70.52.171.42 (talk) No edit summary |
Chronikhiles (talk | contribs) Reverted short description change. Tag: Visual edit |
||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Principal Hindu goddess}} |
|||
{{other uses of}} |
|||
{{other uses}} |
|||
{{Redirect|Mahishasuramardini|the radio programme of All India Radio|Mahisasuramardini (radio programme)}} |
|||
{{redirect|Mahisasuramardini|the radio programme|Mahisasuramardini (radio programme){{!}}''Mahisasuramardini'' (radio program)}} |
|||
{{pp-protected|reason=disruptive editing|expiry=31 August 2013|small=yes}} |
|||
{{redirect|Demus|the surname|Demus (surname)|the production company|Demus Productions|the subdivision in Ancient Greece|deme}} |
|||
{{multiple issues| |
|||
{{ |
{{EngvarB|date=August 2020}} |
||
{{ |
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}} |
||
{{original research|date=August 2013}} |
|||
}} |
|||
{{Infobox deity<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> |
{{Infobox deity<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology--> |
||
| type = Hindu |
| type = Hindu |
||
| |
| image = Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG |
||
| caption = 18th-century painting of Durga slaying the buffalo demon [[Mahishasura]] |
|||
| Name = Durga |
|||
| god_of = Mother Goddess;<br />Goddess of Power, Strength and Protection |
|||
| Devanagari = दुर्गा |
|||
| |
| name = Durga |
||
| day = [[Tuesday]] and [[Friday]] |
|||
| Pali_Transliteration = |
|||
| mantra = *Oṃ Śrī Durgāya Namaḥ |
|||
| Affiliation = [[Devi]], Mother Goddess, Form of Parvati/Adi Shakti, Goddess Shakti, manifestation of Adi Parashakti| |
|||
* Oṃ Aiṃ Hrīṃ Klīṃ Cāmuṇḍāya Vicce |
|||
Consort Lord Shiva = |
|||
| affiliation = [[Devi]], [[Kali]], [[Mahadevi]], [[Shaktism]], [[Navadurga]] |
|||
| God_of = Goddess of Victory of Good over Evil |
|||
| weapon = [[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakra]] (discus), [[Shankha]] (conch shell), [[Trishula]] (trident), [[Gada (mace)]], Bow and Arrow, [[Khanda (sword)]], [[Nelumbo nucifera|Padma (Lotus)]] |
|||
| Abode = Forest of Madamba Kadamba| Weapon = trident, discus, <br> Scimitar, lasso, <br> Conch shell, Mace, Bow and arrow, spear, sword (longsword), shield, bell, pink lotus flower, battle-axe, thunderbolt, elephant goad, lasso, snake, rod, spade, vajra, goblet, hammer weapon, iron weapon, weapon made out of thorns, javelin, dagger |
|||
| devanagari = दुर्गा |
|||
|Consort = [[Shiva]] |
|||
| other_names = Adi Shakti, Mahishasura Mardini, Bhagavati, Bhavani, [[Jagadamba]] |
|||
| Mount = lion or tiger |
|||
| mount = Lion; Tiger{{sfn|Robert S Ellwood|Gregory D Alles|2007|p=126}}{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}} |
|||
| Planet = Mars |
|||
| festivals = [[Durga Puja]], [[Durga Ashtami]], [[Navaratri]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Bathukamma]], [[Teej]], [[Kali Puja]] |
|||
| Mantra = Om Durgaye Namaha Namaha/Om Aim Hreem Kleem Durga Devi Namaha |
|||
| equivalent1 = [[Panthoibi]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=panthoibi+Durga|title = Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy|last1 = Singh|first1 = Moirangthem Kirti|year = 1998|access-date = 3 May 2021|archive-date = 19 August 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210819070413/https://books.google.com/books?id=LVpuAAAAMAAJ&q=panthoibi+Durga|url-status = live}}</ref>| |
|||
}} |
|||
| equivalent1_type = Manipuri |
|||
Goddess '''Durga''' ({{IPA-hns|d̪uːrgaː}}; {{lang-sa|दुर्गा}}), meaning "the inaccessible"<ref>{{cite web |title= Durga, |url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174252/Durga |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |date= |accessdate=October 7, 2009}}</ref> or "the invincible"; ''durga'') Goddess Durga is the most popular incarnation of Devi and one of the forms of Goddess Shakti, a partial incarnation of Parvati. For Shaivas Durga is the wife of Shiva, for Vaishnavas and Shaktas Durga is another form of Uma or Parvati. Durga is often known as the Mother of the universe and believed to be the power behind the work of creation, preservation, and destruction of the world. Since time immemorial she has been worshipped as the supreme power of the Supreme Being and has been mentioned in many scriptures - Yajur Ved, Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taittareya Brahman. The word Durga in Sanskrit means a fort, or a place which is difficult to overrun. Another meaning of Durga is Durgatinashini, which literally translates into the one who eliminates sufferings and the name Durga means invincible in Sanskrit. the syllable Du is synominous with the four devils of poverty, sufferings, famine and evil habits. The R refers to diseases and the Ga is the destroyer of sins, injustice, irreligion, cruelty and laziness. Thus, Hindus believe that Goddess Durga protects her devotees from the evils of the world and at the same time removes their miseries. There are several incarnations/forms of Durga: Kali, Tara Devi, Shitala Devi, Kaushiki, Satakshi, Shakambhari, Shanta Durga, Muthyalamma, Rudrani, Kaal Ratri, Katyayani, Bhairavi, Maha Gauri, Chandi, Bhadrakali, Shivadooti, Chamundeshwari, Ekanamsha, Chandraghanta, Harsiddhi, Aparajita, Maha Durga, Modeshwari and Vindhyavasini. The Hindu Goddess Durga manifested herself as when evil forces threatened the very existence of all the Gods. To destroy these demons, the united power of all the Gods, who offered her the required physical attributes to her creation and each formed a part of Durga's body. Durga also obtained very powerful weapons such as a conch shell in Durga's hand symbolizes the Pranav or the spritual word Om, which indicates her holding on to God in the form of sound. The bow and arrows represent energy. By holding both the bow and arrows in one hand Mother Goddess Durga is indicating her control over both aspects of energy - potential and kinetic. The thunderbolt signifies firmness. The devotee of Mother Durga must be firm like thunderbolt in one's convictions. Like the thunderbolt that can break anything against which it strikes, without being affected itself, the devotee needs to attack a challenge without losing his confidence. The lotus in Durga's hand is not in fully bloomed, It symbolizing certainty of success but not finality. The lotus in Sanskrit is called pankaj which means born of mud. Thus, lotus stands for the continuous evolution of the spiritual quality of devotees amidst the worldly mud of lust and greed. The beautiful discus, which spins around the index finger of the Goddess, while not touching it, signifies that the entire world is subservient to the will of Durga and is at her command. She uses this unfailing weapon to destroy evil and produce an environment conducive to the growth of righteousness. The sword that Durga holds in one of her hands symbolizes knowledge, which has the sharpness of a sword. Knowledge which is free from all doubts, is symbolized by the shine of the sword. Durga's trident is a symbol of three qualities- Sattva (inactivity), Rajas (activity) and Tamas (non-activity)- and she is remover of all the three types of miseries- physical, mental and mystical, the mace has a pointy end at the top and it is extremely golden, the battle-axe she holds is used to chop demon heads off, the scimitar is also symbolized as knowledge with a pointy top on the end to chop demon heads off as well, the bell she holds is used to ring in many directions to call the demons, the elephant goad she holds symbolizes her son Ganesh with a pointy top on the end, the container she holds is extremely golden, the shield she holds is extremely gold as well but sometimes dark, the baton she holds is to smack demons in the face, the lasso or noose that she holds is to tie the demons up, the spear she holds symbolizes sharpness and the snake that she holds does not harm Goddess Durga, the snake is also the energy of Lord Shiva and Mother Durga. She also destroyed Mahishasur and his fellow demons. Demonic forces are self-destructive but very powerful. Divine forces are constructive but slow and efficent. When demonic forces create imbalance, all Gods unite, becoming one divine force called Shakti or Durga. Her nine forms are Kushmanda, Shailputri, Brahmacharini, Skand Mata, Maha Gauri, Chandraghanta, Kaal Ratri, Katyayani and Siddhidatri. Durga is depicted as having eight hands, ten hands or eighteen hands. These represent eight quadrants, ten or even eighteen directions in Hinduism. This suggests that she protects the devotees from all directions. Like Lord Shiva, Ma Durga is also referred to as Triyambike meaning the three eyed Goddess. The left eye represents desire (the moon), the right eye represents action (the sun), and the central eye knowledge (fire). The lion/tiger represents power, will and determination. Maa Durga riding the lion/tiger symbolises her mastery over all these qualities. This suggests to the devotee that one has to possess all these qualities to get over the demon of ego. Mata Durga stands on a lion/tiger in a fearless pose. |
|||
| abode = [[Manidvipa]], [[Mount Kailash]] |
|||
| texts = [[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]], [[Devi Mahatmya]], [[Kalika Purana]], [[Shakta Upanishads]], [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantras]] |
|||
| member_of = [[Prakriti|Pancha Prakriti]] and [[ Panchayatana puja]] }} |
|||
{{Infobox Hindu term|sa=दुर्गा ({{IAST|Durgā}})|hi=दुर्गा ({{IAST|Durgā}})|mr=दुर्गा ({{IAST|Durgā}})|as=দুর্গা ({{IAST|Durgā}})|bn=দুর্গা ({{IAST|Durgā}})|bho=𑂠𑂴𑂩𑂳𑂏𑂰 ({{IAST|Durugā}})|gu=દુર્ગા ({{IAST|Durgā}})|pa=ਦੁਰਗਾ ({{IAST|Durgā}}) |or=ଦୁର୍ଗା ({{IAST|Durgā}})| ta=துர்க்கை ({{IAST|Durkai}})|ml=ദുർഗ ({{IAST|Durgā}})| |
|||
|te=దుర్గ ({{IAST|Durgā}})|kn=ದುರ್ಗಾ ({{IAST|Durgā}})| ne=दुर्गा ({{IAST|Durgā}})}} |
|||
'''Durga''' ({{lang-sa|दुर्गा}}, {{IAST3|Durgā}}) is a major [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Devi|goddess]], worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess [[Mahadevi]]. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars.{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Charles Phillips| Michael Kerrigan| David Gould|2011|pp=93–94}} |
|||
==Origins and evolution== |
|||
Ramprasad Chanda writes the following about the evolution of Durga from primitive goddess to her current form.<ref>McDaniel, June (2004). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal]''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516791-0. Pp. 214.</ref> |
|||
:"...it is possible to distinguish two different strata — one primitive and the other advanced. The primitive form of Durga is the result of [[syncretism]] of a mountain-goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the [[Himalaya]] and the [[Vindhya]]s, a Goddess worshiped by the nomadic [[Abhira]] shepherd, the [[Vegetation deity|vegetation spirit]] conceived as a female, and a war-Goddess. As her votaries advanced in civilization the primitive Warrior-Goddess was transformed into the personification of the all-destroying time ([[Kali]]), the vegetation spirit into the primordial energy ([[Adya Sakti]]) and the saviouress from “[[samsara]]” (cycle of rebirths) , and gradually brought into line with the [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanic]] mythology and philosophy." |
|||
Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and [[dharma]], representing the power of good over evil.{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}} Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to empower creation.{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|pp=3–5}} Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2011|pp=71–73}}{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–6}} She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess-centric sect, [[Shaktism]], and has importance in other denominations like [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=9–17}} |
|||
==History== |
|||
The word Durga literally means 'inaccessible'. Durga according to the Rig Veda, is the Primodial source of energy, who has produced the universe, even the substratum above the Supreme 'Brahman' and is actually a manifestation of 'Brahman' himself. Her energy pervades the entire universe and moves along with 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras and 8 Vasus (who are the primary Gods of the universe). Durga, is the Goddess, the mother of the creation and the giver of boons of all kinds. Such description of the Goddess, or her "Atma-Parichay" is found in the 10th Mandal of the Rig Veda. According to Devi Mahatmyam in Markandeya Puran, composed by the great poet-sage Ved-Vyasa, himself, there is the entire account of the physical expression of the "Formless Energy" or Adi Shakti from the combined powers of the Trinity and all other Gods and the annihilation of demonic forces disrupting natural functioning of the cosmos. The account starts with the cosmic man - Lord Vishnu, lying motionless on his Sheshnaag bed during apocalypse. Slowly the creator Brahma emerged from his navel but was immediately challenged by two demons Madhu and Kaitabh, who emerged from the earwax of Lord Vishnu's ears. Brahma, seeing the Supreme God sleeping, under the spell of his own energy 'Mahamaya', prayed to the Goddess to leave Narayan's body and awaken him. Hearing his prayers, the Goddess left the body of Lord Vishnu, who in turn, severed the heads of the demons and thus Brahma began the process of creation. The second phase begins with Mahishasur, a wicked Demon King, receiving boons of Form-shifting from Brahma. With these magical powers he manages to defeat Indra's army and capture the heavens. Defeated Indra, along with all other deities of Fire, Sun, Waters and Earth approached Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh, the Supreme Trinity, who are manifestations of the Supreme God, engaged in creating, preserving, destroying and recreating the cosmos. The Trinity, were also discussing the reign of terror of the tyrant Mahishasur, seated in Vaikunth, the Supreme Abode, when the helpless deities approached them. The Trinity, got enraged thus and emitted all their energy. Similarly solar deities, deities of Fire and Water, deities of Earth and Death and all other Gods emitted fierce beams of energy. All the emitted Energies pervaded the entire universe like a mountain of light and coalesced to give form to the Primodial source of energy, Maha Shakti or Durga. The Almighty Goddess thus evolved received gifts of weapons from the Gods and roared in laughter. The earth shook, clouds struck lightning that caused storms and forest fires. Mahishasur understood that his time of death had come and gathered all his army to fight the Goddess. The Almighty Goddess appeared in a fierce beam of light and breathed an army of divine warriors, who gave the army of Mahishasur tough fight. The Goddess hurled her weapons on the demonic forces, and then rode fiercely on her vehicle Lion, killing demons in all directions. She hurled mountains and stones on the generals Chiksur, Chamar, Baskal etc and mutilated them with her trident. Mahishasur changed forms and attacked the Goddess, in forms of buffalo, elephant, wicked man and lion and each time Durga defeated him. However, Mahishasur's arrogance angered her and she roared "Roar, Oh ignorant demon, till I drink my potion, once I'm done, I'll bring your end and the Gods then would roar similarly." While saying this, she pounced on buffalo demon, subdued his neck with her feet and hurled her trident at him. Stunned by the terrible energy of the almighty, the demon unable to bear her feet on his neck, started emerging from the mouth of the buffalo. The Goddess immediately chopped his head off with a scimitar and he fell dead. Thus, Durga freed Mahishasur and his accomplices from the sin of tyranny and cleansed them with her weapons. The third phase narrates, how King of Gods, Indra being defeated by demons Shumbh and Nishumbh approached Shiva and Parvati, the parents of the universe and Goddess Parvati, an incarnation of the Supreme Goddess herself, gave birth to Goddess Ambika or Kaushiki from her body cell. The Goddess Durga thus took form as Ambika, the beautiful divine energy. Lured by her celestial beauty, demons Shumbh and Nishumbh, send a marriage proposal to her, to which she replied, "Only a man who can defeat me in war will be accepted by me as my Husband." The demons, enraged sent General Dhumralochan, who could emit chocking fumes, to capture and bring the Goddess. The Goddess breathed fire and charred the general and her vehicle, the giant Lion killed and devoured the demonic army. The demon Kings now sent, wicked demons Chand-Mund, to capture the Goddess, who in turn, transformed into dark energy, Kali and started devouring the demons, with their vehicles, and beheaded Chand-Mund. Raktabeej, a magical giant, was sent to capture the Goddess. The Goddess transformed herself into multiple forms, Brahmani, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani, Narasinghi, Shivadooti and Chamunda. They all started devouring the demonic armies. Raktabeej challenged the Goddesses and a terrible fight started. The magical demon had the capacity to regenerate from his own blood. So Goddess Ambika requested Goddess Chamunda to devour the demon's blood along with the regenerated demons. Thus all were killed and Shumbh-Nishumbh were alone left to fight the Goddesses. Goddesses combined again into one Ambika and she fought and killed the demon kings with her trident. The deities thanked the Goddess and she promised that she will re-incarnate whenever there is a disturbance due to demonic forces in the cosmos. |
|||
The most important texts of Shaktism, [[Devi Mahatmya]] and [[Devi Bhagavata Purana]], revere Devi (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the [[Brahman]] (ultimate truth and reality).{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–216}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xi}} She is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}<ref name="Panchayatna Puja">{{cite web|url=https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399|title=Panch Dev Puja Worship|access-date=17 July 2022|website=ABP|date=17 November 2021 |language=hi|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134350/https://www.abplive.com/lifestyle/religion/panch-dev-puja-do-worship-five-minute-daily-and-you-will-get-prosperity-in-your-house-1999399|url-status=live}}</ref> She is also considered as the younger sister of Vishnu as per Bhagavata purana.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/10/4/9/ |title=ŚB 10.4.9 |website=Bhaktivedanta Vedabase}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-bhagavata-purana/d/doc1128869.html#:~:text=Flying%20off%20from%20(the%20grip%20of)%20of%20hands%2C%20she%20rose%20up%20to%20the%20sky%20and%20(stationing%20herself%20in%20the%20sky)%2C%20the%20younger%20sister%20of%20K%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87a%20manifested%20herself%20as%20a%20goddess%20with%20eight%20mighty%20arms%20wielding%20weapons. | title=Yoga-Māyā's Prophecy and Kaṃsa's Order to Slaughter all Children [Chapter 4] | date=2 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yoganidra#purana:~:text=R.1.14%3B%2013.6.-,3)%20Name%20of%20Durg%C4%81.,-4)%20the | title=Yoganidra, Yoganidrā, Yoga-nidra: 14 definitions | date=11 March 2017 }}</ref> |
|||
==Nava Durga== |
|||
Nava – that also means 'new' – denotes 'nine' the number to which sages attach special significance. Hence, we have Nava Ratri (9 nights), Nava Patrika which also means - (9 leaves/ herbs/plants), Nava Graha (9 planets), and Nava Durga (9 appellations). Here is a slide show of the 9 manifestations of Goddess Durga. Each Goddess has a different form and a special significance. Nava Durga, if worshipped with religious favour during Nava Ratri, it is believed, lift the divine spirit in us and fill us with renewed happiness. All the nine forms of Goddess Durga or different names of Goddess Durga are narrated in ‘Devi Kavach’ of the ‘Chandi Path’ scripture. Learn about the nine Goddesses in the following order with information that the nine forms of Goddess Durga surround her from the ten directions. |
|||
Durga has a significant following all over [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]] and many other countries. She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of [[Durga Puja]], [[Durga Ashtami]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Diwali|Deepavali]], and [[Navaratri]].{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}{{sfn|Constance Jones|James D Ryan|2006|pp=139–140, 308–309}} |
|||
Shailputri |
|||
Shailputri is the very first form of Goddess Durga and is the first among all Nava Durga. Variously known as Sati Bhavani, Parvati or Hemavati, the daughter of King Himavan - The King of the Himalayas. Legends say that Adi Shakti was pleased by Daksha and Prasuti's penance and asked her to reincarnate as his daughter Sati, Adi Shakti advised him that he would have to wait for a long time. Finally, the baby girl was born as Sati (Gauri) in the womb of Prasuti. As when Gauri grew to womanhood to become her daughter as Daksha, she loved Shiva and worshipped him a lot since when she was a toddler, an 6-12 year old and then a teenager in the age 13-19. Daksha worshipped Lord Vishnu as a staunch devotee. Daksha refuses to listen to Shiva's name whenever somesays his name, Daksha has accumulated supernatural powers from his father, Lord Brahma, he advised Daksha that the given powers were used to protect the world, not for destroying each other. Gauri became Shiva's first wife when she married him. It went through a chain of events and she committed suicide by jumping into the sacrificial fire of Daksha. An angry and grief-stricken Shiva was upset and it went through a chain of events when he renounced the whole world to meditation. In Gauri/Sati's next life, she reincarnated as King Himavan and Queen Menavati's daughter as Parvati and loved Shiva a lot, she has children such as Kartikeya, Ganesh and Ashok Sundari. She protects the world, devotees and her children. She thinks, cares and loves her parents very much. Shailputri has two hands holding the trident alone, her vehicle is Nandi or Vrishabh (Bull and one of Shiva squad) and she is often known as Vrishabhda. Shailputri is also a pure form of Parvati, known as a peaceful form of Shakti/Durga. |
|||
==Etymology and nomenclature== |
|||
Brahmacharini |
|||
{{Saktism}} |
|||
Brahmacharini is the second form of Goddess Durga. Her name means "One who practises Devout Austerity", her name also means "Brahma" means penance (Not The God) and "Charini" means a lady follower, she holds a rosary and water utensil in her two left and right hands. After Gauri reincarnated as Parvati, she meditated on Lord Shiva to attain him as her husband. Lord Shiva came in a saint's getup to test Parvati. He then made fun of Lord Shiva which the saint doesn't know that he himself is Lord Shiva. Parvati gets angry and tries to curse him, but she didn't, she chanted the "Panchakshri Mantra" of Lord Shiva. The saint changed his real form to Lord Shiva. Parvati was blessed and asked him to marry her, Lord Shiva became emotional when he married Sati, tears were rolling down his eyes, Parvati wiped them away with her hands. In this way, she attained Lord Shiva to be her husband. She is filled with bliss and happiness. Brahmachari means bachelor in male and Brahmacharini means bachlorette in female. |
|||
The word ''Durga'' (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} "invincible, unassailable".{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|p=xxii}} It is related to the word ''Durg'' (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], ''Durga'' is derived from the roots ''dur'' (difficult) and ''gam'' (pass, go through).<ref name="mmw487">Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487</ref> According to Indologist [[Alain Daniélou]], Durga means "beyond defeat".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}} |
|||
The word ''Durga'' and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the ''[[Atharvaveda]]''.<ref name="mmw487" /><ref>Maurice Bloomfield (1906), [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/486/mode/1up A Vedic concordance], Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;<br />Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके । |
|||
Chandraghanta |
|||
'''दुर्गे''' दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत् ॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_४.२८ Wikisource] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105214014/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AA.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AE |date=5 November 2018 }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|It appears in ''Khila'' (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.<ref>{{cite book|author=J Scheftelowitz|title=Indische Forschungen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jhIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA112|year=1906|publisher=Verlag von M & H Marcus|pages=112 line 13a|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217115252/https://books.google.com/books?id=_jhIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA112|url-status=live}}</ref>}} A deity named ''Durge'' appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]].<ref name="mmw487" /> While the Vedic literature uses the word ''Durga'', the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=95–96}} |
|||
Chandraghanta is the third form of Goddess Durga, in her forehead, she has a half moon which is in the shape of a bell. Chandraghanta is considered to be a fierce incarnation of Parvati, she killed Dhumralochan, Chand-Mund, Raktabeej, Shumbh-Nishumbh and their demonic hoardes with the help of Goddess Kali, Kaushiki and other Goddesses. She is often known as Chandika, she is always ready for wars, battles and fights against all the demons, monsters, beasts, ghosts, evil spirits, ogres, demonesses, negative energies, elusive powers, mystical forces, and all demon entities. They also flee the battlefield like cowards when they see the violent, ghastly, intense, fierce, fearsome, ferocious, horrifying, terrible, frightful, horrble, terrifying, frightning, fiercest and most dangerous shadow on knowing upon her arrival. Usually, Parvati took this incarnation to kill Demon Dhumralochan and his armies who was sent by Shumbh and Nishumbh to kidnap her daughter, Kaushiki, they all didn't know that they was all-powerful, she (Parvati) also took this incarnation to destroy Shumbh-Nishumbh and their remaining demon hoardes. Chandraghanta has ten hands holding weapons while the remaining right hand is in the gesture of boon-conferring, she has three eyes that represents past, present and future. Her vehicle is the tiger. Pertaining to have the main Durga look but she is a Mother Goddess filled with kindness. She is also a demon-fighting form of Goddess Durga. After Kaushiki's birth from Parvati, Parvati started to take various forms to assist Kaushiki in the battle against Shumbh and Nishumbh's demon messengers. Finally, Kaushiki killed Shumbh and Nishumbh. |
|||
The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and section 4.27.16 of the ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref name="mmw487" /> These usages are in different contexts. For example, ''Durg'' is the name of an [[Asura]] who had become invincible to gods, and ''Durga'' is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. ''Durga'' and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the ''Ashtadhyayi'' by [[Pāṇini]], the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of [[Nirukta]] by [[Yaska]].<ref name="mmw487" /> |
|||
Kushmanda |
|||
Kushmanda is the fourth form of Goddess Durga, her name goes through like this: Ku - A little, Ushma - Warmth and Anda - The cosmic Egg, in texts, the universe was no more than a void full of darkness until she appears and from the light from her body emerged an uncountable numer of light that spread all around. She is also the provider of light like Lord Surya, the Sun God. Kushmanda used her powers to create the world, after creating the world, she created all Gods (Demi Gods), saints (sages), Kinnars, (Kinnaries) Yakshs, (Yakshinis) fairies, humans, Goddesses and including the Trinity and many more. Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma were created from her grace. Goddess Kushmanda picked Brahma to be with Saraswati for creation, Vishnu with Lakshmi for maintaining and Shiva with Kali for slaughtering the world. Kushmanda is also the consort of Shiva. Kali is the wife of Shiva also, Kushmanda is Adi Shakti herself and reappeared herself as Goddess Chandika by the combination by these three Goddesses. Kushmanda has eight hands holding weapons while the other two pitchers are filled with blood, she also rides the tiger as her vehicle. She is somewhat like Goddess Bhuvaneshwari, except with her, she has four hands and rules the world. |
|||
=== Epithets === |
|||
Skand Mata |
|||
Durga is commonly known as ''Mahisa-mardini'' for slaying the half-buffalo demon Mahishasura.{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=95}} She is also known as ''Vindhyavasini'' (she who dwells in the Vindhya Mountains).{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=99–100}} Her other epithets include ''Mahamoha'' (great delusion), ''Mahasuri'' (the great demoness), ''Tamasi'' (the great night, the night of delusion).{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=99–100}} |
|||
Skand Mata is the fifth form of Goddess Durga. Her name goes through like this: Skand - Kartikeya and Mata - Mother. In one myth, Shiva and Parvati's energy combines into their own forms of nature when meditating. Indra came to know all this and assigns Lord Agni (Fire) to kidnap the ball of energy and keep it for safety from Demon Tarakasur. Agni snuck in the cave and took the energy by deceit and lies in his hands, after meditation, Parvati realizes that Lord Agni took the divine energy and chased after him. Lord Agni vanished with the divine energy and ran to Goddess Ganga. Meanwhile, Parvati came out of the cave and asked the Gods that why Lord Agni stole the divine energy, the Gods answered her that they have to keep it safe from Demon Tarakasur. Parvati gets angry and attains the form of Goddess Shakti with eight hands holding weapons, cursed the Gods that their wives will never be able to enjoy the happiness with their children and with that, curses Lord Agni that he will be an all-burner, unable to diffrentiate the differences between right and wrong and his food will have impurities, he will always be surrounded by black smoke and also curses that in anyone touches him in one of the three worlds, they will get reduced to ashes. Meanwhile, Shiva came out of the cave placated her by telling her to calm down. Skand Mata has four hands, in the first two in which they were raised the two pink lotuses, the right one is slightly raised upwards, the left upper hand is slightly lower, the lower two are in the gestures of fear-dispellings and boon-conferrings. She often holds the infant Skand in her lap while the left lower hand is the gesture of boon-conferrings, she has three eyes representing past, present and future. She wears a yellow or orange saree, rides the lion as her vehicle. Her son Skand is chosen by Gods as their commander in chief in the war against the demons and Demon Tarakasur. She is regularily known as "The Goddess of Fire". |
|||
There are many epithets for Durga in [[Shaktism]] and her nine appellations are ([[Navadurga]]): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} |
|||
Katyayani |
|||
Katyayani is the sixth form of Goddess Durga. According to a legend, Sage Katyayan and his son Katya prayed to Goddess Durga for a boon, when she appeared, Katyayan asked to reincarnate as his daughter in the form of a Goddess. Meanwhile, Sage Katyayan named her daughter as Katyayani to protect the world from terror and evil. When she grew, Brahma gives Mahishasur a boon that he will be killed by a lady and no one else but a lady (Parvati). To fulfill the boon, she has to kill Demon Mahishasur, to kill him, all Gods offered their powers and weapons by having ten or eighteen hands for her. Another tale says that Lakshmi and Saraswati goes into Parvati's body to kill Mahishasur. Lakshmi's "Maha Lakshmi" form has eighteen hands bearing weapons in Devi Mahatmyam (Durga Saptashati) she rides a lion and gets ready to kill Mahishasur's commanders. This form is considered to be Adi Shakti's incarnation as Mahishasur Mardini (Killer of Mahishasur). Mahishasur Mardini is another name for Goddess Durga/Katyayani. "Jai Jag Janani Maa Durga" serial says that Goddess Durga takes the getup as an unmarried woman then reveals herself to the demons and kills them along with Mahishasur and Kaalkeyi's demons had kidnapped Katyayan and Narayani's child by throwing it up in the air into the ceiling and the baby transformed into an uncountable number of bright suns. The voice cursed Kaalkeyi that he will be killed by a Goddess in the form of a Goddess. Kaalkeyi was terrified and ran here, there and everywhere in the hell. Katyayani has four hands, the raised right hand holds a sword, the upper left holds a trident, the left lower holds a lotus and the lower right hand is in the gesture of fear-dispellings, she rides the lion as her vehicle. In Shaktism, she is associated traditionally with the colour red and also associated with the fierce forms of Bhadrakali and Chandika. |
|||
Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",<ref name="mmw487" /> "the undefeatable goddess".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}} |
|||
Kaal Ratri |
|||
Kaal Ratri is the seventh form of Goddess Durga. She is the most agressive form of Adi Shakti, also known as destructive form of Shakti/Durga. Kaal Ratri is a War Goddess like Chandraghanta and Durga, she is often known as Kali, means black. When Parvati incarnated as Jagadamba to kill Raktabeej, she saw the great demon Raktabeej who was arrogant about his power, she got angry and incarnated as Kaal Ratri to kill Raktabeej and his clones, she killed him by drinking his blood and beheading without letting a clone of Raktabeej remaining and his blood without letting it fall on the ground and letting another clone of Raktabeej being created. Often, it is said that Kaushiki kills Raktabeej with her sword and Kali drinks up his blood. Parvati again manifested as Kaal Ratri to kill Demon Hund and to protect Ashok Sundari. She is also identified with Bhairavi in Durga Saptashati. In other texts, Kaal Ratri is always ready for wars, battles and fights against all the demons, monsters, beasts, ghosts, evil spirits, demonesses, negative energies, elusive powers, mystical forces, and all demon entities. They also flee the battlefield like cowards when they see the violent, ghastly, intense, fierce, fearsome, ferocious, horrifying, terrible, frightful, horrble, terrifying, frightning, fiercest and most dangerous shadow on knowing upon her arrival. Usually, Parvati took this incarnation to kill Chand and Mund and is called Chamunda (Chamundi). Kaal Ratri has four hands, the raised right hand is holding a trident, the upper left hand holds a sword, the right lower hand is holding a scimitar and the left lower hand holds a weapon made out of thorns and has a third eye on her forehead. Parvati sent Kaal Ratri in the form as a damsel messenger wearing a black saree with jewelry to give Durgasur a last chance to surrender. |
|||
Durga is also known as ''Durgati Nashini,'' meaning one who eliminates suffering.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 August 2019|title=Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms|access-date=11 November 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=11 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111035951/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/hindu-mythology/chant-these-powerful-durga-mantras-to-turn-your-life-around-for-good/articleshow/70599147.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
Maha Gauri |
|||
Maha Gauri is the eighth form of Goddess Durga. Her name goes like this: Maha - Great and Gauri - White. In one text, due to Lord Shiva's miracle, Parvati turned black like Goddess Kali. Lord Shiva knows that this was a dirty trick he played on. Parvati got very upset and started to cry. Meanwhile, Adi Shakti appears and tries to cheer Parvati up. She tells her to go to Himalaya and do severe penance for Lord Brahma. So Parvati did what Adi Shakti said. She chanted his name for a long time and never stopped. Finally, Lord Brahma appears there and he gives Parvati her fair complexion back and the dark complexion took shape of a Goddess named Kaushiki, therefore she (Parvati) was justified with the name "Maha Gauri". Maha Gauri has four hands holding trident, a small rattle drum and a lotus, her right lower hand is in the gesture of fear-dispellings. |
|||
Her other names include Chandika, Sharada, Ambika, Vaishnavi etc. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/10/2/11-12/ |title=ŚB 10.2.11-12 |website=Bhaktivedanta Vedabase}}</ref> |
|||
Siddhidatri |
|||
Siddhidatri is the ninth and last form of Goddess Durga. Her name means "Giver of all supernatural powers". According to one myth. Siddhidatri gave Brahma, Vishnu and Lord Shiva an identity each, creator, caretaker and destroyer. She tells Lord Shiva to meditate on her to be blessed with all eight supernatural powers: Anima (Ability to change the physical size to the smallest), Mahima (Changing the size to the largest), Garima (Becoming infinitely heavy), Laghima (Becoming weightless), Prapti (Having access to all places), Prakambya (Generating any desire), Ishitva (Having sovereign lordship) and Vashitva (Controller of all things). Meanwhile when Lord Shiva was meditating on Siddhidatri for all the eight supernatural powers, Siddhidatri appears and gives him the form of a half man-woman and Lord Shiva will be known as "Ardhnarishwar" (The Lord who is half-Shiva and half-Shakti). Lord Shiva was very happy. Siddhidatri has four hands holding discus, conch shell, trident and mace, sitting on a fully-bloomed pink lotus as her vehicle. |
|||
== History and texts == |
|||
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2013}} |
|||
Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the [[Indus Valley civilization|Indus Valley civilisation]]. According to [[Asko Parpola]], a cylindrical seal from [[Kalibangan]] shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |title=The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess |year=1988 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-34048-7 |page=386 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055226/https://books.google.com/books?id=wgbKqxx1j1EC&pg=PA386 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Valmik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |title=Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21470-5 |page=15 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723055227/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Dvx6EoLwa4C&pg=PA15 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
{{copyedit section|date=September 2013}} |
|||
[[File:Durga Puja celebration.jpg|thumb|Durga Puja celebration during [[Navratri]]]] |
|||
[[File:Durga Slays Mahisasura.jpg|thumb|x216px|right|text|Durga Slays Mahishasura, [[Mahabalipuram]] sculpture.]] |
|||
[[File:Durga Loro Jonggrang copy.jpg|thumb|Durga Mahishasuramardini, 9th-century [[Prambanan]], [[Java]].]] |
|||
==Origin of Durga== |
|||
After the death of Tarakasur by Shiva's son Kartikeya, the demon brothers Rambh and Karambh came on the throne of the netherlands. Their Mother Danu instructed them to do penance and obtain desired boons. Hence, Rambh and Karambh did penance to please Agni and Varun (Fire/Water) respectively. Rambh started doing penance in Agni chakra whereas Karambh was being half immersed in river water while doing penance. Lord Indra took disguise of a crocodile and killed Karambh while Rambh successfully comepletely his penance and got a boon from Agni that he will obtain a extremely powerful son, who will rule over the three worlds in this universe. Rambh fell in love with Mahishi (buffalo woman) and got married to her. Mahishi soon got pregnant by Rambh. once her lover, a Mahish, tried to abduct her. Rambh came in forefront to protect his wife. It happened so that Rambh got killed by the Mahish. In the cremation process of Rambh, Mahishi jumped into the fire, to sacrifice her life to express her love for her husband. Hence, Yama was stopped from taking away the soul of Rambh. Hence, Rambh got retained into the womb of Mahishi. Hence, from cremation fire, emerged two demons namely Raktabeej (rebirth of Rambh) and Mahishasur (the child of Rambh). Mahishasur also did penance and obtained a boon from Lord Brahma, that he won't be killed by any man. Mahishasur thought that he has obtained immortality indirectly by this boon as according to him, a lady would never be able to kill a powerful demon like him. At the same time, while Mahishasur was doing penance, Parvati too started with a penance to get rid of her dark complexion, which was developed over her fair skin, due the penance she had done to obtain Lord Shiva as her husband. While she was engrossed in her penance, Shiva came upto her and washed off her face with the water of Ganga (Ganges), due to which, Parvati's dark complexion shedded from her and got accumulalted over the plants present there. In this way, Parvati justified her name Maha Gauri. The very place where she had shedded her dark complexion was the place, where Rishi Katyayan's wife used to do gardening and used the same plantations for cooking purpose. In course of time, Narayani got pregnant. At the same time, Mahishasur reached the peak of evilness by mercilessly killing human beings, who doing worship of gods. All the Gods including Indra, Varun, etc and also Shiva and Brahma gathered at the Vishnu's realm to seek help from the protector of the world as to what could be done. Lord Vishnu (protector) instructed all the gods to combine their powers. The combination of the powers of all Gods including Trinity, Indra, etc fell upon Mars. The planet Mars directed that combination of that powers to Katyayan's child who was about to take birth, as it's ruling planet was Mars. Narayani gave birth to a girl who was named as Katyayani being the daughter of sage Katyayan. She was the incarnation of Mahalakshmi as she had the powers of all Gods and those powers were nothing but brightness and the beej mantra was 'Hreem'. She was so powerful and independent that as she grew up, she started living in the forest Madamba Kadamba. The only thing that was missing was beauty as she was born from the dark cell of Parvati. But as she grew up, all the Gods started praying to her (Mahalakshmi) and gathered near her. The Sea God presented her various ornaments, jewelleries, beautiful look, a beautiful crown to wear. All the Gods presented her with the clone of therr weapons like Lord Vishnu gave a clone of his discus, Lord Shiva gave trident, etc. In this way, she had to develop eighteen hands to hold all the weapons presented by various male Gods. Hence, she came to be known as eighteen-handed Mahalakshmi. Himavan, father of Parvati, present a Lion to Goddess Katyayani to ride upon. Soon the battle between Goddess Katyayani and demons army started. She created the same number of female warriors to fight the male demons army. Finally, her army won over the demon army and Katyayani herself killed many demons like Shichsur, Asiloma, Vidhan, Vashkaal, Ugrasen, Ramchandi etc. Finally, Mahishasur came in forefront to battle the Goddess. Mahishasur failed to battle with Goddess without using his supernatural powers, which he had to use. Finally he kept changing form from lion to elephant to buffalo. At last, Goddess removed ornaments, removed all pure attributes and transformed into Chandi (with ten arms, not eighteen) and killed Mahishasur. She promised all the Gods mainly Indra that she will reappear at the time, when they needed her again. Afterwhich, she fused back into Parvati's body. |
|||
Reverence for [[Devi]], the feminine nature of God, first appears in the [[Mandala 10|10th Maṇḍala]] of ''[[Rig Veda]]'', one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=90}}{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=26}} |
|||
==Killer of Shumbh-Nishumbh== |
|||
<blockquote style="background-color:none;margin-right:5em;margin-left:0em;border-left:solid 6px #FFE0BB;padding:1.0em"> |
|||
After the death of Mahishasur, Shumbh and Nishumbh did penance to Lord Brahma, Brahma blessed them the boon of being killed by a woman, Shumbh and Nishumbh were crowned Kings and have attained supernatural powers and have also created an army. Lord Indra knew about Shumbh and Nishumbh's powers and has also sent in a large army against Shumbh and Nishumbh's army. The battle commenced between the demon brothers and Lord Indra who was fighting all alone with the demon brothers. Meanwhile, the demon army has destroyed all of the armies of Lord Indra. The Gods then gave the heavens to the demons, especially Shumbh and Nishumbh. The Gods then went to the Kailash Mountains and prayed to Parvati to destroy Shumbh and Nishumbh, Parvati became furious and she created an all-powerful Goddess by the name of Ambika, she has eight hands holding weapons and promises the Gods that she will destroy Shumbh and Nishumbh. Shumbh and Nishumbh were also associated by other demons like Dhumralochan, Chand-Mund, Raktabeej and Demon Messenger Sugriv. Goddess Parvati promises Ambika that later she will have to kill an endless army, other Goddesses will be assisting her. Ambika went to the forest and made trouble for the demons up in the heavens, Shumbh sent Demon-Messenger Sugriv to go see who's making trouble for Shumbh and Nishumbh. Sugriv came to the forest and saw Ambika, he was mesmerized by her beauty and asked her politely, in a kind, respectful and sweet voice to come to Shumbh and Nishumbh at the heavens. Ambika told him that she will marry the one who defeats her in a war. Sugriv understands, he tries to make her understand and convinces her but he fails. Sugriv conveys this to Shumbh and Nishumbh back at heaven, they were very angry and sent Dhumralochan and his army to get Ambika at heaven with force. Later, the demon soldiers of Dhumralochan were singing his praises. Ambika heard this, she took her warrior form having the same wearing a red saree and has eight hands holding weapons. She came to the battlefield and spotted Dhumralochan and his army. Dhumralochan's army attacked Ambika with their weapons. Ambika attacked them back with their own. Until it was finally time when Ambika was very angry and from the flames of her anger of her mouth and her third eye incinerated Dhumralochan and his army. The Gods congratulated Ambika on killing Dhumralochan and his army. Shumbh and Nishumbh came to know about Dhumralochan's death and, they were angry at this and sent Chand and Mund to kill Ambika. Chand is the brother of Mund, who has his head always banging from right to left and left to right. Meanwhile, the saints and Gods did prayers to Ambika to kill the demons and to give back Indra's heaven. The demons of Shumbh and Nishumbh reached earth and tried to kill the Gods and saints. Ambika appeared in her warrior form and killed the sent demons of Shumbh and Nishumbh. Chand and Mund came to Ambika with their soldiers. On seeing the uncountable number of soldiers, Ambika called upon Parvati to assist her on the battlefield and she appeared on the battlefield in the form of Jagadamba, their third eyes started to emit fire and took the shape of a new Goddess. The newborn Goddess had terrible appearance, which is: She is portrayed wearing a girdle of severed human hands, a garland of human skull heads representing the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet or a garland or flowers, for her clothing, she wears tiger skin like Lord Shiva. She has three eyes that symbolizes past, present and future and sometimes, when she gets too furious, her eyes looked bright red. She has two dead heads for her earrings. She is often shown having four hands holding scimitar, demon head, trident and container, and often trident, sword or iron weapon and thorn like weapon made out of thorns, often she is portrayed having four hands holding scimitar or sword in the left hands and a severed demon head in upper and lower left hands while the remaining two on the right are the hand gestures of boon-conferrings and fear-dispellings. And now she has sharp claws like a lioness. She started to attack the demons by blowing a storm out of her mouth, turning them into ashes (burning them alive), beheading their heads, decapitating them by eating their skin alive, eating them alive, scratching them, choking them, stabbing their chests, drinking their blood, breaking their bones, breaking their necks, twisting their hands and legs and swinging them away. When Chand and Mund's army was gone, she beheaded them and presented them to Ambika and Jagadamba. They both gave the Goddess's name as Kali Chamunda now because she killed Chand and Mund. Shumbh and Nishumbh has gotten new news about the killing of Chand and Mund and their army. They were very angry and sent a new demon called Raktabeej, he has accumulated from the Gods. Meanwhile, Goddess Durga appeared to Jagadamba, Kali and Ambika. She learnt about Raktabeej and there is a big war of bloodshed, to provide the Goddesses extra power, she created nine Goddesses by the names of Brahmani, Maheshwari, Kumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Narasinghi, Indrani, Shivadooti (Ambika) and Chamunda. All holding weapons or not holding weapons, riding a swan, bull, peacock, eagle, ram, lion, jackal, lion, tiger, owl or corpse. Durga created one more Goddess, by the name of Chandika. When Raktabeej came with his army, he was terrified seeing the 14 Goddesses, so was his army. Kumari cut off Raktabeej's head, but whatever the drop of Raktabeej's blood falls to the ground, another new Raktabeej arose, the 12 other Goddesses, even Durga and Ambika tried but no use. Jagadamba assigned Kali to drink the blood of Raktabeej prohibiting it from falling on the ground. Jagadamba pierced her trident in his chest and Kali widened her tongue to an incredible size and ate the demons and Raktabeej up. All other Goddesses praised her. Jagadamba retransformed herself into Parvati. She told the Matrikas to go inside Ambika's body then inside Chandika into Durga's body and then Durga's into Parvati's after the death of Shumbh and Nishumbh. Back at heaven, Shumbh was having a nightmare in which Dhumralochan, Chand-Mund and Raktabeej kidnapped a beauty. The beauty became Parvati and choked Shumbh's neck so hard. Nishumbh was in control of the throne and got the news of Raktabeej's death. Later, after Shumbh's naptime, Ambika and Kali were on their own. Shumbh and Nishumbh came with a final large army. Kali killed the army and Ambika killed Shumbh and Nishumbh. The Gods were very happy and expressed their gratitude. |
|||
<poem> |
|||
I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship. |
|||
Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in. |
|||
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken. |
|||
They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it. |
|||
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome. |
|||
I make the man I love exceedingly mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman. |
|||
I bend the bow for Rudra, that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion. |
|||
I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller. |
|||
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother. |
|||
Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body. |
|||
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them. |
|||
The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything. |
|||
</poem> |
|||
– Devi Sukta, ''[[Rigveda]] 10.125.3 – 10.125.8'',{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=90}}{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200839/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 |date=11 October 2016 }} Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011200515/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB |date=11 October 2016 }}</ref> |
|||
</blockquote> |
|||
[[File:Durga slaying buffalo composite, 2nd-century to 13th-century Devi Mahatmya.png|thumb|right|Artwork depicting the "Goddess Durga Slaying the Buffalo demon Mahishasura" scene of ''Devi Mahatmya'', is found all over India, Nepal and southeast Asia. Clockwise from top: 9th-century [[Kashmir]], 13th-century [[Karnataka]], 9th century [[Prambanan]] Indonesia, 2nd-century [[Uttar Pradesh]].]] |
|||
==Finisher of Demon Durgasur== |
|||
Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in [[Upanishad]]ic literature, such as ''Kali'' in verse 1.2.4 of the ''[[Mundaka Upanishad]]'' dated to about the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} This single mention describes ''Kali'' as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal [[Brahman]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n389/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Robert Hume, ''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pp. 368–377 with verse 1.2.4</ref> |
|||
The demon Durgasur had acquired all four books of total knowledge (The Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Atharva, Sam) from Lord Brahma through penance and the three worlds. He also received a boon from Lord Brahma that caused all the worships, rituals, prayers, venerations, offerings and oblations that were offered to the Gods to reach him instead, making him invincible. Durgasur became very arrogant and started tormenting the whole world. As a consequence, it did not rain for one hundred years and the whole world was hit by a very severe drought. Durgasur took away all the foods and the world became barren. The took refuge in the caves of the Himavan, and meditated upon the Supreme Goddess, Parvati. She appeared in front of them bearing such a wonderful and unbelievable form. She had countless eyes that gave her the name Satakshi, and was carrying grains, cereals, vegetables, greens, fruits, herbs etc and because of this, she was being called by a second name Shakambhari. The Goddess was so moved by their plight that tears rolled down from her eyes for nine continuous days and nights. The tears became a river, which ended the drought, she presented grains, cereals, vegetables, greens, fruits and herbs that grew in seconds. The Gods, saints, sages, celestial beings, Yakshs, Yakshinis, men, women and children then requested her to recover the Vedas, which were in possession of Durgasur. Durgasur discovered through his messengers that people were living happily and immediately sent in a very large army. The Goddess protected the Gods, saints, sages, celestial beings, Yakshs, Yakshinis, men, women and children by putting up a huge wall of fire around them, and then let her discus hover around it. There ensued a tremendous battle between the Goddess and Durgasur. Goddess Satakshi/Shakambhari took the form of Goddess Durga, the nine Matrikas appeared from her, namely Brahmani, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Narasinghi, Indrani, Shivadooti and Chamunda, for extra help, the Nava Durgas also appeared from her namely Shailputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skand Mata, Katyayani, Kaal Ratri, Maha Gauri and Siddhidatri, Goddess Lakshmi knew about this and created eight Goddesses of her own namely Adi Lakshmi, Dhan Lakshmi, Dhanya Lakshmi, Gaj Lakshmi, Santan Lakshmi, Veer Lakshmi, Vidya Lakshmi and Vijay Lakshmi. Again, the ten wisdoms appeared from Durga again namely Kali (Mahavidya), Tara (Devi), Shodashi (Lalita-Tripur Sundari), Bhuvaneshwari, Bhairavi, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagla Mukhi, Matangi and Kamala. There were four groups of each form groups like the Mahavidyas co-operating with the Nava Durga, so that's two, the Matrikas co-operating with the Ashta Lakshmis so that's another two, the 36 Goddesses in mixed-up two co-operating groups fought the huge army of Durgasur, Goddess Saraswati came to know about this and appeared in her warrior form as Maha Saraswati to help which makes a total of 37 war Goddesses. The Gods, saints, sages, celestial beings, Yakshs, Yakshinis, men, women and children watched ashtonished during the furious war between the army of Durgasur and the spiritual groups of Goddess armies, Matrikas, Nava Durgas, Ashta Lakshmi and Mahavidyas together destroyed the huge armies of Durgasur. The Matrikas, Mahavidyas and Nava Durgas went back into Durga's body and the Ashta Lakshmi went back into Lakshmi and she vanished away with Saraswati. Goddess Durga fought with Durgasur and killed him with her trident and recovered the Vedas from his possession. At that very moment all the chants and japas that the Gods, saints, sages, celestial beings, Yakshs, Yakshinis, men, women and children had performed earlier but had been absorbed by the demon. Durgasur transformed into the bright light of a 10,000 suns and entered the Devi. She then handed over the Vedas to the deities. Ishwari is also known as Durga because she killed the demon Durgasur. The story of Satakshi/Shakambhari is told in Chapter 28 of the Devi Bhagawati Puran, titled, "On the glory of Satakshi/Shakambhari Devi". Also, in the Devi Mahatmyam, her story is told in Chapter 11 and in the secret of the manifestations an addendum to the Devi Mahatmyam. Durgasur has different names like Durg, Durgam, Durgama, Durgasur, Durgasura, Durgamasur and Durgamasura. A demon killed by Goddess Durga. |
|||
Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Both [[Yudhisthira]] and [[Arjuna]] characters of the ''Mahabharata'' invoke hymns to ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} She appears in ''Harivamsa'' in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Various [[Purana]]s from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with ''Durga''.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} Of these, the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and the ''[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' are the most significant texts on ''Durga''.{{sfn|Ludo Rocher|1986|pp=168–172, 191–193}}{{Sfn|C Mackenzie Brown|1990|pp=44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60}} The [[Devi Upanishad]] and other [[Shakta Upanishads]], mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to ''Durga'' as ''Devi'' and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (self, soul).{{Sfn|Douglas Renfrew Brooks|1992|pp=76–80}}{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}} |
|||
==Relationship with Kali== |
|||
Goddess Kali is a darker form of Adi Shakti, Parvati or Durga, they work together in battles killing demons like Shumbh and Nishumbh and many demons, for Raktabeej, they had to work together in preventing his blood from falling from the ground and creating a new Raktabeej, Kali ate the demon and Durga killed him. |
|||
In the ''[[Narada Purana]]'', Durga is associated as a form of [[Lakshmi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Lakshmi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|author1=Chitralekha Singh|author2=Prem Nath|publisher=Crest Publishing House|year=2001|page=20|isbn=9788124201732|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064538/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpkRAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In the ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', Lakshmi is considered Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|author=Tracy Pintchman|publisher=SUNY Press|page=82|date=21 June 2001|isbn=9780791450079|access-date=16 November 2021|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064628/https://books.google.com/books?id=-c_j8Xggl0gC|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Pancharatra]] texts such as the ''[[Lakshmi Tantra]]'', Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura.<ref>{{cite book|title=Laksmi Tantra|url=https://archive.org/details/LakshmiTantraAPancharatraTextSanjuktaGupta|first=Sanjukta|last=Gupta|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year=2000|isbn=978-8120817357}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophy of Pancaratras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|page=94|author=S. Rangachar|publisher=Sridevi Prakashana|year=1991|access-date=10 January 2022|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=1o3XAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|page=195|author=Upendra Nath Dhal|publisher=Oriental Publishers & Distributors|year=1978|quote=Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-date=30 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930074922/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSQKAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> These texts identify Durga as Vishnu's [[Maya (religion)|māyā]]".{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=104}} |
|||
==Worship== |
|||
{{Main|Durga Puja}} |
|||
{{Listen |
|||
| filename = Durga Puja Dhak.ogg |
|||
| title = Durga Worship Mantra |
|||
| description = A 51 seconds sample of Durga Puja Mantra recited in [[Sanskrit]]. |
|||
| format = [[Ogg]] |
|||
| pos = right |
|||
}} |
|||
[[File:MAADURGA.JPG|thumb|Maa Durga]] |
|||
[[File:Bagbazar Sarbojanin Arnab Dutta 2010.JPG|right|thumb|A traditional Durga idol at a pandal in [[Kolkata]].]] |
|||
The four-day-long (Saptami to Dashami) [[Durga Puja]] is the biggest annual festival in [[Bengal]], [[Assam]], [[Odisha]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Nepal]], where it is known as Dashain. It is celebrated likewise with much fervour in various parts of India, especially the [[Himalaya]]n region, but is celebrated in various forms throughout the Hindu universe. |
|||
The ''[[Mahishasura Mardini Stotra]]'' by [[Adi Shankara]] was written in her praise.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marlow |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFvTDwAAQBAJ&dq=mahishasura+mardini+stotra+adi+shankara&pg=PA168 |title=Navaratri: Prayers, Praises and Hymns |date=2019-10-29 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-0-244-22986-3 |pages=168 |language=en}}</ref> |
|||
The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as [[Vijayadashami]] ([[Bihar]], Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or [[Navratri|Dussehra]] (Hindi) - these words literally mean "the Victory Tenth" (day).<ref>{{cite book |title= Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective |last= Esposito |first= John L. |coauthors= Darrell J. Fasching, Todd Vernon Lewis |year= 2007 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= |isbn= 0-19-517695-2 |page= 341 |accessdate=}}</ref> |
|||
===Origins=== |
|||
In Kashmir she is worshipped as ''shaarika'' (the main temple is in Hari Parbat in [[Srinagar]]). |
|||
The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "[[syncretism]] of a mountain-goddess worshipped by the dwellers of the [[Himalaya]] and the [[Vindhya]]s", a deity of the [[Abhiras]] conceptualised as a war-goddess. In the [[Virata Parva|Virata Parvan stuti]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] texts, the Goddess is called the Māhāmāyā, or the Yoganidrā of [[Vishnu]]. These further points her Abhira or [[Gopa (caste)|Gopa]] origins.<ref>{{cite book |first=Indira S. |last=Aiyar |title=Durga As Mahisasuramardini |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4bXAAAAMAAJ&q=parvan+stuti |publisher=Gyan Publishing House, 1997 |isbn=9788121205108 |page=217 |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134415/https://books.google.com/books?id=L4bXAAAAMAAJ&q=parvan+stuti |url-status=live }}</ref> Durga then transformed into [[Kali]] as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy ([[Adya Sakti]]) integrated into the [[samsara]] (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=214}} There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism. |
|||
Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the [[Maukhari]] era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=200–201|access-date=16 April 2017|archive-date=17 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417162346/https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
The actual period of the worship however may be on the preceding nine days ([[Navaratri]]) followed by the last day called ''Vijayadashami'' in North India or five days in Bengal (from the sixth to tenth day of the waxing-moon fortnight). Nine aspects of Durga known as [[Navadurga]] are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout [[Shakti]] worshippers. In South India especially Andhra Pradesh Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different devi like Saraswati, Parvati, Laksmi etc. for the nine days. |
|||
''Durga'' as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'' was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=77 note 28}}{{Sfn|Thomas B. Coburn|1991|pp=13}}{{Sfn|Thomas B. Coburn|2002|pp=1–7}} The ''Devi Mahatmya'' and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=288}}{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–219}}{{refn|group=note|In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=20–21, 217–219}}}} |
|||
In North India, the tenth day, is celebrated as ''[[Vijayadashami|Dussehra]]'', the day [[Rama]] emerged victorious in his battle against the demon, [[Ravana]] - gigantic straw effigies of Ravana are burnt in designated open spaces (e.g. [[Delhi]]'s Ram Lila grounds), watched by thousands of families and little children. |
|||
==Legends== |
|||
In [[Mysore]] (which originated from Mahishasooru) in [[Karnataka]], she is worshiped as [[Chamundeshwari]], the patron goddess of the city during Dussehra (Dasara). |
|||
[[File:Unknown (Indian) - Durga in Combat with the Bull, Mahishasura - 69.428 - Detroit Institute of Arts.jpg|thumb|'Durga in Combat with the Bull, Mahishasura', 19th century painting]] |
|||
The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of [[Mahishasura]]. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please [[Brahma]], the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured [[Svarga]] and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] were worried and they went to [[Trimurti]]. The Trimurti combined their power, and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy, [[Adi Shakti]], a warrior woman with many arms. [[Himavat|Himavan]], the personification of the Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga, on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roa|first=Subba|title=Tales of Durga|date=April 1971|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited|isbn=81-89999-35-4|pages=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kumar|first=Anu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=snUcQGk1dZUC&q=Mahishasura&pg=PT6|title=Mahishasura: The Buffalo Demon|date=30 November 2012|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=978-93-5009-538-6|language=en|access-date=1 October 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064146/https://books.google.com/books?id=snUcQGk1dZUC&q=Mahishasura&pg=PT6|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
According to [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of [[Vindhyavasini|Yogamaya]], the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the [[Balarama|seventh child]] of [[Devaki]] into the womb of [[Rohini (wife of Vasudeva)|Rohini]], as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of [[Yashoda]] and [[Nanda (Hinduism)|Nanda]], so that she could be swapped with [[Krishna]]. When [[Kamsa]] attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&dq=durga+yogamaya&pg=PA133 |title=When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00960-9 |pages=133 |language=en |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=13 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220913055607/https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA133&dq=durga+yogamaya&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verma |first=Archana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&pg=PA48 |title=Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India |date=18 January 2011 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-2832-1 |pages=48 |language=en |access-date=1 October 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134345/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAArBwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA48&dq=durga+vishnu%27s+sister&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
In [[Gujarat]] it is celebrated as the last day of Navaratri, during which the [[Garba (dance)|Garba dance]] is performed to celebrate the victory of Mahishasura-mardini, Durga. |
|||
== Attributes and iconography == |
|||
The Goddess Durga is worshipped in her peaceful form as Maha Gauri, The Fair Lady, Shree [[Shantadurga]] also known as [[Santeri]], is the patron Goddess of Goa. She is worshipped by all Goan Hindus. |
|||
{{multiple image |
|||
| align = left |
|||
| image1 = 6th century Ravanaphadi cave temple Shaktism, Durga spearing Mahisha buffalo demon, Aihole Hindu monuments Karnataka.jpg |
|||
| width1 = 100 |
|||
| alt1 = |
|||
| caption1 = |
|||
| image2 = Varaha Cave Bas relief.jpg |
|||
| width2 = 181 |
|||
| alt2 = |
|||
| caption2 = |
|||
| footer = Left: Durga as buffalo-demon slayer from a 6th century Aihole Hindu temple, Karnataka; Right: in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu. |
|||
}} |
|||
Durga is a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,{{sfn|Robert S Ellwood|Gregory D Alles|2007|p=126}} has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Chitrita Banerji|2006|pp=3–5}} She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon, at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–7}}<ref name="linda83">{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=83–84|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110208/https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|url-status=live}}</ref> In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.<ref name="linda83" />{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2012|pp=4–9, 14–17}}{{sfn|Malcolm McLean|1998|pp=60–65}} |
|||
In [[Maharashtra]], [[Tulja Bhavani]] and [[Ambabai]] are worshipped as Mahishasur Mardini, who is the patron goddess of the land. Bhavani is known as Tulaja, Amba, Renuka, Yamai Saptshrungi and Jogai in different places of Maharashtra. She is the inspirational goddess of Raja [[Shivaji]]. As per legends, Bhavani appeared after Shivaji prayed to her and blessed him to be able to make Hindustan or the then India (ruled by the Mughals) independent - the kingdom he established eventually became the Hindu Pad Padshahi (sometimes also called the [[Maratha Empire]]), which comprised all the land ruled by the Mughals and brought India back under Hindu sovereignty. |
|||
[[File:Durga 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Durga killing Mahishasura in a Durga Puja celebration in Bengal]] |
|||
Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is ''shakti'' (energy, power).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=157–158|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> These include the ''[[Sudarshana Chakra|chakra]]'', conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, [[trishula]], shield, and a noose.{{sfn|Charles Russell Coulter|Patricia Turner|2013|p=158}} These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=89–90|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110208/https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83|url-status=live}}</ref> She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.<ref name="hiltebeitel16">{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=15–16|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217110244/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|url-status=live}}</ref> Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.<ref name="hiltebeitel16" /> |
|||
Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=95–105}} In the north wall of a granite cave in [[Mamallapuram]], Tamil Nadu there is a large [[relief]] of Durga slaying Mahisasura, carved around 630–674 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herman |first1=Phyllis K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97EYBwAAQBAJ&dq=devi+mahatmyam&pg=PA149 |title=The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess: Goddess Traditions of Asia |last2=Shimkhada |first2=Deepak |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2009 |pages=149|isbn=9781443807029 }}</ref> |
|||
In [[Bangladesh]] also, the four-day long [[Durga Puja|Sharadiya Durga Puja]] (Bengali: শারদীয়া দুর্গা পুজো, ‘autumnal Durga worship’) is the biggest religious festivals for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with ''Vijayadashami'' being a national holiday. |
|||
Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of ''Mahavidyas'' or ''[[Matrikas|Saptamatrkas]]'' (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in [[Varanasi]] include relief artworks that show scenes from the ''Devi Mahatmya''.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=30–35, 60, 16–22, 149}} |
|||
==Western references== |
|||
Some early Western accounts refer to a deity known as Deumus, Demus or Deumo. Western (Portuguese) sailors first came face to face with the [[murti]] of Deumus at [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] on the [[Malabar Coast]] and they concluded it to be the deity of Calicut. Deumus is sometimes interpreted as an aspect of Durga in Hindu mythology and sometimes as [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]. |
|||
In [[Vaishnavism]], Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess [[Lakshmi]], the other two being ''Sri'' and ''Bhu,'' in place of [[Niladevi]].{{Sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=252}} According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord [[Vishnu]] created the [[gunas]] of [[prakriti]], there arose [[Lakshmi]] in her three forms, ''Sri'', ''Bhu'' and ''Durga''. ''Sri'' consisted of [[sattva]], ''Bhu'' as [[rajas]] and ''Durga'' as [[Tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]".{{Sfn|Pintchman|2014|p=82}} |
|||
It is described that the ruler of Calicut ([[Zamorin]]) had a [[murti]] of Deumus in his temple inside his royal palace.<ref>Jörg Breu d. Ä. zugeschrieben, Idol von Calicut, in: Ludovico de Varthema, 'Die Ritterlich und lobwürdig Reisz', Strassburg 1516. (Bild: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich</ref><ref>''A briefe collection and compendious extract of straunge and memorable thinges, gathered out of the ''Cosmographye'' of Sebastian Munster, wherein is made a plaine description of diuers and straunge lawes, rites, maners and properties of sondrye nations, and a short report of straunge histories of diuers men, and of the nature and properties of certaine fovvles, fishes, beastes, monsters, and sondry countryes and places'', published in London in 1574 by Tomas Marshe</ref> The temple was two paces wide in each of the four sides and three paces high, with a wooden door covered with gods carved in relief. At the centre of the temple, there was a metal idol of Deumus placed in a seat, which was also made of metal. |
|||
Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–74}} While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs ([[yantra]]) to remember and revere what she symbolises.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–78}} |
|||
==Worship and festivals== |
|||
Durga is worshipped in [[Hindu temple]]s across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus. |
|||
The Vedic Texts concluded Durga alone to be the Supreme and the Absolute facet of Brahman,{{CN|date=January 2023}} as stated in the Devi-Atharvashirsha<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2020 |title=Devi Atharvashirsha Stotram in Sanskrit |url=https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-devi-atharvashirsha-in-english/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804070827/https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-devi-atharvashirsha-in-english/ |archive-date=4 August 2022 |access-date=4 August 2022}}</ref><blockquote>यस्याः परतरं नास्ति सैषा दुर्गा प्रकीर्तिता ॥२४॥ |
|||
She who is renowned by the name "Durga" is the being superior to whom, no one exists. |
|||
– [https://stotranidhi.com/en/sri-devi-atharvashirsha-in-english/ Devi Atharvashirhsa Upanishad], 24. </blockquote>Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of [[Indian subcontinent]] during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}<ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book|author=J Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=239–241|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217111816/https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Durga Puja – Hindu festival |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030161639/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
===Durga puja=== |
|||
{{Main|Durga Puja}} |
|||
[[File:A Durga festival collage.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Durga festival images (clockwise from top): Durga Puja pandal with a Durga idol with 1 million hands standing on top a bull's head to symbolize her victory over Mahishasura in [[Kolkata]], Dancing on Vijaya Dashami, women smearing each other with colour, and family get together for Dashain in Nepal.]] |
|||
As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long [[Durga Puja]] is a major annual festival in [[Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Assam]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Bihar]].{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of ''Ashvina'',{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}} and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=18–19}} recitations of ''Devi Mahatmya'' text,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}} prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=162–169}} |
|||
The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as [[Vijayadashami]] (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or [[Dussehra]] (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".<ref>{{cite book |title= Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective |last= Esposito |first= John L. |author2=Darrell J Fasching |author3=Todd Vernon Lewis |year= 2007 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-517695-7 |page= 341 }}</ref> |
|||
Western accounts also describe the ruler of Calicut worshiping an ultimate god called Tamerani ("Tamburan"). The accounts also describes a misunderstood form of the "hook-swinging" ritual once commonly performed as part of some popular Hindu religious festivals. |
|||
This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}} The 11th or 12th century Jainism text ''Yasatilaka'' by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|pp=106–108}} |
|||
==Notable temples of Durga== |
|||
The prominence of Durga puja increased during the [[British Raj]] in Bengal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article on Durga Puja|url=http://online.assam.gov.in/web/durga-puja|access-date=11 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151228091628/http://online.assam.gov.in/web/durga-puja|archive-date=28 December 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the [[Indian independence movement]].{{citation needed|date=February 2017}} The city of [[Kolkata]] is famous for Durga puja.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 August 2022 |title=Durga puja:আগমনীর ডাকে সেজে উঠেছে তিলোত্তমা শহরে এবার 'রক্তমাংসের দুর্গা' ভাইরাল ভিডিয়ো |work=The Bengali Chronicle |url=https://thebengalichronicle.com/makeup-artist-saroshi-bhattacharya-has-create-durga-with-the-help-of-her-art-mst/ |access-date=9 August 2022 |language=bn |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809111316/https://thebengalichronicle.com/makeup-artist-saroshi-bhattacharya-has-create-durga-with-the-help-of-her-art-mst/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
===In India=== |
|||
<!-- "shree balleshvari devi dham" ? --> |
|||
;[[Andhra Pradesh]]: |
|||
* [[Kanaka Durga Temple]], [[Vijayawada]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] |
|||
===Dashain=== |
|||
;[[Assam]]: |
|||
In [[Nepal]], the festival dedicated to Durga is called [[Dashain]] (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".<ref name="Melton2011"/> Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]]. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms ([[Shailaputri]], [[Brahmacharini]], [[Chandraghanta]], [[Kushmanda]], [[Skandamata]], [[Katyayani]], [[Kalaratri]], [[Mahagauri]], [[Mahakali]] and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.<ref name="Melton2011"/> |
|||
* [[Bhairabi Temple|Bhairabi Devalaya]], in [[Tezpur]], [[Assam]] |
|||
* [[Kamakhya Temple]], [[Guwahati]], [[Assam]] |
|||
During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as [[Navadurga]] are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is usually worshipped as a celibate goddess, but the [[Shaktism]] traditions includes the worship of [[Shiva]] along with Durga, who is considered to be his consort, in addition to [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]], who are considered to be Durga's children by Shaktas.<ref name = "celibatemarried" >{{cite book|title=The A to Z of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|page=72|author=Bruce M. Sullivan|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2001|isbn=9780810840706|quote=Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition.|access-date=3 May 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415064539/https://books.google.com/books?id=xU4ZdatgRysC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|David Kinsley|1998|p=95}} Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as [[Mother Nature]]. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga. |
|||
;[[Bihar]]: |
|||
* [[Shitla Mata]] temple at [[Patna]] [[Bihar]] |
|||
* [[Vindhyachal]] temple near [[Varanasi]] |
|||
===Other cultures=== |
|||
;[[Delhi]]: |
|||
In [[Bangladesh]], the four-day-long [[Durga Puja|Sharadiya Durga Puja]] is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with ''Vijayadashami'' being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joanne Punzo Waghorne|title=Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBLFbfUrsDIC&pg=PA222|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803557-2|pages=222–224|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217115304/https://books.google.com/books?id=QBLFbfUrsDIC&pg=PA222|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
* [[Kalka Mandir, Delhi|Kalka Mandir]], near [[Nehru Place]], [[New Delhi]]. |
|||
==Outside Hinduism== |
|||
;[[Goa]]: |
|||
===In Buddhism=== |
|||
* [[Shanta Durga temple]] in [[Goa]] |
|||
[[file:MET DT238.jpg|thumb|Durga statue from the Buddhist [[Pala Empire]], in which Buddhism and Hinduism coexisted peacefully.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha {{!}} Bangladesh or India (Bengal) {{!}} Pala-Sena period |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38583 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]] |
|||
[[file:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Durga als de godin Kwan Yin in een Chinese tempel te Soerabaja TMnr 10026825.jpg|thumb|Image of Durga, interpreted as a form of [[Guanyin]], in a Chinese temple in [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]. It resembles Chola art and likely pre-dates the Chinese community in East Java.]] |
|||
;[[Haryana]]: |
|||
[[File:Sikh mural of Durga from a gurdwara.jpg|thumb|Mural of Durga crushing Mahikasur from the Guru Ram Rai Udasin Akhara located in [[Dehradun]]]] |
|||
* [[Shitla Mata]] temple at [[Gurgaon]] [[Haryana]] |
|||
The Tantric Buddhist [[Vajrayana]] traditions adopted several Hindu deities into its fold, including Durga.<ref name=":0">Calo, Ambra (2020) [https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/32820/1/Pratu_v1_2020_a3_Calo.pdf 'Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī in Likely Tantric Buddhist Context from the Northern Indian Subcontinent to 11th-Century Bali] [Durga Mahiṣāsuramardinī dalam konteks agama Buddha Tantrayana dari Subkontinen India Utara dan Bali pada abad ke-11].' ''Pratu: Journal of Buddhist and Hindu Art, Architecture and Archaeology of Ancient to Premodern Southeast Asia'', 1 (3). pp. 1-20.</ref><ref>Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 23.</ref><ref>Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Hajime Nakamura|title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA315|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0272-8|page=315|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121415/https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA315|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Shoko Watanabe (1955), ''On Durga and Tantric Buddhism'', Chizan Gakuho, number 18, pp. 36–44</ref> Numerous depictions of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī (Durgā slaying the buffalo demon) have been found at Buddhist temple sites (c. 8th–11th century) in [[Afghanistan]], [[Indonesia]] and northeastern India. Durga statues have also been found in major Buddhist sites like [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]].<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
;[[Himachal Pradesh]]: |
|||
* [[Bala Sundari Temple]] Trilokpur in District Sirmaur [[Himachal Pradesh]] |
|||
* Shoolini devi temple at [[Solan]] [[Himachal Pradesh]] |
|||
In [[Bengal]], late Indian Mahayana Buddhists during the 17th century worshiped Durga during traditional [[Yogini]] Puja celebrations, and some traces of these Mahayana Durga rites survive today, even though the Bengalis who perform them are no longer Buddhist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=For centuries, Hooghly family worships Durga the Buddhist way |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/for-centuries-hooghly-family-worships-durga-the-buddhist-way/cid/1890024 |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref> |
|||
;[[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Bahu Fort]] Temple in [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Bala Sundri]] Temple in Billawar [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[ChiChi Mata]] Temple in [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Kol Kandoli]] Temple in [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Mahamaya]] Temple in [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Sukrala Mata Temple]] in [[Jammu]] |
|||
* [[Vaishno Devi]] Temple in Katra [[Jammu]] |
|||
Images of the Buddhist Durga have also been found in [[Bali]] (surrounded with images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas) and date from the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
;[[Karnataka]]: |
|||
* [[Chamundeshwari Temple]], [[Mysore]] [[Karnataka]] |
|||
* [[Kateel|Kateel Durgaparameshwari Temple]], near [[Mangalore]], [[Karnataka]] |
|||
* [[Kollur temple|Kollur Sri mookambika Temple]], near [[Udupi]], [[Karnataka]] |
|||
Durga also appears in the ''Sarvadurgatipariśodhana tantra'', though in this text, she appears not in her demon slaying form, but mounted on a lion.<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
;[[Kerala]]: |
|||
* [[Adichikkavu Sree Durga Devi Kshetram]], [[Pandanad]], [[Kerala]] |
|||
* [[Ammathiruvadi Temple]], [[Thrissur]], [[Kerala]], [[India]] |
|||
* [[Vengoor]] Sree Durga Devi Temple, near Perumbavoor- [[Kerala]]<ref>http://www.durgadevitemplevengoor.com/contact_us.php</ref> |
|||
Several aspects of the popular Vajrayana Buddhist goddess [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tārā]] are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga or to have been influenced by Hindu stories of Durga, including Tara's [[Wrathful deities|fierce forms]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Mallar Ghosh |title=Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1980 |isbn=81-215-0208-X |page=17}}</ref><ref name=":1">Shaw, Miranda (2006). ''Buddhist Goddesses of India'', p. 313. Princeton University Press.</ref> One form of Tara is even called Durgottāriṇī-tārā who specializes in saving devotees from evil and rides a lion mount, the traditional mount of Durga.<ref name=":1" /> Durgottāriṇī appears in the ''Sādhanamālā'' (237.10; 237.21; 238.4).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-12-10 |title=Durgottarini, Durgottāriṇī: 2 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/durgottarini |access-date=2023-12-28 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> |
|||
;[[Maharashtra]]: |
|||
* [[Tulja Bhavani Temple]], in [[Tuljapur]], [[Maharashtra]] |
|||
In [[Buddhism in Nepal|Nepalese Buddhism]], the Buddhist tantric goddess [[Vajrayogini]] is "often worshiped interchangeably with Durga" during Durga festivals.<ref>Amazzone, Laura (2010). ''Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power'', p. 156. University Press of America.</ref> [[Newar Buddhism|Newar Buddhists]] also worship Durgottāriṇī-tārā during some of their [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā]] rituals.<ref>Kim, Jinah (2013). ''Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia'', pp. 158-162. University of California Press.</ref> |
|||
;[[Odisha]]: |
|||
* [[Biraja Temple]], [[Jajpur]], [[Odisha]] |
|||
* [[Durga Temple, Baideshwar]], [[Odisha]] |
|||
* [[Katak Chandi Temple]], [[Cuttack]], [[Odisha]] |
|||
* [[Kichakeshwari Temple]], [[Odisha]] |
|||
* [[Manikeshwari Temple]], [[Bhawanipatna]], [[Odisha]]. |
|||
In [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], the deity [[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cundī]], also known as Butsu-mo (仏母, sometimes called ''Koti-sri''), shares many features with Durga, and some scholars have the two deities as related.<ref>{{cite book|author=Louis-Frédéric|title=Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35NQAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=978-2-08-013558-2|page=174|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121443/https://books.google.com/books?id=35NQAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">Puspa Niyogi (1977). ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/29756386 Cundā - a Popular Buddhist Goddess.] East and West, 27(1-4), 299–308.'' doi:10.2307/29756386</ref> However, as Gimello notes, they are not the same deity, though they are often confused.<ref name=":7">Gimello, Robert (2004). ″Icon and Incantation: The Goddess Zhunti and the Role of Images in the Occult Buddhism of China." In ''Images in Asian Religions: Texts and Contexts'' ed. Phyllis Granoff and Koichi Shinohara: pp. 71-85.</ref> |
|||
;[[Rajasthan]]: |
|||
* [[Ambika Mata Temple]] in the village of [[Jagat]] near [[Mount Abu]] in [[Rajasthan]] |
|||
* [[Shila Devi]] temple at [[Amber]], [[Jaipur]], [[Rajasthan]] |
|||
Likewise, in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the goddess [[Palden Lhamo]] also has similar features to the protective and fierce Durga.<ref name="shaw240">{{cite book|author=Miranda Eberle Shaw|title=Buddhist Goddesses of India|url=https://archive.org/details/buddhistgoddesse00shaw |url-access=registration|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12758-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhistgoddesse00shaw/page/240 240]–241}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Faure|title=The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HidpRwrmx4AC|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1400825615|page=127|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=7 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207063604/https://books.google.com/books?id=HidpRwrmx4AC|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
;[[Tamil Nadu]]: |
|||
* [[Matrimandir]], [[Auroville]], [[Tamil Nadu]] |
|||
===In Jainism=== |
|||
;[[Tripura]]: |
|||
The ''Sacciya mata'' found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lawrence A. Babb|title=Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MRAQAAIAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1538-4|pages=146–147, 157|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121444/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MRAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Ellora Caves]], the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUszAQAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20630-4|pages=111–112|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217123151/https://books.google.com/books?id=MUszAQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
* [[Udaipur, Tripura|Udaipur]], [[Tripura]] |
|||
===In Sikhism=== |
|||
;[[West Bengal]]: |
|||
{{see also|Chandi di Var}} |
|||
* [[Kanak Durga Temple]], [[Chikligarh]], [[Medinipur]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
Durga is exalted as the divine in ''[[Dasam Granth]]'', a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]].<ref name=nesbitt109>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-106277-3|pages=108–109|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192114/https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ&q=durga|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
* Nava Durga Temple, [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]<ref>http://wikimapia.org/811725/NAVA-DURGA-MANDIR</ref> |
|||
* [[Tarakeswar]], [[Hooghly District]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
* [[Tarapith]], [[Birbhum]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".<ref name=nesbitt109/> |
|||
===Outside India=== |
|||
* [[Dhakeshwari Temple]] in [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]] |
|||
* [[Prambanan]] Temple, [[Indonesia]] |
|||
* [[Sri Santha Durga Devi Army Camp]] in [[Sungai Petani]], [[Malaysia]] |
|||
* [[Sri Thurgha Parameswary Amman Alayam]], [[Kampung Tumbuk Pantai]], [[Tanjong Sepat]],in [[Selangor]], [[Malaysia]] |
|||
==Outside the Indian subcontinent== |
|||
===In her aspect of Kali=== |
|||
[[File:3 Hindu goddess Durga in Southeast Asia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Goddess Durga in Southeast Asia, from left: 7th/8th century [[Cambodia]], 10/11th century [[Vietnam]], 8th/9th century [[Indonesia]].]] |
|||
To kill demon Raktabeej, Durga took the form of Maha Kali, she cut his head off, and put her cup of blood near it and she did not let a single drop of blood fall to the ground and no new Raktabeej will be born. The blood drains out of his body and there's no more blood for him to create a new Raktabeej and he was finally killed. |
|||
Archeological site excavations in [[Indonesia]], particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from the 6th century onwards.<ref>{{cite book|author1-link=John N. Miksic|author=John N. Miksic|title=Icons of Art: The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZnpAAAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=BAB Pub. Indonesia|isbn=978-979-8926-25-9|pages=106, 224–238|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121319/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZnpAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ann R Kinney|author2=Marijke J Klokke|author3=Lydia Kieven|title=Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfa2FiIERLYC|year=2003|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2779-3|pages=131–145|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125232720/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfa2FiIERLYC|url-status=live}}</ref> In parts of Java, she is known as ''Loro Jonggrang'' (literally, "slender maiden").<ref>{{cite book|author1=Roy E Jordaan|author2=Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands)|title=In praise of Prambanan: Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrkYAAAAYAAJ|year=1996|publisher=KITLV Press|isbn=978-90-6718-105-1|pages=147–149|access-date=16 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217131047/https://books.google.com/books?id=SrkYAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
In [[Cambodia]], during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.<ref>{{cite book|author=Trudy Jacobsen|title=Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9unZvFaiREC&pg=PA20|year=2008|publisher=Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press|isbn=978-87-7694-001-0|pages=20–21 with figure 2.2|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217121531/https://books.google.com/books?id=-9unZvFaiREC&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
* [[Belur Math]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
* [[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
* [[Kalighat]], [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]] |
|||
Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in [[Vietnam]], likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.<ref>{{cite book|author=Heidi Tan|title=Vietnam: from myth to modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4QOAQAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum|isbn=978-981-07-0012-6|pages=56, 62–63|access-date=16 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217125448/https://books.google.com/books?id=x4QOAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Catherine Noppe|author2=Jean-François Hubert|title=Art of Vietnam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLpAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-85995-860-5|page=104|access-date=16 February 2017|archive-date=17 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217135450/https://books.google.com/books?id=efLpAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
<gallery widths="160px" heights="200px"> |
|||
File:Br Mus Durga.JPG|Durga sculpture, Orissa, British Museum<ref name=british>{{cite web|title=Stone sculpture of Durga Mahishasuramardini|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/asia/s/stone_sculpture_of_durga_mahis.aspx|publisher=British Museum|accessdate=5 August 2013}}</ref> |
|||
File:Durga Hoys.jpg|Durga [[Hoysala]] sculpture |
|||
File:Bama Khepa.jpg|Bamakhepa, the tantric saint of [[Tarapith]], [[Birbhum]], [[West Bengal]] in the 19th century] |
|||
</gallery> |
|||
== |
==Influence== |
||
Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song [[Vande Mataram]], written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during the [[Indian independence movement]], later the official national song of India. |
|||
*[[Durga Puja]] |
|||
Durga is present in [[Indian nationalism]] where [[Bharat Mata]] i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like ''[[Jai Santoshi Maa]]''. |
|||
*[[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]] |
|||
The Indian Army uses [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "[[Kali|Kaali]] Mata ki Jai!". |
|||
*[[Devi Mahatmya]] |
|||
Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sabyasachi Bhattacharya|title=Vande Mataram, the Biography of a Song|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJqfAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-303055-3|pages=5, 90–99|access-date=18 February 2017|archive-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219013610/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJqfAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sumathi Ramaswamy|title=The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWfcoMnHU8gC&pg=PA107|year=2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-9153-1|pages=106–108}}</ref> |
|||
*[[Shaktism]] |
|||
== |
== See also == |
||
* [[Devi]] |
|||
{{Reflist}} |
|||
* [[Tridevi]] |
|||
== |
==Notes== |
||
{{notelist|30em}} |
|||
*Amazzone, Laura (2010). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power]''. University Press of America, Lanham. ISBN 0761853146. |
|||
{{reflist|group=note}} |
|||
* Bandyopadhyay, Pranab (1993). ''Mother Goddess Durga''. United Writers, Calcutta. ISBN 81-85328-13-7. |
|||
* Kinsley, David (1986). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions]''. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., Delhi. ISBN 81-208-0379-5. |
|||
* [[Ramprasad Sen|Sen Ramprasad]] (1720–1781). ''Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess''. Hohm Press. ISBN 0-934252-94-7. |
|||
== |
== References == |
||
{{Reflist|30em}} |
|||
{{Commons category}} |
|||
*[http://www.durgamma.com Official Website of Kanaka Durgamma Temple] |
|||
*[http://www.netglimse.com/holidays/durga_puja/index.shtml Durga Puja at NetGlimse.com] |
|||
*[http://www.calcuttaweb.com/puja/ Durga Puja (calcuttaweb.com)] |
|||
*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Gods_and_Goddesses/Durga/|Durga}} |
|||
*[http://www.stutimandal.com/gif_devi/durga_shatnaam.htm 108 names of Durga] from the [[Devi Mahatmyam|Durgāsaptaśatī]] |
|||
===Bibliography=== |
|||
{{HinduMythology}} |
|||
{{Refbegin|30em}} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |year=2012 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317121233/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Laura Amazzone |editor=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Chitrita Banerji |title=The Hour of the Goddess: Memories of Women, Food, and Ritual in Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |year=2006 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-400142-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102118/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPYvGv7ER4sC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Douglas Renfrew Brooks |title=Auspicious Wisdom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |year=1992 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1145-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013858/http://books.google.com/books?id=salQJBpUkGkC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=C Mackenzie Brown |title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |year=1990 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0364-8 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Cheever Mackenzie Brown |title=The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3939-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224013207/https://books.google.com/books?id=28CIEnZCcqMC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |year=1991 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0446-1 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205081952/https://books.google.com/books?id=c7vIzNrC-coC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Thomas B. Coburn |author-link=Thomas B. Coburn |title=Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |year=2002 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=81-208-0557-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209205927/https://books.google.com/books?id=hy9kf7_TOHgC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=Devi: Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ|first=V. R.|last=Parthasarathy|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|year=2009|isbn=978-8-1809-0203-1|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001134348/https://books.google.com/books?id=EyAoAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}} |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Charles Russell Coulter |author2=Patricia Turner |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-96397-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026134825/https://books.google.com/books?id=VWxekbhM1yEC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Paul Reid-Bowen |editor1=Denise Cush |editor2=Catherine Robinson |editor3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224010450/https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Alain Daniélou |title=The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani |url-access=registration |year=1991 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-0-89281-354-4 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Robert S Ellwood |author2=Gregory D Alles |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |year=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1038-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102110/https://books.google.com/books?id=1pGbdI4L0qsC&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Lynn Foulston |author2=Stuart Abbott |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323232140/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=David R Kinsley |title=The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |year=1989 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-88706-835-5 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102120/https://books.google.com/books?id=b0jmXOPBXkwC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |year=1998 |orig-year=First published 1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=978-81-208-0394-7 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028095902/https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=David Kinsley |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iob2JIzY9fIC |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91772-9 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Donald J LaRocca |title=The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5B4B5IcQkC |year=1996 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-0-87099-779-2 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=James G Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=June McDaniel |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |access-date=26 November 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104022224/https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Rachel Fell McDermott |title=Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803071-3 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101734/https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-43878-0}} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Malcolm McLean |title=Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3689-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217101831/https://books.google.com/books?id=kXY4uQ9TwI8C |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Patricia Monaghan |title=Goddesses in World Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-35465-6 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102257/https://books.google.com/books?id=qotjet-Hb0MC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Sree Padma |title=Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9002-9 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064150/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jn_AwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Charles Phillips |author2=Michael Kerrigan |author3=David Gould |title=Ancient India's Myths and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |year=2011 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4488-5990-0 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102124/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-RkE-Xxa0C |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{Cite book |author=Ludo Rocher |year=1986 |author-link=Ludo Rocher |title=The Puranas |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3447025225}} |
|||
* [[Ramprasad Sen|Sen Ramprasad]] (1720–1781). ''Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess''. Hohm Press. {{ISBN|0-934252-94-7}}. |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Hillary Rodrigues |title=Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |year=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8844-7 |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108105311/https://books.google.com/books?id=onyaEhwhJBUC |url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC|first=C. Mackenzie|last=Brown|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1990|isbn=9780791403648|access-date=15 February 2017|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226130045/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6KumJp_wNgC|url-status=live}} |
|||
* {{cite web | title=Durga - Hindu mythology | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=19 February 2015 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga | ref={{sfnref | Encyclopedia Britannica | 2015}} | access-date=15 February 2017 | archive-date=7 May 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507035548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga | url-status=live }} |
|||
* {{Citation|title=Shankara and Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|first=N. V.|last=Isaeva|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0791412817|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=14 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114040317/https://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C|url-status=live}} |
|||
* {{Citation|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC|first=Tracy|last=Pintchman|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0791490495|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819130701/https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC|url-status=live}} |
|||
* {{Citation|title=Hairakhandi Mantra & Bhajans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ|first=M. C. Kalavati|last=Chiulli|publisher=J. Amba Edizioni publishing house|year=2007|isbn=978-8886340465|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126192118/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5zBgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
== External links == |
|||
{{Portal|Hinduism|Religion}} |
|||
* {{commonscat-inline}} |
|||
* {{wikiquote-inline}} |
|||
<!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ |
|||
| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | |
|||
| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | |
|||
| | |
|||
| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | |
|||
| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | |
|||
| | |
|||
| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | |
|||
| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | |
|||
| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | |
|||
| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | |
|||
======================= {{No more links}} =============================--> |
|||
* [http://carlos.emory.edu/htdocs/ODYSSEY/SOUTHASIA/durga.html Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon: Iconography], Carlos Museum, Emory University |
|||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160728235056/https://www.asia.si.edu/devi/durga.htm Devi Durga], Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution |
|||
* [http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/durga.html Overview Of World Religions – Devotion to Durga] |
|||
<!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ |
|||
| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | |
|||
| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | |
|||
| | |
|||
| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | |
|||
| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | |
|||
| | |
|||
| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | |
|||
| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | |
|||
| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | |
|||
| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | |
|||
======================= {{No more links}} =============================--> |
|||
{{Shaktism}} |
|||
{{Hindudharma}} |
|||
{{Authority control}} |
|||
[[Category:Durga| ]] |
|||
[[Category:Destroyer goddesses]] |
[[Category:Destroyer goddesses]] |
||
[[Category:Durga Puja]] |
[[Category:Durga Puja]] |
||
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]] |
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]] |
||
[[Category:Justice goddesses]] |
|||
[[Category:Mythological swordfighters]] |
|||
[[Category:Shaktism]] |
[[Category:Shaktism]] |
||
[[Category:Virgin goddesses]] |
|||
[[Category:War goddesses]] |
[[Category:War goddesses]] |
||
[[Category:Forms of Lakshmi|Forms of Lakshmi]] |
|||
[[Category:Forms of Parvati]] |
|||
[[Category:Mother goddesses]] |
Revision as of 10:16, 22 May 2024
Durga | |
---|---|
Mother Goddess; Goddess of Power, Strength and Protection | |
Member of Pancha Prakriti and Panchayatana puja | |
Other names | Adi Shakti, Mahishasura Mardini, Bhagavati, Bhavani, Jagadamba |
Devanagari | दुर्गा |
Affiliation | Devi, Kali, Mahadevi, Shaktism, Navadurga |
Abode | Manidvipa, Mount Kailash |
Mantra |
|
Weapon | Chakra (discus), Shankha (conch shell), Trishula (trident), Gada (mace), Bow and Arrow, Khanda (sword), Padma (Lotus) |
Day | Tuesday and Friday |
Mount | Lion; Tiger[1][2] |
Texts | Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Devi Mahatmya, Kalika Purana, Shakta Upanishads, Tantras |
Festivals | Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Navaratri, Vijayadashami, Bathukamma, Teej, Kali Puja |
Equivalents | |
Manipuri equivalent | Panthoibi[3] |
Translations of दुर्गा (Durgā) | |
---|---|
Sanskrit | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Assamese | দুর্গা (Durgā) |
Bengali | দুর্গা (Durgā) |
Bhojpuri | 𑂠𑂴𑂩𑂳𑂏𑂰 (Durugā) |
Hindi | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Kannada | ದುರ್ಗಾ (Durgā) |
Malayalam | ദുർഗ (Durgā) |
Marathi | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Nepali | दुर्गा (Durgā) |
Odia | ଦୁର୍ଗା (Durgā) |
Punjabi | ਦੁਰਗਾ (Durgā) |
Tamil | துர்க்கை (Durkai) |
Telugu | దుర్గ (Durgā) |
Gujarati | દુર્ગા (Durgā) |
Glossary of Hinduism terms |
Durga (Sanskrit: दुर्गा, IAST: Durgā) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars.[4][5][6]
Durga's legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and dharma, representing the power of good over evil.[5][7] Durga is believed to unleash her divine wrath against the wicked for the liberation of the oppressed, and entails destruction to empower creation.[8] Durga is seen as a motherly figure and often depicted as a beautiful woman, riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon and often defeating demons.[2][9][10][11] She is widely worshipped by the followers of the goddess-centric sect, Shaktism, and has importance in other denominations like Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[7][12]
The most important texts of Shaktism, Devi Mahatmya and Devi Bhagavata Purana, revere Devi (the Goddess) as the primordial creator of the universe and the Brahman (ultimate truth and reality).[13][14][15] She is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[16][17] She is also considered as the younger sister of Vishnu as per Bhagavata purana.[18][19][20]
Durga has a significant following all over Nepal, India, Bangladesh and many other countries. She is mostly worshipped after spring and autumn harvests, especially during the festivals of Durga Puja, Durga Ashtami, Vijayadashami, Deepavali, and Navaratri.[21][22]
Etymology and nomenclature
Part of a series on |
Shaktism |
---|
Hinduism portal |
The word Durga (दुर्गा) literally means "impassable",[4][21] "invincible, unassailable".[23] It is related to the word Durg (दुर्ग) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur (difficult) and gam (pass, go through).[24] According to Indologist Alain Daniélou, Durga means "beyond defeat".[25]
The word Durga and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.[24][26][note 1] A deity named Durge appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.[24] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.[28]
The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of the Ramayana.[24] These usages are in different contexts. For example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska.[24]
Epithets
Durga is commonly known as Mahisa-mardini for slaying the half-buffalo demon Mahishasura.[29] She is also known as Vindhyavasini (she who dwells in the Vindhya Mountains).[30] Her other epithets include Mahamoha (great delusion), Mahasuri (the great demoness), Tamasi (the great night, the night of delusion).[30]
There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are (Navadurga): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess is recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".[citation needed]
Other meanings may include: "the one who cannot be accessed easily",[24] "the undefeatable goddess".[25]
Durga is also known as Durgati Nashini, meaning one who eliminates suffering.[31]
Her other names include Chandika, Sharada, Ambika, Vaishnavi etc. [32]
History and texts
Evidence of Durga-like images can probably be traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation. According to Asko Parpola, a cylindrical seal from Kalibangan shows "a Durgā-like goddess of war, who is associated with the tiger".[33][34]
Reverence for Devi, the feminine nature of God, first appears in the 10th Maṇḍala of Rig Veda, one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):[35][36]
I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.
I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome.
I make the man I love exceedingly mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra, that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother.
Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body.
I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.
The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.
Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature, such as Kali in verse 1.2.4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE.[38] This single mention describes Kali as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky coloured manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman.[39]
Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.[40] Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.[38] She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.[40] Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with Durga.[38] Of these, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga.[41][42] The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads, mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman (self, soul).[43][44]
In the Narada Purana, Durga is associated as a form of Lakshmi.[45] In the Garuda Purana and the Vishnu Purana, Lakshmi is considered Prakriti (Mahalakshmi) and is identified with three forms — Sri, Bhu and Durga.[46] In Pancharatra texts such as the Lakshmi Tantra, Lakshmi has Durga as one of her forms and acquires the name Durga after killing the demon Durgamasura.[47][48][49] These texts identify Durga as Vishnu's māyā".[50]
The Mahishasura Mardini Stotra by Adi Shankara was written in her praise.[51]
Origins
The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshipped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas", a deity of the Abhiras conceptualised as a war-goddess. In the Virata Parvan stuti and Vaishnava texts, the Goddess is called the Māhāmāyā, or the Yoganidrā of Vishnu. These further points her Abhira or Gopa origins.[52] Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) integrated into the samsara (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.[53] There are total of nine avatars of Goddess Durga in Hinduism.
Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).[54]
Durga as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.[55][56][57] The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.[58][59][note 2]
Legends
The most popular legend associated with the goddess is of her killing of Mahishasura. Mahishasura was a half-buffalo demon who did severe penance in order to please Brahma, the creator. After several years, Brahma, pleased with his devotion, appeared before him. The demon opened his eyes and asked the god for immortality. Brahma refused, stating that all must die one day. Mahishasura then thought for a while and asked a boon that only a woman could be able to kill him. Brahma granted the boon and disappeared. Mahishasura started to torture innocent people. He captured Svarga and was not in any kind of fear, as he thought women to be powerless and weak. The devas were worried and they went to Trimurti. The Trimurti combined their power, and gave a physical form to the sum of their divine energy, Adi Shakti, a warrior woman with many arms. Himavan, the personification of the Himalayas, gifted a lion as her mount. Durga, on her lion, appeared before Mahishasura where the demon took on different forms and attacked the goddess. Each time, Durga would destroy his forms. At last, Durga slew Mahishasura with her trident when he was transforming as a buffalo demon.[61][62]
According to Vaishnava tradition, Durga is among the various epithets and avatars of Yogamaya, the personification of the illusory power of Vishnu. Vishnu offers Durga the task of transferring the seventh child of Devaki into the womb of Rohini, as well as being born on earth as the infant daughter of Yashoda and Nanda, so that she could be swapped with Krishna. When Kamsa attempted to slay her, she manifested her true form of an eighteen-armed goddess, wearing a garland of lemons. The goddess announced that Kamsa's slayer had already been born, before vanishing.[63] Durga is often conceptualised in this role as a sister of Vishnu.[64]
Attributes and iconography
Durga is a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,[1] has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.[65][66] She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon, at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.[67][68] In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.[68][69][70]
Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is shakti (energy, power).[71] These include the chakra, conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, trishula, shield, and a noose.[72] These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.[73] She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.[74] Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.[74]
Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specialising on Hindu goddesses.[75] In the north wall of a granite cave in Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu there is a large relief of Durga slaying Mahisasura, carved around 630–674 CE.[76]
Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas (seven mothers considered forms of Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya.[77]
In Vaishnavism, Durga and her mount of a lion, is considered one of the three aspects or forms of Goddess Lakshmi, the other two being Sri and Bhu, in place of Niladevi.[78] According to professor Tracy Pintchman, "When the Lord Vishnu created the gunas of prakriti, there arose Lakshmi in her three forms, Sri, Bhu and Durga. Sri consisted of sattva, Bhu as rajas and Durga as tamas".[79]
Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.[80] While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons, are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs (yantra) to remember and revere what she symbolises.[81]
Worship and festivals
Durga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus.
The Vedic Texts concluded Durga alone to be the Supreme and the Absolute facet of Brahman,[citation needed] as stated in the Devi-Atharvashirsha[82]
यस्याः परतरं नास्ति सैषा दुर्गा प्रकीर्तिता ॥२४॥
She who is renowned by the name "Durga" is the being superior to whom, no one exists.
Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.[2][21][83][84]
Durga puja
As per the Markandeya Purana, Durga Puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar.[2][21] It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of Ashvina,[85] and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colourful images of Durga out of clay,[86] recitations of Devi Mahatmya text,[85] prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.[2][87][88]
The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or Dussehra (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".[89]
This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.[87] The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.[85]
The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal.[90] After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement.[citation needed] The city of Kolkata is famous for Durga puja.[91]
Dashain
In Nepal, the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".[83] Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms (Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, Mahakali and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.[83]
During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Hindus. Durga is usually worshipped as a celibate goddess, but the Shaktism traditions includes the worship of Shiva along with Durga, who is considered to be his consort, in addition to Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya, who are considered to be Durga's children by Shaktas.[92][29] Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as Mother Nature. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.
Other cultures
In Bangladesh, the four-day-long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.[93]
Outside Hinduism
In Buddhism
The Tantric Buddhist Vajrayana traditions adopted several Hindu deities into its fold, including Durga.[95][96][97][98][99] Numerous depictions of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī (Durgā slaying the buffalo demon) have been found at Buddhist temple sites (c. 8th–11th century) in Afghanistan, Indonesia and northeastern India. Durga statues have also been found in major Buddhist sites like Nalanda and Vikramashila.[95]
In Bengal, late Indian Mahayana Buddhists during the 17th century worshiped Durga during traditional Yogini Puja celebrations, and some traces of these Mahayana Durga rites survive today, even though the Bengalis who perform them are no longer Buddhist.[100]
Images of the Buddhist Durga have also been found in Bali (surrounded with images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas) and date from the 10th and 11th centuries.[95]
Durga also appears in the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana tantra, though in this text, she appears not in her demon slaying form, but mounted on a lion.[95]
Several aspects of the popular Vajrayana Buddhist goddess Tārā are believed to have originated as a form of the goddess Durga or to have been influenced by Hindu stories of Durga, including Tara's fierce forms.[101][102] One form of Tara is even called Durgottāriṇī-tārā who specializes in saving devotees from evil and rides a lion mount, the traditional mount of Durga.[102] Durgottāriṇī appears in the Sādhanamālā (237.10; 237.21; 238.4).[103]
In Nepalese Buddhism, the Buddhist tantric goddess Vajrayogini is "often worshiped interchangeably with Durga" during Durga festivals.[104] Newar Buddhists also worship Durgottāriṇī-tārā during some of their Prajñāpāramitā rituals.[105]
In Japanese Buddhism, the deity Cundī, also known as Butsu-mo (仏母, sometimes called Koti-sri), shares many features with Durga, and some scholars have the two deities as related.[106][107] However, as Gimello notes, they are not the same deity, though they are often confused.[108]
Likewise, in Tibetan Buddhism, the goddess Palden Lhamo also has similar features to the protective and fierce Durga.[109][110]
In Jainism
The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.[111] In the Ellora Caves, the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.[112]
In Sikhism
Durga is exalted as the divine in Dasam Granth, a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[113]
According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of the Supreme and a reverence for the Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".[113]
Outside the Indian subcontinent
Archeological site excavations in Indonesia, particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from the 6th century onwards.[114] Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.[115] In parts of Java, she is known as Loro Jonggrang (literally, "slender maiden").[116]
In Cambodia, during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.[117]
Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archaeological sites in Vietnam, likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.[118][119]
Influence
Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during the Indian independence movement, later the official national song of India. Durga is present in Indian nationalism where Bharat Mata i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa. The Indian Army uses Hindustani phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "Kaali Mata ki Jai!". Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.[120][121]
See also
Notes
- ^ It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.[27]
- ^ In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.[60]
References
- ^ a b Robert S Ellwood & Gregory D Alles 2007, p. 126.
- ^ a b c d e Wendy Doniger 1999, p. 306.
- ^ Singh, Moirangthem Kirti (1998). "Recent Researches in Oriental Indological Studies: Including Meiteilogy". Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica 2015.
- ^ a b David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Charles Phillips, Michael Kerrigan & David Gould 2011, pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b Paul Reid-Bowen 2012, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 3–5.
- ^ David R Kinsley 1989, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2011, pp. 71–73.
- ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 9–17.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–216.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xi.
- ^ Flood 1996, pp. 17, 153.
- ^ "Panch Dev Puja Worship". ABP (in Hindi). 17 November 2021. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ "ŚB 10.4.9". Bhaktivedanta Vedabase.
- ^ "Yoga-Māyā's Prophecy and Kaṃsa's Order to Slaughter all Children [Chapter 4]". 2 September 2022.
- ^ "Yoganidra, Yoganidrā, Yoga-nidra: 14 definitions". 11 March 2017.
- ^ a b c d James G Lochtefeld 2002, p. 208.
- ^ Constance Jones & James D Ryan 2006, pp. 139–140, 308–309.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, p. xxii.
- ^ a b c d e f Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487
- ^ a b Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 21.
- ^ Maurice Bloomfield (1906), A Vedic concordance, Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके । दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत् ॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, Wikisource Archived 5 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine - ^ J Scheftelowitz (1906). Indische Forschungen. Verlag von M & H Marcus. pp. 112 line 13a. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–96.
- ^ a b David Kinsley 1998, p. 95.
- ^ a b David Kinsley 1998, pp. 99–100.
- ^ "Chant these powerful Durga Mantras to turn your life around for good". The Times of India. 9 August 2019. Archived from the original on 11 November 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
- ^ "ŚB 10.2.11-12". Bhaktivedanta Vedabase.
- ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (1988). The Cult of Draupadi, Volume 2: On Hindu Ritual and the Goddess. University of Chicago Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-226-34048-7. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
- ^ Thapar, Valmik (1997). Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent. University of California Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-520-21470-5. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
- ^ a b June McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
- ^ a b Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 26.
- ^ The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५ Archived 11 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 162–163.
- ^ Mundaka Upanishad, Robert Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 368–377 with verse 1.2.4
- ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, p. 162.
- ^ Ludo Rocher 1986, pp. 168–172, 191–193.
- ^ C Mackenzie Brown 1990, pp. 44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60.
- ^ Douglas Renfrew Brooks 1992, pp. 76–80.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 89–91.
- ^ Chitralekha Singh; Prem Nath (2001). Lakshmi. Crest Publishing House. p. 20. ISBN 9788124201732. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
- ^ Tracy Pintchman (21 June 2001). Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess. SUNY Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780791450079. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
- ^ Gupta, Sanjukta (2000). Laksmi Tantra. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-8120817357.
- ^ S. Rangachar (1991). Philosophy of Pancaratras. Sridevi Prakashana. p. 94. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
- ^ Upendra Nath Dhal (1978). Goddess Laksmi: Origin and Development. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 195. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
Like the Devi Māhātmya , the Lakşmi Tantra describes the individual incarnations of Lakşmi thus : During the reign of Svāyambhuva (Manu) for the destruction of the demon Mahisa, Mahālakṣmi appeared Mahişāmardini.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, p. 104.
- ^ Marlow, Chris (29 October 2019). Navaratri: Prayers, Praises and Hymns. Lulu.com. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-244-22986-3.
- ^ Aiyar, Indira S. (1997). Durga As Mahisasuramardini. Gyan Publishing House, 1997. p. 217. ISBN 9788121205108. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, p. 214.
- ^ Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN 978-0-19-509984-3. Archived from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
- ^ Cheever Mackenzie Brown 1998, p. 77 note 28.
- ^ Thomas B. Coburn 1991, pp. 13.
- ^ Thomas B. Coburn 2002, pp. 1–7.
- ^ Alain Daniélou 1991, p. 288.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 215–219.
- ^ June McDaniel 2004, pp. 20–21, 217–219.
- ^ Roa, Subba (April 1971). Tales of Durga. Amar Chitra Katha Private Limited. p. 25. ISBN 81-89999-35-4.
- ^ Kumar, Anu (30 November 2012). Mahishasura: The Buffalo Demon. Hachette India. ISBN 978-93-5009-538-6. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
- ^ Flueckiger, Joyce Burkhalter (23 July 2013). When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess. Indiana University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-253-00960-9. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ^ Verma, Archana (18 January 2011). Performance and Culture: Narrative, Image and Enactment in India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-4438-2832-1. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Chitrita Banerji 2006, pp. 3–5.
- ^ Donald J LaRocca 1996, pp. 5–7.
- ^ a b Linda Johnsen (2002). The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Yes International Publishers. pp. 83–84. ISBN 978-0-936663-28-9. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Laura Amazzone 2012, pp. 4–9, 14–17.
- ^ Malcolm McLean 1998, pp. 60–65.
- ^ Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Charles Russell Coulter & Patricia Turner 2013, p. 158.
- ^ Linda Johnsen (2002). The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Yes International Publishers. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-936663-28-9. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ a b Alf Hiltebeitel; Kathleen M. Erndl (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses. New York University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-8147-3619-7. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ David Kinsley 1998, pp. 95–105.
- ^ Herman, Phyllis K.; Shimkhada, Deepak (2009). The Constant and Changing Faces of the Goddess: Goddess Traditions of Asia. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 9781443807029.
- ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 30–35, 60, 16–22, 149.
- ^ Isaeva 1993, p. 252.
- ^ Pintchman 2014, p. 82.
- ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Patricia Monaghan 2011, pp. 73–78.
- ^ "Devi Atharvashirsha Stotram in Sanskrit". 11 February 2020. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
- ^ a b c J Gordon Melton (2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 239–241. ISBN 978-1-59884-206-7. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ "Durga Puja – Hindu festival". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2015. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
- ^ a b c David Kinsley 1998, pp. 106–108.
- ^ David Kinsley 1997, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Rachel Fell McDermott 2001, pp. 172–174.
- ^ Lynn Foulston & Stuart Abbott 2009, pp. 162–169.
- ^ Esposito, John L.; Darrell J Fasching; Todd Vernon Lewis (2007). Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-19-517695-7.
- ^ "Article on Durga Puja". Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
- ^ "Durga puja:আগমনীর ডাকে সেজে উঠেছে তিলোত্তমা শহরে এবার 'রক্তমাংসের দুর্গা' ভাইরাল ভিডিয়ো". The Bengali Chronicle (in Bengali). 6 August 2022. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
- ^ Bruce M. Sullivan (2001). The A to Z of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 72. ISBN 9780810840706. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
Durga is usually regarded as a celibate goddess whose asceticism empowers her, but she may also be regarded as the consort and Sakti of Siva, depending on tradition.
- ^ Joanne Punzo Waghorne (2004). Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World. Oxford University Press. pp. 222–224. ISBN 978-0-19-803557-2. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ "The Goddess Durga Slaying the Demon Buffalo Mahisha | Bangladesh or India (Bengal) | Pala-Sena period". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
- ^ a b c d Calo, Ambra (2020) 'Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī in Likely Tantric Buddhist Context from the Northern Indian Subcontinent to 11th-Century Bali [Durga Mahiṣāsuramardinī dalam konteks agama Buddha Tantrayana dari Subkontinen India Utara dan Bali pada abad ke-11].' Pratu: Journal of Buddhist and Hindu Art, Architecture and Archaeology of Ancient to Premodern Southeast Asia, 1 (3). pp. 1-20.
- ^ Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 23.
- ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
- ^ Hajime Nakamura (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 315. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Shoko Watanabe (1955), On Durga and Tantric Buddhism, Chizan Gakuho, number 18, pp. 36–44
- ^ "For centuries, Hooghly family worships Durga the Buddhist way". www.telegraphindia.com. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
- ^ Mallar Ghosh (1980). Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 17. ISBN 81-215-0208-X.
- ^ a b Shaw, Miranda (2006). Buddhist Goddesses of India, p. 313. Princeton University Press.
- ^ www.wisdomlib.org (10 December 2019). "Durgottarini, Durgottāriṇī: 2 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
- ^ Amazzone, Laura (2010). Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power, p. 156. University Press of America.
- ^ Kim, Jinah (2013). Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia, pp. 158-162. University of California Press.
- ^ Louis-Frédéric (1995). Buddhism. Flammarion. p. 174. ISBN 978-2-08-013558-2. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Puspa Niyogi (1977). Cundā - a Popular Buddhist Goddess. East and West, 27(1-4), 299–308. doi:10.2307/29756386
- ^ Gimello, Robert (2004). ″Icon and Incantation: The Goddess Zhunti and the Role of Images in the Occult Buddhism of China." In Images in Asian Religions: Texts and Contexts ed. Phyllis Granoff and Koichi Shinohara: pp. 71-85.
- ^ Miranda Eberle Shaw (2006). Buddhist Goddesses of India. Princeton University Press. pp. 240–241. ISBN 0-691-12758-1.
- ^ Bernard Faure (2009). The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. Princeton University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-1400825615. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Lawrence A. Babb (1998). Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 146–147, 157. ISBN 978-81-208-1538-4. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-90-04-20630-4. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ a b Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-0-19-106277-3. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ John N. Miksic (2007). Icons of Art: The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia. BAB Pub. Indonesia. pp. 106, 224–238. ISBN 978-979-8926-25-9. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Ann R Kinney; Marijke J Klokke; Lydia Kieven (2003). Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 131–145. ISBN 978-0-8248-2779-3. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Roy E Jordaan; Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1996). In praise of Prambanan: Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex. KITLV Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 978-90-6718-105-1. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ Trudy Jacobsen (2008). Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press. pp. 20–21 with figure 2.2. ISBN 978-87-7694-001-0. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ Heidi Tan (2008). Vietnam: from myth to modernity. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum. pp. 56, 62–63. ISBN 978-981-07-0012-6. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ Catherine Noppe; Jean-François Hubert (2003). Art of Vietnam. Parkstone. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-85995-860-5. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
- ^ Sabyasachi Bhattacharya (2003). Vande Mataram, the Biography of a Song. Penguin. pp. 5, 90–99. ISBN 978-0-14-303055-3. Archived from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
- ^ Sumathi Ramaswamy (2009). The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India. Duke University Press. pp. 106–108. ISBN 978-0-8223-9153-1.
Bibliography
- Laura Amazzone (2012). Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-5314-5. Archived from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
- Laura Amazzone (2011). Patricia Monaghan (ed.). Goddesses in World Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35465-6. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Chitrita Banerji (2006). The Hour of the Goddess: Memories of Women, Food, and Ritual in Bengal. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-400142-2. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Douglas Renfrew Brooks (1992). Auspicious Wisdom. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1145-2. Archived from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- C Mackenzie Brown (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0364-8. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Cheever Mackenzie Brown (1998). The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation, Annotation, and Commentary. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3939-5. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Thomas B. Coburn (1991). Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0446-1. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Thomas B. Coburn (2002). Devī Māhātmya, The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-208-0557-7. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Parthasarathy, V. R. (2009). Devi: Goddesses in Indian Art and Literature. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. ISBN 978-8-1809-0203-1. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
- Charles Russell Coulter; Patricia Turner (2013). Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-96397-2. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Paul Reid-Bowen (2012). Denise Cush; Catherine Robinson; Michael York (eds.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-18979-2. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Alain Daniélou (1991). The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 978-0-89281-354-4.
- Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
- Robert S Ellwood; Gregory D Alles (2007). The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1038-7. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Lynn Foulston; Stuart Abbott (2009). Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-902210-43-8.
- Constance Jones; James D Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- David R Kinsley (1989). The Goddesses' Mirror: Visions of the Divine from East and West. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-835-5. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- David Kinsley (1998) [First published 1986]. Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 978-81-208-0394-7. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
- David Kinsley (1997). Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91772-9.
- Donald J LaRocca (1996). The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-779-2.
- James G Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
- June McDaniel (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534713-5. Archived from the original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2015.
- Rachel Fell McDermott (2001). Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803071-3. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
- Malcolm McLean (1998). Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3689-9. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Patricia Monaghan (2011). Goddesses in World Culture. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-35465-6. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Sree Padma (2014). Inventing and Reinventing the Goddess: Contemporary Iterations of Hindu Deities on the Move. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-9002-9. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Charles Phillips; Michael Kerrigan; David Gould (2011). Ancient India's Myths and Beliefs. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4488-5990-0. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Ludo Rocher (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447025225.
- Sen Ramprasad (1720–1781). Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess. Hohm Press. ISBN 0-934252-94-7.
- Hillary Rodrigues (2003). Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with Interpretations. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8844-7. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Brown, C. Mackenzie (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791403648. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- "Durga - Hindu mythology". Encyclopedia Britannica. 19 February 2015. Archived from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- Isaeva, N. V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791412817, archived from the original on 14 January 2020, retrieved 18 October 2020
- Pintchman, Tracy (2014), Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791490495, archived from the original on 19 August 2020, retrieved 18 October 2020
- Chiulli, M. C. Kalavati (2007), Hairakhandi Mantra & Bhajans, J. Amba Edizioni publishing house, ISBN 978-8886340465, archived from the original on 26 January 2021, retrieved 18 October 2020
External links
- Media related to Durga at Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations related to Durga at Wikiquote
- Durga Battling the Buffalo Demon: Iconography, Carlos Museum, Emory University
- Devi Durga, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution
- Overview Of World Religions – Devotion to Durga