditions of the adjacent area's various Finnic, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic peoples as well as the cultural developments in the former dominant powers Germany, Sweden and Russia, for this reason it aspires more to be considered a Nordic state.[411][412]
Today, Estonian society encourages liberty and liberalism, with a popular commitment to the ideals of the limited government, discouraging centralised power and corruption. The Protestant work ethic remains a significant cultural staple, and free education is a highly prized institution. As the mainstream culture in the Nordic countries, Estonian culture can be seen to build upon the ascetic environmental realities and traditional livelihoods, a heritage of comparatively widespread egalitarianism out of practical reasons (see: Everyman's right and universal suffrage), and the ideals of closeness to nature and self-sufficiency (see: summer cottage).
The Estonian Academy of Arts (Estonian: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia, EKA) is providing higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation while the University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy has an approach to popularise native culture through such curricula as native construction, native blacksmithing, native textile design, traditional handicraft and traditional music, but also jazz and church music. In 2010, there were 245 museums in Estonia whose combined collections contain more than 10 million objects.[413]
Music
The earliest mention of Estonian singing dates back to Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum (c. 1179).[414] Saxo speaks of Estonian warriors who sang at night while waiting for a battle. The older folk songs are also referred to as regilaulud, songs in the traditional regivärss poetic metre shared by all Baltic Finns. Runic singing was widespread among Estonians until the 18th century, when rhythmic folk songs began to replace them.[415]
Traditional wind instruments derived from those used by shepherds were once widespread, and are now becoming more commonly played once more. Other instruments, including the fiddle, zither, concertina, and accordion are used to play polka or other dance music. The kannel is a native instrument that is again becoming more popular in Estonia. A Native Music Preserving Centre was opened in 2008 in Viljandi.[416]
The tradition of Estonian Song Festivals (Laulupidu) started at the height of the Estonian national awakening in 1869. Today, it is one of the largest amateur choral events in the world. In 2004, about 100,000 people participated in the Song Festival. Since 1928, the Tallinn Song Festival Grounds (Lauluväljak) have hosted the event every five years in July. The last festival took place in July 2019. In addition, Youth Song Festivals are also held every four or five years, the latest taking place in 2017.[417]
Professional Estonian musicians and composers such as Aleksander Eduard Thomson, Rudolf Tobias, Miina Härma, Mart Saar, Artur Kapp, Juhan Aavik, Aleksander Kunileid, Artur Lemba and Heino Eller emerged in the late 19th century. Currently, the most well-known Estonian composers are Arvo Pärt, Eduard Tubin, and Veljo Tormis.[418] In 2014, Arvo Pärt was the world's most performed living composer for the fourth year in a row.[419]
In the 1950s, Estonian baritone Georg Ots rose to worldwide prominence.[420] In popular music, Estonian artist Kerli Kõiv has become popular in Europe, also gaining in popularity in North America.[citation needed]
Estonia won the Eurovision Song Contest in 2001 with the song "Everybody" performed by Tanel Padar and Dave Benton. In 2002, Estonia hosted the event. Maarja-Liis Ilus competed for Estonia in 1996 and 1997, while Eda-Ines Etti, Koit Toome and Evelin Samuel partly owe their popularity to the song contest. Lenna Kuurmaa gained recognition in Europe performing with her band Vanilla Ninja. "Rändajad" by Urban Symphony was the first song in Estonian to chart in the UK, Belgium and Switzerland.[citation needed]
Estonian country guitar player Laur Joamets won a Grammy Award with the country singer Sturgill Simpson in 2017 for the Best Country Record of the year, A Sailor's Guide to Earth.[421]
Literature
Estonian literature refers to literature written in the Estonian language (ca. 1 million speakers).[422] The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Germany, Sweden, and Russia, resulted in few early literary works being written in the Estonian language. The oldest records of written Estonian date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and sentence fragments. The Liber Census Daniae (1241) contains Estonian place and family names.[423] Many folk tales are told to this day and some have been written down and translated to make them accessible to an international readership.[424] ABD ehk Luggemise-Ramat Lastele, an Estonian-language alphabet book by Otto Wilhelm Masing, was published in 1795.[425][426]
The cultural stratum of Estonian was originally characterised by a largely lyrical form of folk poetry based on syllabic quantity. Apart from a few, albeit remarkable, exceptions, this archaic form has not been widely employed in later times. One of the most outstanding achievements in the field is the national epic Kalevipoeg. At a professional level, the traditional folk song reached its new heyday during the last quarter of the 20th century, primarily thanks to the work of composer Veljo Tormis.
Oskar Luts was the most prominent prose writer of early Estonian literature and is still widely read today, particularly his lyrical school novel Kevade (Spring).[427] A. H. Tammsaare's social epic and psychological realist pentalogy, Truth and Justice, captured the evolution of Estonian society from a poor farmer community to an independent nation.[428][429] In modern times, Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski are Estonia's best-known and most-translated writers.[430] Among the most popular writers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries are Tõnu Õnnepalu and Andrus Kivirähk, who uses elements of Estonian folklore and mythology, deforming them into the absurd and grotesque.[431]
Media
The cinema of Estonia started in 1908 with the production of a newsreel about Swedish King Gustav V's visit to Tallinn.[432] The first public TV broadcast in Estonia was in July 1955. Regular, live radio broadcasts began in December 1926. Deregulation in the field of electronic media has brought radical changes compared to the beginning of the 1990s. The first licences for private TV broadcasters were issued in 1992. The first private radio station went on the air in 1990.
The most internationally known Estonian films include Those Old Love Letters, The Heart of the Bear, Names in Marble, The Singing Revolution, Autumn Ball, 1944, The Fencer and November. Internationally known Estonian film actors include Lembit Ulfsak, Jaan Tätte, and Elmo Nüganen, who also known as a film director.
Estonian media sector has a large number of weekly newspapers and magazines, and Estonians have a choice of nine domestic TV channels and a host of radio stations. Estonia has been internationally recognised for its high rate of press freedom, having been ranked 3rd in the 2012 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders.[433]
Estonia has two news agencies. The Baltic News Service (BNS), founded in 1990, is a private regional news agency covering Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The ETV24 is an agency owned by Eesti Rahvusringhääling which is a publicly funded radio and television organisation created on 30 June 2007 to take over the functions of the formerly separate Eesti Raadio and Eesti Televisioon under the terms of the Estonian National Broadcasting Act.[434][435]
Freedom of speech
According to the rating of the international organization Reporters Without Borders, in 2013, Estonia dropped from 3rd to 11th place in the world in terms of freedom of speech.[436] The American non-governmental organization Freedom House shares a similar opinion about the high level of freedom of speech in Estonia.[437]
In March 2011, the European Parliament adopted a resolution expressing serious concern about media pluralism and freedom in several EU countries, including Estonia.[438][439] In 2008, the Estonian Journalists' Union named Ansip the main opponent of freedom of speech in Estonia.[440]
Architecture
The architectural history of Estonia mainly reflects its contemporary development in northern Europe. Worth mentioning is especially the architectural ensemble that makes out the medieval old town of Tallinn, which is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.[441] In addition, the country has several unique, more or less preserved hill forts dating from pre-Christian times,[442][443] a large number of still intact medieval castles and churches,[444][445][446] while the countryside is still shaped by the presence of a vast number of wooden manor houses from earlier centuries.
Holidays
The Estonian National Day is the Independence Day celebrated on 24 February, the day the Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued. As of 2013, there are 12 public holidays (which come with a day off) and 12 national holidays celebrated annually.[447][448]
Public holidays in Estonia | Date |
---|---|
New Year's Day | 1 January |
Independence Day | 24 February |
Good Friday | moveable |
Easter Sunday | moveable |
Spring Day | 1 May |
Pentecost | moveable |
Victory Day | 23 June |
Midsummer Day | 24 June |
Day of Restoration of Independence | 20 August |
Christmas Eve | 24 December |
Christmas Day | 25 December |
Boxing Day | 26 December |
Cuisine
Historically, the cuisine of Estonia has been dependent on seasons and the simple food from the local farms and the sea. Today, it also includes many "global" foods. The most typical foods in modern Estonia are black bread, pork, potatoes, and dairy products.[449] Traditionally in summer and spring, Estonians like to eat everything fresh – berries, herbs, vegetables, and everything else that comes straight from the garden. Hunting and fishing have also been very common, although currently hunting and fishing are enjoyed mostly as hobbies. Today, it is also very popular to grill outside in summer.
A cardamom-spiced bread roll with almond paste vastlakukkel is a traditional Estonian sweet roll, especially popular from Christmas to Easter.[450]
Traditionally in winter, jams, preserves, and pickles are brought to the table. Gathering and preserving fruits, mushrooms, and vegetables for winter has always been popular, but today gathering and preserving is becoming less common because everything can be bought from stores. However, preparing food for winter is still very popular in the countryside.[clarification needed]
Sports
Estonia first competed as an independent nation at the 1920 Summer Olympics. Estonian athletes took part in the 1952–1988 Olympic Games under the Soviet flag, as the country had been occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing regatta was held in the capital city Tallinn. After regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has participated in all Olympics. Estonia has won most of its medals in athletics, weightlifting, wrestling, and cross-country skiing. Estonia has been one of the most successful nations at the Olympics in terms of medals won per capita.[451] Estonia's best results were being ranked 13th in the total medals' table at the 1936 Summer Olympics, and 12th at the 2006 Winter Olympics.
Estonia has many indoor and outdoor facilities dedicated to various sports branches.[452]
Kiiking, a relatively new sport, was invented in 1993 by Ado Kosk in Estonia. Kiiking involves a modified swing in which the rider of the swing tries to go around 360 degrees.[453]
See also
Notes
- ^ Including both the official standard Estonian language and the South Estonian (spoken in southeast Estonia) which encompasses the Tartu, Mulgi, Võro[2] and Seto varieties. There is no academic consensus on the status of South Estonian as a dialect or language.[3][4][5][6][7]
- ^ /ɛsˈtoʊniə/ ess-TOH-nee-ə, Estonian: Eesti [ˈeːsʲti]
- ^ a b Sometimes classified as part of Northern Europe, Estonia has also been classified as Eastern or Central Europe in some contexts.Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the United Nations,[17] and Eurovoc[18] classify Estonia as part of Northern Europe, the OECD[19] classifies it as a Central and Eastern European country, the CIA World Factbook[20] classifies it as Eastern Europe. Usage varies greatly in press sources.
- ^ After the decline of the Teutonic Order following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, and the defeat of the Livonian Order in the Battle of Swienta on 1 September 1435, the Livonian Confederation was established by a treaty signed on 4 December 1435.[69]
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Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.
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For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.
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It is usually said that Estonia is a Protestant country; however, the overwhelming majority of Estonians, some 72 percent, are nonreligious. Estonia is the European Union (EU) country with the greatest percentage of people with no religious belief. This is in part, the result of Soviet actions and repression of religion. When the Soviet Union annexed Estonia in 1940, church property was confiscated, many theologians were deported to Siberia, most of the leadership of Evangelical Lutheran Church went into exile, and religious instruction was banned. Many churches were destroyed in the German occupation of Estonia, from 1941 through 1944, and in World War II (1939–1945), and religion was actively persecuted in Estonia under Soviet rule 1944 until 1989, when some measure of tolerance was introduced.
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{{cite book}}
:|website=
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Further reading
- Giuseppe D'Amato Travel to the Baltic Hansa. The European Union and its enlargement to the East. Book in Italian. Viaggio nell'Hansa baltica. L'Unione europea e l'allargamento ad Est. Greco&Greco editori, Milano, 2004. ISBN 88-7980-355-7
- Hiden, John; Salmon, Patrick (1991). The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-08246-3.
- Kangilaski, Jaak; et al. (2005). Valge raamat: eesti rahva kaotustest okupatsioonide läbi; 1940-1991 (PDF) (in Estonian). Justiitsministeerium. ISBN 9985-70-194-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2011.
- Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch; Bealby, John Thomas; Eliot, Charles Norton Edgcumbe (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 797–798.
- Laar, Mart (1992). War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956. Translated by Tiina Ets. Washington, D.C.: Compass Press. ISBN 0-929590-08-2.
- Lieven, Anatol (1993). The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05552-8.
- Meyendorff, Alexander Feliksovich (1922). Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
- Naylor, Aliide (2020). The Shadow in the East: Vladimir Putin and the New Baltic Front. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9781788312523.
- Raun, Toivo U. (1987). Estonia and the Estonians. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University. ISBN 0-8179-8511-5.
- Smith, David J. (2001). Estonia: Independence and European Integration. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26728-5.
- Smith, Graham, ed. (1994). The Baltic States: The National Self-determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-12060-5.
- Subrenat, Jean-Jacques, ed. (2004). Estonia, identity and independence. Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-0890-3.
- Taagepera, Rein (1993). Estonia: Return to Independence. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1199-3.
- Taylor, Neil (2004). Estonia (4th ed.). Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt. ISBN 1-84162-095-5.
- Williams, Nicola; Herrmann, Debra; Kemp, Cathryn (2003). Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (3rd ed.). London: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-132-1.
External links
Government
- The President of Estonia
- The Parliament of Estonia
- Estonian Government
- Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Statistical Office of Estonia
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members Archived 20 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Travel
- Official gateway to Estonia Archived 4 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- E-Estonia Portal
- VisitEstonia Portal
- Estonia travel guide from Wikivoyage
Maps
- google.com map of Estonia
- Geographic data related to Estonia at OpenStreetMap
General information
- Encyclopedia Estonica Archived 13 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- Estonian Institute
- Estonia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- BBC News – Estonia country profile
- Estonia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Estonia at Curlie
- Wikimedia Atlas of Estonia