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===Feeding concentrates=== |
===Feeding concentrates=== |
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Concentrates, when fed, are recommended to be provided in quantities no greater than 1% of a horse's body weight per day,<ref name="Penn"/> and |
Concentrates, when fed, are recommended to be provided in quantities no greater than 1% of a horse's body weight per day,<ref name="Penn"/> and preferably in two or more feedings.<ref name="Rutgers"/> If a ration needs to contain a higher percent of concentrates, such as that of a [[horse racing|race horse]], bulky grains such as oats should be used as much as possible; a loose mass of helps prevent impaction colic.<ref name="LSU">[http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_livestock/livestock/horses/Nutrition/Nutrition+Feed.htm Depew, Clint. "Proper Nutrition," LSUAgCenter, web site, accessed March 13, 2007</ref> |
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In general, the portion of the ration that should be grain or other concentrated feed is 0 to 10% grain for mature idle horses, and 20 to 70% for horses at work, depending on age, intensity of activity and energy requirements.<ref name="Feeding factors"/> |
In general, the portion of the ration that should be grain or other concentrated feed is 0 to 10% grain for mature idle horses, and 20 to 70% for horses at work, depending on age, intensity of activity and energy requirements.<ref name="Feeding factors"/> |
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Concentrates should not be fed to horses within one hour before or after a heavy workout.<ref name="March"/> Concentrates also need to be |
Concentrates should not be fed to horses within one hour before or after a heavy workout.<ref name="March"/> Concentrates also need to be adjusted to level of performance.<ref name="Purdue"/> Not only can excess grain and inadequate exercise lead to behavior problems,<ref name="Myths"/> it may also trigger [[Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis]], or "tying up," in horses prone to the condition.<ref name="LSU/> |
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===Access to water=== |
===Access to water=== |
Revision as of 20:31, 13 March 2007
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/BayMare.jpg/220px-BayMare.jpg)
Equine nutrition refers to the feeding of horses, ponies, mules, donkeys and other equids. Correct and balanced nutrition is a critical component of proper horse care.
Horses are herbivores, a type of non-ruminant known as a "hind-gut fermentor." What this means is that horses have only one stomach, similar to humans. However, unlike humans, they also have to digest plant fiber that comes from grass and hay. Therefore, unlike ruminants, who digest fiber in plant matter by use of a multichambered stomach, horses use bacterial fermentation that occurs in the organ known as the cecum (or caecum) to break down cellulose. [1]
In practical terms, horses prefer to eat small amounts of food steadily throughout the day, as they do in nature when grazing on pasture.[2] Although this is not always possible with modern stabling practices and human schedules that favor feeding horses twice a day, it is important to remember the underlying biology of the animal when determining what to feed, how often, and in what quantities.
The digestive system of the horse is somewhat delicate. Because horses are unable to regurgitate food, if they overeat or eat something poisonous, vomiting is not an option.[citation needed] Horses are also very susceptible to colic, which is a leading cause of death.[citation needed] Therefore, horses require clean, high-quality feed, provided at regular intervals, and may become ill if subjected to abrupt changes in their diets. [3] Because horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins, they must never be fed fermentable materials such as silage[4] or lawn clippings.[5]
The digestive system
Horses and other Equids evolved as grazing animals, adapted to eating small amounts of the same kind of food all day long. In the wild, the horse adapted to eating prairie grasses in semi-arid regions and traveling significant distances each day in order to obtain adequate nutrition.[6]
The mouth
Digestion begins in the mouth, also called the "oral cavity." The front teeth of the horse, called incisors, clip forage, and horses pick up finer foods, such as grain, with their lips. Food is then pushed back in the mouth by the tongue, and ground up for swallowing by the premolars and molars. [citation needed]
When swallowing occurs, the soft palate (a flap of tissue in the back of the mouth) closes over the pharynx of the animal, which prevents food from going down the trachea, but momentarily prevents the horse from being able to breathe. This soft palate is also the reason why horses cannot breathe through their mouth when they are in respiratory distress.[citation needed]
The esophagus
The esophagus is about 4-5 feet in length, and carries food to the stomach. Due to the coronary sphincter, the esophagus only allows the passage of food in one direction, and this is why horses cannot vomit. It is also the area of the digestive tract where horses get choke, or esophageal obstruction, due to eating something that is too large or dry to pass down the length of the esophagus. Therefore, unlike humans, equine choke does not prevent the animal from breathing, but is still a very serious problem that can eventually lead to pneumonia if left untreated.[citation needed]
The stomach
Horses have a relatively small stomach for their size that limits the amount of feed a horse can take in at one time. The average sized horse (800 to 1200 lbs) has a stomach with a capacity of only 2 to 4 gallons,[1] and works best when it is about 2/3 full.[citation needed] Therefore, best management allows horses to have continuous access to forage or at least several small meals, as opposed to one or two large meals a day.[citation needed]
Food arrives into the stomach from the esophagus. The majority of gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid, which turns pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin allows for the partial breakdown of proteins. Other enzymes include resin and lipase. Additionally, the stomach absorbs some water, as well as ions and lipid soluble compounds. The main purpose of the stomach, however, is to break down food into chyme.[citation needed] It then leaves the stomach through the pyloric valve, which controls the flow of food out of stomach.[citation needed]
The small intestine
The horse’s small intestine is 50 to 70 feet long and holds 10 to 23 gallons. This is the major digestive organ, and where most nutrients are absorbed.[7]
Additionally, the pancreas and liver both play a role in the small intestine, by secreting a very alkaline digestive juice about 5-6 inches from the pyloric valve. This counteracts the acidity of the chyme arriving from the stomach and prevents it from eating through the tissue of the intestine.[citation needed]
The cecum and large intestine
Most liquids are passed to the cecum, also known as the "water gut" or "hind gut." It is a cul-de-sac pouch,[7] about 3 to 4 feet long that holds 7 to 8 gallons. It contains bacteria and protozoa that digest plant fiber (through fermentation) and any soluble carbohydrates.[1] Horses must have their diets changed slowly so that the bacteria in the cecum are able to modify and adapt to the different chemical structure of new feedstuffs.[7] Too abrupt a change in diet can cause colic, as the new food is not properly digested.
The large colon, small colon, and rectum make up the large intestine. The large colon is about 12 feet long and holds up to 20 gallons. Its main purpose it to absorb carbohydrates which were broken down from cellulose in the cecum. Due to its many twists and turns, it is a common place for a type of horse colic called an impaction.[1][7]
The small colon leads is 10-12 feet in length and holds only 5 gallons of material. It is the area where the majority of water in the horse's diet is absorbed, and is also the place where fecal balls are formed.[citation needed]
The rectum is about one foot long, and acts as a holding chamber for fecal matter, which is passed out the anus.[citation needed]
Nutrients
Equines require five main classes of nutrients to survive: water, fats, energy (primarily in the form of fats and carbohydrates), proteins, vitamins, and minerals.[8]
Water
Water is necessary for life. Horses can only live a few days without water.[8] Therefore, it is critically important that horses have access to a fresh, clean, and adequate supply of water.
An average horse drinks 10 to 12 gallons of water per day, more in hot weather or when eating dry forage such as hay, less in cool weather or when on lush pasture. When under hard work, or for the lactating mare, water requirements may be up to four times greater than normal.[1][9]
Water plays an important part in digestion. The forages and grains horses eat are mixed with saliva in the mouth to make a moist bolus that can be easily swallowed. Therefore, horses produce up to 10 gallons (85 lb.) of saliva per day.[7]
Energy nutrients and protein
Nutritional sources of energy for horses are fat and carbohydrates.[4] Protein is a critical building block for muscles and other tissues.[10] Horses that are heavily exercised, growing, pregnant or lactating need increased energy and protein in their diet.[1] However, if a horse has too much energy in its diet and not enough exercise, it can become too high-spirited and difficult to handle.[11]
Fat exists in low levels in plants and can be added to a feed to increase the energy density of the diet. Fat has 9 Mcal/kg of energy,[1] which is 2.25 times that of any carbohydrate source.[12] Unlike humans, horses do not have a gall bladder.[1] Therefore bile flows continuously from the liver directly into the stomach.[13] Thus fat, though a necessary nutrient, is difficult for horses to digest and utilize in large quantities, though they are able digest a greater amount than can cattle.[11] Horses benefit from up to 8% fat in their diets, but more does not always provide a visible benefit. Horses can only have 15%-20% fat in their diet without ill effects. Above this amount, horses may develop diarrhea.[12]
Carbohydrates are usually fed in the form of hay, grass and grain. They are the main energy source in most feeds. Soluble carbohydrates such as starches and sugars are readily broken down to glucose in the small intestine and absorbed. Insoluble carbohydrates, such as fiber (cellulose), are not digested by enzymes, but are fermented by microbes in the cecum and large intestine to break down and release their energy sources, the volatile fatty acids.[1]
Soluble carbohydrates are found in nearly every feed source; corn has the highest amount, then barley and oats. Forages normally have only 6 to 8% soluble carbohydrate, but under certain conditions can have up to 30%. Sudden ingestion of large amounts of starch or high sugar feeds can cause colic or laminitis.[4]
Protein is used by all body cells, especially muscle, enzymes, blood, hormones, hooves, and hair cells.[14] The main building blocks of protein are amino acids. Alfalfa and other legumes in hay are good sources of protein that can be easily added to the diet. Most adult horses only require 8 to 10% protein in their diet; however, higher protein is important for lactating mares and young growing foals.[10]
Vitamins and minerals
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/HorseSupplement.jpg/150px-HorseSupplement.jpg)
Horses that are not subjected to hard work or extreme conditions usually have more than adequate amounts of vitamins in their diet if they are receiving fresh green forage and/or premixed rations. Horses sometimes need a vitamin supplement when feeding low-quality hay, if a horse is under stress (traveling, showing, racing, etc.), or not eating well due to illness. Most of the vitamins used by horses are found in green, leafy forages, so a very high-grain diet also requires specialized supplementation to prevent an imbalance of vitamins and minerals.[1]
Minerals are required for maintenance of the skeleton, nerves and muscles. Minerals needed by horses include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and chloride, and are commonly found in most good-quality feeds. Horses also need trace minerals such as magnesium, selenium, copper, zinc and iodine. Normally, if adult horses at maintenance levels are consuming fresh hay or on pasture, they will receive adequate amounts of minerals in their diet, with the exception of sodium chloride (salt), which must be provided, preferably free choice.[15]
Calcium and phosphorus are needed in a specific ratio of between 1:1 and 2:1. Adult horses can tolerate up to a 5:1 ratio, foals no more than 3:1. Horses never should have a greater ratio of phosphorus than calcium. [15]
Foals and young growing horses through their first three to four years have special nutritional needs and require feeds that are balanced with a proper Calcium:Phosphorus ratio and other trace minerals. A number of skeletal problems may occur in young horses with an unbalanced diet.[15] Working horses also have increased needs; plus, sweating depletes sodium, potassium, and chloride from the horse’s system, therefore, supplementation with electrolytes may be required for horses in intense training, especially in hot weather.[1]
Types of feed
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/HorsesAndHay.jpg/220px-HorsesAndHay.jpg)
Horses and other equids can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 1000 lb adult horse could eat up to 25 pounds of food.[16] Foals less than six months of age eat 2 to 4% of their weight each day.[17]
Solid feeds eaten by horses are placed into three categories: forages (hay, grass, etc.), concentrates (grain, etc.) and supplements (such as prepared vitamin or mineral pellets). Equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should be forages.[17] If a horse is working hard and requires more energy, the use of grain is increased and the percentage of forage decreased so that the horse obtains the nutrient balance it needs for the work it is performing. However, forage amount should never go below 1% of the horse's body weight per day.[16]
Forages
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/GrassHay1.jpg/220px-GrassHay1.jpg)
Forages, also known as "roughage," are plant materials classified as legumes or grasses, found in pastures or in hay. Often, pastures and hayfields will contain a bland of both grasses and legumes. Nutrients available in forage vary greatly with maturity of the grasses, fertilization, management, and environmental conditions.[16]
Grasses are tolerant of a wide range of conditions and contain most necessary nutrients. Some commonly used grasses include orchard grass, brome, timothy, bluegrass, and fescue. Grasses alone are quite adequate nutritionally for mature horses who are not subjected to intense work.[4]
Legumes such as clover or alfalfa are usually higher in protein, calcium, and energy than grasses. However, they require warm weather and good soil to produce the best nutrients. Legume hays are generally higher in protein than the grass hays. They are also higher in minerals, particularly calcium, but have an incorrect ratio of calcium to phosphorus. Because they are high in protein, they are very desirable for growing horses or those subjected to very hard work, but the calcium-phosphorus ratio must be balanced by other feeds to prevent bone abnormalities.[4]
Hay is a dried mixture of grasses and legumes. It cut in the field and then dried and baled for storage.[16] Hay is most nutritious when it is cut early on, before the seed heads are fully mature and before the stems of the plants become tough and thick. Hay that is very green can be a good indicator of the amount of nutrients in the hay, however, color should not be used as sole indicator, smell and texture are also important.[18] Hay can be analyzed by many laboratories and that is the most reliable way to tell the nutritional values it contains.[citation needed] Moldy or dusty hay should not be fed to horses.[1]
Haylage is a term for grass sealed in airtight plastic bags, a form of forage that is fed in the United Kingdom but is not seen in the United States.[19] Another type of forage sometimes provided to horses is beet pulp, a byproduct left over from the processing of sugar beets, which is high in energy as well as fiber.[11]
Occasionally, horses may be fed straw. However, this is roughage with little nutritional value. It is not recommended by nutritionists as a horse feed, though is sometimes used as a filler in areas where hay is difficult to obtain and the horse must meet most nutritional needs via concentrated feeds, but still needs roughage for proper digestive health.[citation needed] It is usually used as a bedding in stalls to absorb wastes.
Concentrates
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Haverkorrels_Avena_sativa.jpg/150px-Haverkorrels_Avena_sativa.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/GrainMix.jpg/200px-GrainMix.jpg)
Grains
Oats are the most popular grain for horses. Oats have a lower digestible energy value and higher fiber content than most other grains. They form a loose mass in the stomach that is well suited to the horse's digestive system. They are also more palatable and digestible for horses than other grains.[14][4]
Corn, referred to as Maize in the UK, is the second most palatable grain for horses. It provides twice as much digestible energy as an equal volume of oats and is low in fiber. Because of these characteristics, is easy to over-feed corn, causing obesity, so horses are seldom fed corn all by itself. Nutritionists caution horse owners that moldy corn should never be fed because it is lethal to horses.[1]
Barley is also fed to horses, but needs to be processed to crack the seed hull and allow easier digestibility. Wheat is generally not used as a concentrate. However, wheat bran is also sometimes added to the diet of a horse for supplemental nutrition.[4]
Mixes and Pellets
Many feed manufacturers combine various grains and add additional vitamin and mineral supplements to create a complete premixed feed that is easy for owners to feed and of predictable nutritional quality.[14] Some of these prepared feeds are manufactured in pelleted form, others retain the grains in their original form.[20][21] In many cases molasses as a binder to keep down dust and for increased palatability.[4] Pelleted feeds may be easier to chew and result in less wasted feed. Horses generally eat pellets as easily as grain. However, they are also more expensive and even "complete" rations do not eliminate the necessity for forage.[22]
Supplements
Extra fat and protein are sometimes added to the horse's diet, along with vitamin and mineral supplements.[12] The average modern horse on good hay or pasture with light work usually does not need feed supplements; however, horses subjected to stress due to age, intensive athletic work, or reproduction may need additional nutrition.[16]
Soybean meal is a common protein supplement, and averages about 44% crude protein. The protein in soybean meal is usually a high-quality protein with the proper ratio of dietary essential amino acids for equids. Cottonseed meal, Linseed meal, and peanut meal are also used, but are not as common.[10]
Brewer’s grains are the mash removed from malt when making beer. Horses like the taste, it is about 25% crude protein, high in fat (13%) and contains B vitamins.[1]
Vegetable oil is a commonly used fat source in horse feeds. Corn oil is particularly popular, but other oils are used as well.[12] Rice bran is another fat supplement on the market. There are several commercial products available through feed dealers.[1] Ground flax seed is another good source of fat, though it must ground up for horses to digest it.[23] Some commercial feed manufacturers now make products containing both flaxseed and rice bran.[24]
There are hundreds, if not thousands of commercially prepared vitamin and mineral supplements on the market, many tailored to horses with specialized needs.[25]
How to feed
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/PelletRation.jpg/200px-PelletRation.jpg)
Most horses only need quality forage, water and a salt or mineral block.[8] Grain or other concentrates are often not necessary.[3] But, when grain or other concentrates are fed, quantities must be carefully monitored. To do so, horse feed is measured by weight, not volume. For example, 1 lb. of Oats has a different volume than 1 lb. of Corn.[1] When feed has to be restricted, it is more consistent with the horse's natural feeding behavior to provide three small feedings instead of one or two large ones. However, even two feedings a day is preferable to only one.[5]
Feeding forages
Horses always require forage. When possible, nutritionists recommend forage be available at all times, at least when doing so does not overfeed the horse and lead to obesity. Horses can safely eat a ration that is 100% forage,[3] (along with water and supplemental salt) and any feed ration should be at least 50% forage.[17] Hay with alfalfa or other legumes has more concentrated nutrition and so is fed in smaller amounts than grass hay, though many hays have a mixture of both types of plant.
When beet pulp is fed, a ration of 2 to 5 pounds is usually soaked in water for 3 to 4 hours prior to feeding in order to make it more palatable, and to minimize the risk of choke and other problems. Beet pulp is usually fed in addition to hay, but occasionally is a replacement for hay when fed to very old horses who can no longer chew properly.[11]
Some pelleted rations are designed to be a "complete" feed that contains both hay and grain, meeting all the horse's nutritional needs. However, even these rations should have some hay or pasture provided, a minimum of a half-pound of forage for every 100 pounds of horse, in order to keep the digestive system functioning properly and to meet the horse's urge to graze.[22]
Feeding concentrates
Concentrates, when fed, are recommended to be provided in quantities no greater than 1% of a horse's body weight per day,[16] and preferably in two or more feedings.[1] If a ration needs to contain a higher percent of concentrates, such as that of a race horse, bulky grains such as oats should be used as much as possible; a loose mass of helps prevent impaction colic.[26]
In general, the portion of the ration that should be grain or other concentrated feed is 0 to 10% grain for mature idle horses, and 20 to 70% for horses at work, depending on age, intensity of activity and energy requirements.[17]
Concentrates should not be fed to horses within one hour before or after a heavy workout.[3] Concentrates also need to be adjusted to level of performance.[8] Not only can excess grain and inadequate exercise lead to behavior problems,[11] it may also trigger Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis, or "tying up," in horses prone to the condition.[26]
Access to water
Horses normally require free access to all the fresh, clean water they want. However, water may need to be temporarily limited in quantity when a horse is very hot after a heavy workout. As long as a hot horse continues to work, it can drink its fill at periodic intervals, provided that common sense is used and that an overheated horse is not forced to drink from extremely cold water sources. But, a hot horse that has ceased work needs to be cooled out and walked for 30—90 minutes before it can be allowed all the water it wants at one time. However, dehydration is also a concern, so horses do need to be offered some water during the cooling off process. A hot horse will properly rehydrate while cooling off if offered a few swallows of water every three to five minutes while being walked. Sometimes the horse's thirst mechanism does not immediately kick in following a heavy workout, which is another reason to offer periodic refills of water throughout the cooling down period.[9][11]
Feed storage
All feed must kept dry and free of mold, rodent feces and other types of contamination that may cause illness in horses.[3] Never give a horse feed contaminated by the remains of a dead animal, it is a potential source of botulism.[27] For example, mice can get into poorly stored grain, and hay bales sometimes accidentally contain snakes, mice, or other small animals that were caught in the baling machinery in the harvesting process.
Feeding behavior
Horses were designed to eat small amounts often. They also do best when they are fed on a regular schedule, they are creatures of habit and easily upset by changes in routine.[1] When horses are in a herd, their behavior is hierarchical;[28] the higher-ranked animals in the herd eat and drink first, and sometimes low-status animals may not get to eat enough food, or any at all. Unless a herd is on pasture that meets all their nutritional needs, it is important to either feed horses separately or spread their feed out in separate feeders to be sure all animals get enough to eat.
Special feeding issues for Ponies
Ponies need less feed than full-sized horses. This is not only because they are smaller, but also, because they evolved under harsher living conditions than horses, they use feed more efficiently.[29] Ponies easily become obese from overfeeding and therefore are at high risk for colic and, especially, laminitis. Fresh grass is a particular danger to ponies; they can develop laminitis in as little as one hour of grazing on lush pasture.[30]
It is important to track the weight of a pony carefully, by use of a weight tape. Forages may be fed based on a pony's weight, at a rate of about 1 pound of forage for every 100 pounds of weight,[29] and forage, along with water and a salt and mineral block, is all most ponies require. If a hard-working pony needs concentrates, a ratio of no more than 30% concentrates to 70% forage is recommended.[19] Concentrates designed for horses, with added vitamins and minerals, will often provide insufficient supplements at the small serving sizes needed for ponies. Therefore, if a pony requires concentrates, feed and supplements designed for ponies should be used.[29] In the UK, extruded pellets designed for ponies are sometimes called "pony nuts."[19].
Special feeding issues for mules and donkeys
Like ponies, mules and donkeys are also very hardy and need less concentrated feed than horses. Mules need less protein than horses and do best on grass hay with a vitamin and mineral supplement.[31]. If mules are fed concentrates, they only need about half of what a horse requires.[32] Like horses, mules require fresh, clean water, but are less likely to over-drink when hot.[31]
Donkeys, like mules, need less protein and more fiber than horses. They do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods, as is natural for them in an arid climate. They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought. If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture, they require hay or a related dried forage, with no more than a 1:4 ratio of legumes to grass. They also require salt and mineral supplements, and access to clean, fresh water.[33] Like ponies and mules, in a lush climate, donkeys are prone to obesity and are at risk of liminitis.[34]
Treats
Many people like to feed horses special treats such as carrots, sugar cubes, peppermint candies or specially manufactured horse "cookies." Horses do not need treats, and due to the risk of colic or choke, many horse owners do not allow their horses to be given treats, especially by other people. However, carrots and compressed hay pellets are common nutritious treats and generally not harmful. Horse "cookies" are often specially manufactured with ordinary concentrates and some added molasses and generally will not cause any nutritional problems when fed in small quantities. There are also behavioral issues that some horses may develop if given too many treats, particularly a tendency to bite if hand-fed, and for this reason many horse trainers and riding instructors discourage the practice.[35] In addition, any type of human food is potentially dangerous to a horse and should not be fed. This includes bread products, meat products, candy, and carbonated beverages.
It was also once a common practice to give horses a weekly bran mash of wheat bran mixed with warm water and other ingredients. It is still done regularly in some places. While a warm soft meal is a treat many horses enjoy, and was once considered helpful for its laxative effect, it is not nutritionally necessary. An old horse with poor teeth may benefit from food softened in water, a mash may help provide extra hydration, and a warm meal may be comforting in cold weather, but horses have far more fiber in their regular diet than do humans, and so any laxative effect is unneeded. There is also a risk that too much wheat bran may provide excessive phosphorus, unbalancing the diet, and a once-weekly feed of unusual contents could trigger a bout of colic.[11]
Dental issues
Horses' teeth continually grow throughout their life, are worn down as they eat, and can develop uneven wear patterns that can interfere with chewing. For this reason, horses need a dental examination at least once a year, and particular care must be paid to the dental needs of older horses.[36] The process of grinding off uneven wear patterns on a horse's teeth is called floating and can be performed by a veterinarian or a specialist in equine dentistry.
Colic, choke, and laminitis can be life-threatening conditions when a horse is severely affected, and veterinary care is necessary to properly treat these conditions.[37] Other conditions, while not life-threatening, may have serious implications for the long-term health and soundness of a horse.
Colic
Horse colic can occur due to any number of digestive upsets, from mild bloating due to excess intestinal gas to life-threatening impactions. [38] Colic is most often caused by a change in diet, either a planned change that takes place too quickly, or an accidental change, such as a horse getting out of its barn or paddock and ingesting unfamiliar plants. But colic has many other possible triggers including insufficient water, an irregular feeding schedule, stress and illness.[39] Because the horse cannot vomit and has a limited capacity to detoxify harmful substances, anything upsetting to the horse must travel all the way through the digestive system to be expelled.
Choke
choke is less common than colic, but can occur, particularly if a horse "bolts" its food, that is, eats too rapidly, particularly when there has been insufficient access to water. It is exceedingly difficult for a horse to expel anything from the esophagus, and immediate treatment is often required. [40]
Laminitis
Horses are also susceptible to laminitis, an inflammation of the lamina of the hoof. Laminitis has many causes, but the most common is related to a sugar and starch overload from a horse overeating certain types of food, particularly too much pasture grass high in fructan in early spring and late fall, or by getting into excessive quantities of grain.[41]
Growth disorders
Young horses that are overfed or are fed a diet with an improper calcium:phosphorus ratio over time may develop a number of growth and orthopedic disorders, including epiphysitis, osteochondrosis and a several conditions grouped under the popular term "contracted tendons." If not properly treated, damage can be permanent. However, they can be treated if caught in time and given proper veterinary care, along with corrected feeding practices.[42] Adult horses with an improper diet may also develop a range of metabolic problems.[43]
"Tying up"
Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis, or "tying up," is a condition to which only some horses are susceptible, but for those that are, a day of rest on full grain ration followed by heavy work the next may often lead to severe muscular cramping, a set of symptoms that led to the archaic nickname for the condition, "Monday morning sickness." The condition may be related to elecrolyte imbalance. Proper diet management may help minimize the risk of an attack.[44][45]
Footnotes and other references
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Williams, Carey A.,Ph.D., Extension Specialist. "The Basics of Equine Nutrition" from FS #038, Equine Science Center, Rutgers University, Revised: April 2004. Web site accessed February 9, 2007
- ^ "Horse Nutrition - Frequency." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e March, Linda. "Feeding Your Horse To Avoid Problems," from University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Web site accessed February 16, 2007
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Horse Nutrition - Carbohydrates and fats." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b A. Cirelli, Jr. and B. Cloud. "Suburban Horse Keeping." Fact Sheet: 94-09, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Nevada, Reno. Web site accessed February 16, 2007.
- ^ Budiansky, Stephen. The Nature of Horses. Free Press, 1997. ISBN 0-684-82768-9
- ^ a b c d e "Horse Nutrition - The Horse's Digestive System." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b c d Russell, Mark A. and Penny M. Bauer. "Nutritional Management for Horses" Publication AS-429, Purdue University Cooperative Extension. Web site accessed March 13, 2007
- ^ a b "Horse Nutrition - Diet Factors - Water." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b c "Horse Nutrition - Protein." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g Warren, Lori K. "Horse Feeding Myths and Misconceptions" Horse Industry Section, Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development Web site accessed February 16, 2007
- ^ a b c d Mowrey, Robert A. "Horse Feeding Management - High-Fat Diets for Horses". from North Carolina Cooperative Extension Center, web site accessed February 14, 2007
- ^ "Digestive System 2", web site accessed February 14, 2007
- ^ a b c "Applying Horse Sense to Horse Nutrition" Alliance Nutrition Equine. Web site accessed February 14, 2007
- ^ a b c "Horse Nutrition - Minerals." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 14, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f Hall, Marvin H. and Particia M. Comerford. "Pasture and Hay for Horses - Argonomy facts 32," 1992 University of Pennsylvania, Cooperative Extension Service. Web site accessed Feberary 14, 2007.
- ^ a b c d "Horse Nutrition - Feeding factors." Bulletin 762-00, Ohio State University. Web site accessed February 9, 2007.
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