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Of alternative energy sources, Japan has partially exploited [[Geothermal power|geothermal energy]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/energy/geothermalenergy/4117746/Japan-taps-into-power-of-volcanoes-with-geothermal-energy-plants.html# | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | first=Danielle | last=Demetriou | title=Japan taps into power of volcanoes with geothermal energy plants | date=2009-01-05}}</ref> The country had six geothermal power stations with a combined capacity of 133 megawatts in 1989. By 2011, the country had 18 geothermal plants.<ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110927f1.html Geothermal trove lies mostly untapped despite energy crisis]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 27 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
Of alternative energy sources, Japan has partially exploited [[Geothermal power|geothermal energy]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/energy/geothermalenergy/4117746/Japan-taps-into-power-of-volcanoes-with-geothermal-energy-plants.html# | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | first=Danielle | last=Demetriou | title=Japan taps into power of volcanoes with geothermal energy plants | date=2009-01-05}}</ref> The country had six geothermal power stations with a combined capacity of 133 megawatts in 1989. By 2011, the country had 18 geothermal plants.<ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110927f1.html Geothermal trove lies mostly untapped despite energy crisis]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 27 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
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In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic electricity]] until overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.<ref>[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/features/science/20070510TDY03003.htm Japan lags behind Europe in solar power]. ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun|The Daily Yomiuri]]'', published 2007-05-10, accessed 2007-05-14..</ref><ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110924f1.html Despite headwinds, solar energy making progress, advocates say]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 24 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic electricity]] until overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.<ref>[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/features/science/20070510TDY03003.htm Japan lags behind Europe in solar power]. ''[[Yomiuri Shimbun|The Daily Yomiuri]]'', published 2007-05-10, accessed 2007-05-14..</ref><ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110924f1.html Despite headwinds, solar energy making progress, advocates say]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 24 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> In December 2011, [[Tohoku Electric Power]] began operating a solar power plant in [[Hachinohe, Aomori]]. The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households.<ref>[[Jiji Press]], "Tohoku Electric's solar plant starts up", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 21 December 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
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As of September 2011, Japan had 1,807 wind turbines generating 2440 MW of power. A lack of locations with constant wind, environmental restrictions, and emphasis by power utilities on fossil and nuclear power hinders the employment of more wind power in Japan.<ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110928f1.html Wind power quest faces stability, regulatory hurdles]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 28 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
As of September 2011, Japan had 1,807 wind turbines generating 2440 MW of power. A lack of locations with constant wind, environmental restrictions, and emphasis by power utilities on fossil and nuclear power hinders the employment of more wind power in Japan.<ref>Johnston, Eric, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110928f1.html Wind power quest faces stability, regulatory hurdles]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 28 September 2011, p. 3.</ref> |
Revision as of 22:14, 20 December 2011
Japan lacks significant domestic sources of fossil energy except coal and must import substantial amounts of crude oil, natural gas, and other energy resources, including uranium. In 1990 Japan's dependence on imports for primary energy stood at more than 85%, and the country had a total energy requirement of 428.2 million tons of petroleum equivalent.
Japan was in 2010 No 1 hard coal importer 187 Mt (20 % of total world coal import) and No 1 top natural gas importer 99 bcm (12.1 % of total gas import).[1]
Overview
Energy in Japan[1] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capita | Prim. energy | Production | Import | Electricity | CO2-emission | |
Million | TWh | TWh | TWh | TWh | Mt | |
2004 | 127.7 | 6,201 | 1,125 | 5,126 | 1,031 | 1,215 |
2007 | 127.8 | 5,972 | 1,052 | 5,055 | 1,083 | 1,236 |
2008 | 127.7 | 5,767 | 1,031 | 4,872 | 1,031 | 1,151 |
2009 | 127.3 | 5,489 | 1,091 | 4,471 | 997 | 1,093 |
Change 2004-09 | 0 % | -11.5 % | -3.1 % | -12.8 % | -3.3 % | -10.1 % |
Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, Prim. energy includes energy losses that are 2/3 for nuclear power[2] |
Energy use
Japan's rapid industrial growth since the end of World War II doubled the nation's energy consumption every five years into the 1990s. During the 1960–72 period of accelerated growth, energy consumption grew much faster than GNP, doubling Japan's consumption of world energy. By 1976, with only 3% of the world's population, Japan was consuming 6% of global energy supplies.
In 1990, consumption totaled 298 million tons: 46.7% of which was used by industry; 23.3% by the transportation sector; 26.6% for agricultural, residential, services, and other uses; and 3.3% for non-energy uses, such as lubricating oil or asphalt. (source?)
Compared with other nations, electricity in Japan is relatively expensive.[3]
Electricity generation
In 2008, Japan ranked third in the world in electricity production, after the United States and China, with 1.025×1012 kWh[4] produced during that year.[5]
In terms of per capita electricity consumption, the average person in Japan consumed 8,459 Kilowatt-Hours in 2004 compared to 14,240 for the average American. In that respect it ranked 18th among the countries of the world. Its per capita electricity consumption increased by 21.8% between 1990 and 2004.[6]
With 53 active nuclear power generating reactor units in 2009, Japan ranked third in the world in that respect, after the United States (104 reactors) and France (59).[7] Almost one quarter (24.93%) of its electricity production was from nuclear plants, compared to 76.18% for France and 19.66% for the United States.[8]
In 1989 Japan was the world's third largest producer of electricity. About 75% of the available power was controlled by the ten major regional power utilities, of which Tokyo Electric Power Company was the world's largest. Electricity rates in Japan were among the world's highest.[citation needed]
Electrical power supply
Japan doesn't have a single national grid like most other industrial countries have, but has separate eastern and western grids. The standard voltage at power outlets is 100 V, but the grids operate at different frequencies: 50 Hz in Eastern Japan and 60 Hz in Western Japan.[9] The grids are connected together by 3 frequency converter stations (Higashi-Shimizu, Shin Shinano and Sakuma), but these can only handle 1 GW.[10] The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami resulted in 11 reactors being taken offline with a loss of 9.7GW.[10] The 3 converter stations did not have the capacity to transfer enough power from Japan's western power grid to significantly help the eastern grid.
The two grids were originally developed by separate companies. Tokyo Electric Light Co was established in 1883 which also established electric power in Japan. In 1885 demand had grown enough that TELCO bought generation equipment from AEG of Germany.[10] The same happened in the western parts of Japan with General Electric being the supplier to Osaka Electric Lamp.[10] GE's equipment used the US standard 60Hz while AEG's equipment used the European standard of 50Hz.[10]
Utilities
In Japan, the electricity market is divided up into 10 regulated companies:
- Chugoku Electric Power Company (CEPCO)
- Chubu Electric Power (Chuden)
- Hokuriku Electric Power Company (HEPCO)
- Hokkaido Electric Power Company (Hokuden)
- Kyushu Electric Power (Kyuden)
- Kansai Electric Power Company (KEPCO)
- Okinawa Electric Power Company (Okiden)
- The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)
- Tohoku Electric Power (Tohokuden)
- Shikoku Electric Power Company (Yonden)
-
Tepco
-
Kepco
-
Chubu
-
Tohokuden
-
Kyuden
Energy supply
In 1950 coal supplied half of Japan's energy needs, hydroelectricity one-third, and oil the rest. In 1988 oil provided Japan with 57.3% of energy needs, coal 18.1%, natural gas 10.1%, nuclear power 9.0%, hydroelectic power 4.6%, geothermal power 0.1%, and 1.3% came from other sources. By 2001 the contribution of oil had declined to 50.2% of the total, with rises in the use of nuclear power and natural gas.[11]
Japan—primary energy use | |||
Fuel | 1950 | 1988 | 2001[11] |
Coal | 50% | 18.1% | 16.8% |
Hydro | 33% | 4.6% | 4.0% |
Oil | 17% | 57.3% | 50.2% |
Natural gas | - | 10.1% | 13.6% |
Nuclear | - | 9.0% | 14.4% |
Other | - | 1.3% | 1.0% |
Petroleum and diversification
In accordance with the two oil crises of the 1970s (1973 and 1979), Japan made efforts to diversify to other forms of energy resources in order to increase energy security. Japan's domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around 5.1 million barrels (810,000 m3) of oil per day in the late 1970s to 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) per day in 1990. While the country's use of oil declined, its consumption of nuclear power and LNG rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, including electric power companies and steelmakers, switched from petroleum to coal, most of which is imported.
The state stockpile equals about 92 days of consumption and the privately held stockpiles equal another 77 days of consumption for a total of 169 days or 579 million barrels (92,100,000 m3).[12][13] The Japanese SPR is run by the Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation.[14]
Natural gas
Because domestic natural gas production is minimal, rising demand is met by greater imports. Japan's main LNG suppliers in 1987 were Indonesia (51.3%), Malaysia (20.4%), Brunei (17.8%), United Arab Emirates (7.3%), and the United States (3.2%).
Nuclear power
The Japanese were working to increase the availability of nuclear power in 1985. Although Japan was a late starter in this field, it finally imported technology from the United States and obtained uranium from Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia. By 1991 the country had 42 nuclear reactors in operation, with a total generating capacity of approximately 33 gigawatts. The ratio of nuclear power generation to total electricity production increased from 2% in 1973 to 23.6% in 1990.
During the 1980s, Japan's nuclear power program was strongly opposed by environmental groups, particularly after the Three Mile Island accident in the United States. Other problems for the program were the rising costs of nuclear reactors and fuel, the huge investments necessary for fuel enrichment and reprocessing plants, reactor failures, and nuclear waste disposal. Nevertheless, Japan continued to build nuclear power plants. After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami some nuclear reactors were damaged, causing much uncertainty and fear about the release of radioactive material, as well as highlighting the ongoing concerns over Japanese nuclear seismic design standards.[15]
Renewable energy
Of alternative energy sources, Japan has partially exploited geothermal energy.[16] The country had six geothermal power stations with a combined capacity of 133 megawatts in 1989. By 2011, the country had 18 geothermal plants.[17]
In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of photovoltaic electricity until overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.[18][19] In December 2011, Tohoku Electric Power began operating a solar power plant in Hachinohe, Aomori. The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households.[20]
As of September 2011, Japan had 1,807 wind turbines generating 2440 MW of power. A lack of locations with constant wind, environmental restrictions, and emphasis by power utilities on fossil and nuclear power hinders the employment of more wind power in Japan.[21]
As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants producing 3,225 MW of power. The smaller plants accounted ro 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams. Cost per killowat-hour for power from smaller plants was high at ¥15-100, hindering further development of the energy source.[22]
As of September 2011, Japan had 190 generators attached to municipal waste units and 70 independent plants using biomass fuel to produce energy. In addition, 14 other generators were used to burn both coal and biomass fuel. In 2008, Japan produced 322 million tons of biomass fuel and converted 76% of it into energy.[23]
Carbon emissions
In 2003 Japan was the 5th largest producer of carbon emissions, generating 5% of the world total. In 2003 Japan ranked 36 in the list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita.
Reports indicate Japan is having difficulty in meeting its 6% reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol in part because Japanese businesses are already very energy efficient.[24] Despite this, former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has called for a 50% cut in world emissions by 2050, and expects Japan to play a leading role in such an effort.[24]
Carbon dioxide emissions (thousands of metric tons of CO2)[25] | ||
Year | CO2 | Change |
1990 | 1,072,420 | 0% |
1991 | 1,094,350 | 2.04% |
1992 | 1,106,500 | 3.18% |
1993 | 1,081,490 | 0.85% |
1994 | 1,132,560 | 5.61% |
1995 | 1,138,750 | 9.19% |
1996 | 1,169,550 | 9.06% |
1997 | 1,170,120 | 9.11% |
1998 | 1,130,600 | 5.43% |
1999 | 1,165,720 | 8.7% |
2000 | 1,207,980 | 12.64% |
2001 | 1,191,390 | 11.09% |
2002 | 1,205,480 | 12.41% |
2003 | 1,233,640 | 15.03% |
See also
- Energy
- Energy Law - Japan
- Japan Electric Association
- Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
- Nuclear power in Japan
- World energy resources and consumption
References
- ^ a b IEA Key World Energy Statistics 2011, 2010, 2009, 2006 IEA October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15
- ^ Energy in Sweden 2010, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, Table 8 Losses in nuclear power stations Table 9 Nuclear power brutto
- ^ Nagata, Kazuaki, "Utilities have monopoly on power", Japan Times, 6 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ kWh
- ^ Electricity - production 2008 Country Ranks
- ^ Electricity Consumption Per Capita 2004 - Country Rankings
- ^ Nuclear Power Plants by Country 2009
- ^ Nuclear Share in Electricity Generation by Country 2008
- ^ Electricity in Japan
- ^ a b c d e Williams, Martyn (18 March 2011). "A legacy from the 1800s leaves Tokyo facing blackouts". Computerworld. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- ^ a b Country Analysis Briefs - Japan, US Energy Information Administration, published January 2004, accessdate 2007-05-10
- ^ "Energy Security in East Asia". Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. 2004-08-13.
- ^ "Energy Security Initiative" (PDF). Asia Pacific Energy Research Center. 2002-01-01.
- ^ http://www.jogmec.go.jp/english/index.html
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "Current nuclear debate to set nation's course for decades", Japan Times, 23 September 2011, p. 1.
- ^ Demetriou, Danielle (2009-01-05). "Japan taps into power of volcanoes with geothermal energy plants". The Daily Telegraph. London.
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "Geothermal trove lies mostly untapped despite energy crisis", Japan Times, 27 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Japan lags behind Europe in solar power. The Daily Yomiuri, published 2007-05-10, accessed 2007-05-14..
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "Despite headwinds, solar energy making progress, advocates say", Japan Times, 24 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Jiji Press, "Tohoku Electric's solar plant starts up", Japan Times, 21 December 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "Wind power quest faces stability, regulatory hurdles", Japan Times, 28 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "Small hydropower plants keep it local", Japan Times, 29 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ Johnston, Eric, "With backing, biomass can help meet energy needs", Japan Times, 30 September 2011, p. 3.
- ^ a b Japan eyes 50% greenhouse gas cut, BBC, published 2007-05-24, accessed 2007-06-20
- ^ "Dioxyde de carbone (CO2), émissions en mille tonnes de CO2 (CDIAC)". United Nations. 2006-11-20. Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
- - Japan