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{{Short description|Political term for the personal union between Denmark and Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg}}
{{Draft topics|northern-europe}}
{{AfC topic|other}}
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{{AfC submission|t||ts=20240208162049|u=Tinkaer1991|ns=118|demo=}}<!-- Important, do not remove this line before article has been created. -->
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Danish Unitary State
| common_name =
| native_name = ''Helstaten'' {{small|([[Danish language|da]])}}<br />''Dänischer Gesamtstaat'' {{small|([[German language|de]])}}
| image_flag = Royal Standard of Denmark (1819-1903).svg
| image_flag2 = Flag of Denmark.svg
| flag_type = '''Top:''' Royal Standard of Denmark (1819–1903)<br/>'''Bottom:''' [[Flag of Denmark]]
| image_coat = Royal coat of arms of Denmark (1819–1903).svg
| image_map = File:Lands_ruled_by_the_Danish_Monarch_1815.png
| religion = [[Lutheranism]]
| footnotes =
| status = ''[[personal union]]'' between [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]], [[Duchy of Lauenburg|Lauenburg]] and [[Denmark]]
| year_end = 1864
| year_start = 1814
| image_map_caption = Territories that were part of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]] from 1814 to 1864
| common_languages = [[Danish language|Danish]], [[German Language|German]], [[Frisian language|Frisian]]
| title_leader = King of Denmark, <small> Duke of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg </small>
| year_leader1 = 1808–1839
| leader1 = [[Frederik VI of Denmark|Frederik VI]]
| year_leader2 = 1839–1848
| leader2 = [[Christian VIII of Denmark|Christian VIII]]
| year_leader3 = 1848–1863
| leader3 = [[Frederik VII of Denmark|Frederik VII]]
| year_leader4 = 1863-1906
| leader4 = [[Christian IX of Denmark|Christian IX]]
| title_representative = Prime ministers <br /> <small> (1848–1855) </small> <br /> <big> Council Presidents </big> <br /> <small> (1855–1864) </small>
| year_representative1 = 1848–1852
| representative1 = [[Adam Wilhelm Moltke]]
| year_representative2 = 1852–1853
| representative2 = [[Christian Albrecht Bluhme]]
| year_representative3 = 1853–1854
| representative3 = [[Anders Sandøe Ørsted]]
| year_representative4 = 1854–1856
| representative4 = [[Peter Georg Bang]]
| year_representative5 = 1856–1857
| representative5 = [[Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ]]
| title_deputy =
| year_deputy1 =
| deputy1 =
| year_deputy2 =
| deputy2 =
| event_start =
| date_start =
| event1 = [[Treaty of Kiel]]
| date_event1 = 14 January 1814
| event2 = [[First Schleswig War]]
| date_event2 = 1848–1851
| event_end =
| date_end =
| era = Late Modern Period
| representative6 = [[Carl Christian Hall]]
| representative7 = [[Carl Edvard Rotwitt]]
| representative8 = [[Ditlev Gothard Monrad]]
| year_representative6 = 1857–1859
| year_representative7 = 1859–1860
| year_representative8 = 1863–1864
| p1 = Denmark-Norway
| flag_p1 = Royal Standard of Denmark (1731–1819).svg
| s1 = Denmark
| flag_s1 = Flag of Denmark.svg
| s2 = Prussia
| flag_s2 = Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg
| s3 = Austrian Empire
| flag_s3 = Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg
}}
The '''Danish Unitary State''' (Danish: '''''Helstaten''', [[German language|German]]: Gesammtstaat''<ref>{{Cite book |title=Betrachtungen über den dänischen Gesammtstaat |year=1857 |location=Hamburg |pages=24 |language=German}}</ref>) was a Danish political designation for the monarchical state formation of [[Denmark]], [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]] and [[Saxe-Lauenburg]], between the two treaties of [[Vienna]] in [[Treaty of Vienna (1815)|1815]] and [[Treaty of Vienna (1864)|1864]]. The useage of the term became relevant after the [[First Schleswig War]], when a need for a constitutional framework for the monarchy was present, which ought to follow the premises of the [[London Protocol (1852)|London Protocol]]<ref name=":4" />, that prohibited a closer connection between two of the monarchy's possesions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wammen |first=Hans |title=Londontraktaten af 1852 |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Londontraktaten_af_1852 |website=Lex.dk|date=19 February 2024 }}</ref> The political designation was ultimately eleminated after The [[Second Schleswig War]] and was replaced by the national state in 1866.
== Definitions and meaning ==
The Danish term ''Helstaten'' reffers to two historical [[State formation|state formations]] of [[Denmark]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Degn |first=Jens |url=https://tidsskrift.dk/fortidognutid/article/download/74893/108342/159868 |title=Hvad er helstaten? |publisher=Fortid og Nutid |year=1999 |pages=
=== Definition ===
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=== Historic usage in refference to Denmark and Norway ===
{{See also|Denmark–Norway|Johann Friedrich Struensee}}
The first mention of the word ''Helstat'' in a historic context, is from 1885, on the book ''Danmark-Norges indre Historie 1660- 1720,'' by Edward Holm<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Holm |first=Edward |title=Danmark-Norges indre Historie 1660-1720 |publisher=Forlaget for Universitetsboghandler |year=1885 |location=[[Copenhagen]] |pages=72 |language=Danish}}</ref>''<ref name=":0" />'' reffering to the union between the two nations of [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]], as a direct whole state''<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":1" /> Other Danish works mentioning the word in refference to [[Denmark–Norway|Denmark-Norway]] includes; ''Danmark-Norge i det 18. Aarhundrede'', by Albert Olsen<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Albert |title=Danmark-Norge i det 18. Aarhundred |publisher=[[Gyldendal]] |year=1936 |pages=75, 143 |language=Danish |trans-title=Denmark-Norway the 19th century}}</ref>''<ref name=":0" />'', ''Dansk-Norsk Veksel virkning i det 18. Aarhundred,'' by Hans Jensen<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Jensen |first=Hans |title=Dansk-norsk Vekselvirkning i det 18. Aarhundrede |publisher=Fortid og Nutid |year=1938 |language=Danish}}</ref>''<ref name=":0" />'' and ''Mellem brødre'', by Vilhelm la Cour<ref>{{Cite book |last=la Cour |first=Vilhelm |title=Mellem brødre |publisher=Eget |year=1943 |language=Danish |trans-title=Between Brothers}}</ref>''<ref name=":0" />''
Olsen, like Holm, describes the ''Helstat'' as a opposition to the expression of special interests,<ref name=":2" /> yet Olsen does not argue why he chose to call Denmark-Norway a ''Helstat''
{{Quote box
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}}Jensen's book on Denmark-Norway seems to be the only one reffering to the ''Helstat'', as that of Denmark and the Duchies''<ref name=":0" />'' He defines the goal of the ''Helstat'' as being to achieve the biggest possible commonwealth and enitity''<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":3" /> He thereby also devalueates the ''Helstat'' with Denmark and the Duchies as characterizing it as uncomplete''<ref name=":0" />'' and instead highlights the [[Treaty of Bergen|union with Norway]] as the complete version of a ''Helstat.<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":3" /> Although Jensen has no [[Historical source|Source]] for the definition he uses.''<ref name=":0" />''
La Cour, defines the ''Helstat'' as an act of [[Absolute monarchy]] and unity, in contrast to the other definitions.''<ref name=":0" />'' Such definition is shared by [[Ole Feldbæk]], who in his book ''Danmark-Norge 1380-1814
=== Historic usage in
{{See also|National Liberal Party (Denmark)|Duchy of Schleswig|Duchy of Holstein}}
There are also problems with the argumentation of the historians describing and defining the [[unitary state|unitary]] {{multiple image
| image1 = Denmark-Norway in 1780.svg
| image2 = Lands ruled by the Danish Monarch 1815.png
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| header = ''Helstaten''
| caption1 = Denmark-Norway {{abbr|c|circa}}1780
| caption2 = Lands ruled by the Monarch of Denmark, {{abbr|c|circa}}1815
}}
[[unitary state|state]] between Denmark and the duchies of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]] and [[Lauenburg]] (also refered to as "the Duchies"; [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Hertugdømmerne'')<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arup |first=Erik |title=Den finansielle side af erhvervelsen af hertugdømmerne 1460-1487 |publisher=Historisk Tidsskrift |year=1903 |language=Danish |trans-title=The financial side of the acquisition of the duchies 1460-1487}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Hans |url=https://tidsskrift.dk/soenderjydskeaarboeger/article/download/81287/116411/167938 |title=Arkiver fra hertugdømmerne Slesvig og Holsten indtil 1864 |publisher=Historisk Tidsskrift}}</ref>
Acording to [[Claus Bjørn]] the term ''Helstaten'' only became politically relevant after the [[First Schleswig War|Three Years War]]<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Bjørn |first=Claus |title=Helstaten |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Helstaten |website=Den store Danske|date=7 January 2016 }}</ref> and links the term with the period between 1848 and 1863''<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":5">Den Store Danske Encyklopædi, bd. 8, 1997, s. 370</ref> He also notes that the traditional usage of the word for historians can be traced back to 1773 in the [[Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo]]''<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":5" /> {{multiple image
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| caption1 = Drawing by A. Jensen
| caption2 =
}}
The reason being that [[Christian VII of Denmark]] got full control of [[Duke of Holstein-Gottorp|Ducal holstein]] after Tsarskoye Selo''<ref name=":0" />''
During the aftermath of the [[First Schleswig War]] the usage of the word became politically relevant in terms of creating an united [[constitution]] for both Denmark and the Duchies<ref name=":4" /> The term is mentioned in a Danish [[State Council|state council]] protocol from a refferate on the 21 December 1850,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Statsrådets forhandlinger 1848-63 |volume=III |pages=96}}</ref> from a dairy of Christian Dahl from 1848-1849<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dahl |first=Christian |title=dagbog fra Den grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling 1848-49 |publisher=Claus Bjørn and Christian Larsen |year=1999}}</ref> and especially from letters from Danish politicians, such as [[Ditlev Gothard Monrad]] and [[Andreas Frederik Krieger]] in the 1830s and 1840s<ref>{{Cite book |last=Povl |first=Bagge |title=Danske politiske breve fra 1830erne og 1840ern |volume=I}}</ref>
Theres no excact date accepted for the first usage of the political word of ''Helstaten'', although just as Bjørn argues, [[Christian Molbech]] states that the term originated in 1848<ref>{{Cite book |last=Molbech |first=Christian |title=Ordbog over det danske Sprog |publisher=Private |year=1859 |pages=895 |language=Danish}}</ref> Nevertheless the usage of the term saw an increase, especially politically, during the negotiations of a constitution to the [[Danish Realm|Danish realm]]''<ref name=":0" />''
== Political ideology ==
{{See also|Nationalism|Monarchism|Oldenburg dynasty}}
The idea of preserving the ''Helstat'' is called ''Helstatspatriotisme'' (English: The Unitary State [[Patriotism|Patriotisme]]), its [[ideology]] is focused on valueing and preserving the Danish led [[House of Oldenburg|Oldenburg Monarchy]] and to stop the spread of [[Nationalism]] in the possesions of the dynasty<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |url=https://rucforsk.ruc.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/57667884/NATIONALSTATEN%5B1%5D_%281%29.pdf |title=NATIONALSTATEN |publisher=Roskilde Universitet |pages=36–46 |language=Danish}}</ref> Nationalism had been rising since the [[French Revolution|French revolution]] and was a founding part of social changes in the Danish realm during the 19th century.<ref name=":6" /> The old state formation, made by [[Dynasty|royal houses]] and [[feudalism]], was challenged by nationalism and [[liberalism]], and the ''Helstatspatriotisme'' were in position to preserve the old state formation of the Oldenburg monarchy.<ref name=":6" /> The Oldenburg state is said to be Dano-German from the beginning.<ref name=":6" /> Especially during the 17th and 18th centuries when [[German language|German]] language and culture began to influence [[Danish nobility]], whom the majoirty had German as [[first language]]<ref name=":6" />
Before the waiver of Norway, 25% of [[Denmark]], spoke German, that number rose 40% during the aftermath of the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In the capital of Copenhagen 20% spoke German, and in other cities like [[Odense]], [[Fredericia]] and [[Helsingør|Elsinore]], there were a noteable German-speaking population<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Feldbæk |first=Ole |title=Fædreland og Indfødsret. 1700-tallets danske identitet |volume=I |pages=137 |language=Danish}}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Winge |first=Vibeke |title=Tyskerfejden 1789-1790 |year=1991 |volume=II |language=Danish |trans-title=The German Fued 1789-1790}}</ref> And the seperation of Danish and German in Denmark and [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] should therefore not be seen as necessary for the creation of a national state<ref name=":6" />
This rise of the German culture in Denmark led to several unrests and clashes between the Danes and Germans, like the [[Royal Life Guards' Mutiny|Royal Guards Mutiny]] in 1771 as response to the alledged [[Germanisation]] of Denmark by [[Johann Friedrich Struensee|Struensee]]<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Geisler |first=Jens |date=2022 |title=Juleaftensfejden |url=https://milhist.dk/juleaftensfejden/ |website=Dansk Militærhistorie}}</ref>, and the [[German Fued (Denmark)|German Fued]] (Danish: ''Tyskerfejden'') which sought to disestablish German occupation of important political and cultural jobs<ref name=":7" />{{multiple image
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| header = [[Ove Høegh-Guldberg]]
| caption1 = Drawing by [[Jens Juel (painter)|Jens Juel]]
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=== Ideology in early use ===
{{See also|Danish Citizenship Act of 1776}}
After the reforms by Struensee, the power of government was succeded by [[Ove Høegh-Guldberg]], who reformed the state into a more Danish-centered one rather than German-centered. Laws like the [[Danish Citizenship Act of 1776]] under which access to public positions in the [[kingdom of Denmark]] became the prerogative of [[Jus soli|native-born]] subjects and those who were considered their equals.<ref name="DSD">{{cite web |title=Indfødsretten |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Indf%C3%B8dsretten |access-date=16 June 2022 |website=Den Store Danske |language=Danish}}</ref> Danish also became the official language of [[Royal Danish Army|The Danish military]], and the Politicians and [[Administrator|administrators]] should also use Danish instead of German.<ref name=":6" /> It is clear that the takeover and reforms by Høegh-Guldberg was done in a matter, where he legitimized his rule by representing the [[Danes|Danish people]]<ref name=":6" /> and may also appear to be an early form of Danish nationalism and ''Helstatspatriotisme.<ref name=":6" />''<ref name=":8" /> During his rule and behond, ''Helstatspatriotismen'' was prioritised by symbolicly uniting Denmark, [[Norway]] and [[Holstein]] as three equal parts under the Oldenburg Dynasty''{{efn|Before the conflict over the Duchies in the mid-1800s, [[Schleswig]] was not referred to as one independent entity, but was simply included as a fief under 'Denmark'.|name=}}'' in art and literature''<ref name=":6" />'' By that the Danish government wished to establish loyalty to the [[Monarchy of Denmark|monarch]] throughout the whole realm''<ref name=":6" />''
=== Danification attempts in Holstein (1806-1813) ===
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = A map of the Duchy of Holstein, in Europe {{abbr|c|cirka}} 1789
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[[File:Unification process of Holstein.png|border|left|thumb|200x200px|Unification process of Holstein (1668-1773)]]
After the [[Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire|dissolution of Holy Roman Empire]], [[Frederick VI of Denmark|crown prince Frederick]] annexed, in acordance with the [[First French Empire|French]], Holstein into the Danish state<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Frandsen |first=Steen |title=Holstens indlemmelse 1806 |url=https://graenseforeningen.dk/leksikon/holstens-indlemmelse-1806 |website=Graenseforeningen}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Frandsen |first=Steen |title=Holsten i helstaten |publisher=Historisk Tidsskrift |year=2008 |pages=330–340 |language=Danish |trans-title=}}</ref> The act was official policy since the [[Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo]] and can be seen as an act for ''Helstatspatriotismen''.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Glenthøj |first=Rasmus |title=Skilsmissen. Dansk og norsk identitet før og efter 1814 |publisher=Syddansk Universitetsforlag |year=2012 |pages=181 |language=Danish}}</ref> The period between 1806 and 1813 saw increasing Danification of the area.<ref name=":10" /> The Danish language was sought to be implemented in offices and churches,<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> yet even if the intention was to quell Holsteinian regionalism, it did the exact opposite and the annexation attempt was denounced in 1813.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":10" /> Modern historian, Steen Bo Frandsen, argues that if the annexation attempt was not implemented, then there would still be holsteinians who wished futher integration into the Danish state long after 1814.<ref name=":10" /> It is also argued that before [[Nationalism|nationalist sentiment]] began to rise, the major view in Holstein was that the connection to the Oldenburg monarch was a positive thing.<ref name=":10" />
== Napoleonic Wars ==
{{Further|Danish state bankruptcy of 1813|Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|Treaty of Kiel}}
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = View of [[Kongens Nytorv]] in [[Copenhagen]] During the English Bombardement of Copenhagen at Night between 4 and 5 September 1807
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During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] Denmark came though a series of [[State of emergency|national disasters]]. Firstly Denmark-Norway lost its fleet during the [[English Wars (Scandinavia)|English Wars]], which greatly damaged Dano-Norwegain trade commerce and connection between the altantic territories''{{efn|The "atlantic territories" reffer to [[Iceland]], [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]]|name=}}'', Norway and Denmark<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gøbel |first=Erik |url=https://pure.kb.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/8988394/47167_92000_1_PB.pdf |title=Danske oversøiske handelskompagnier i 17. og 18. århundrede. En forskningsoversigt}}</ref> Secondly Denmark faced the [[Danish state bankruptcy of 1813]] which saw the total collapse of the [[financial]] industry and trade industry. Lastly Denmark was forced on [[Napoleon]]'s side and signed for [[Treaty of Kiel|peace at kiel]] in 1814.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Freden i Kiel 14. januar 1814 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/freden-i-kiel-14-januar-1814 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk}}</ref> This saw the loss of Norway, and a dream of a trio with Denmark, [[Norway]] and [[Holstein]] demolished. [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]] who was a natural supporter of the ''Helstatspatriotisme'', had earlier declined an offer from tzar [[Alexander I of Russia]], which inturn for handing over Norway, Denmark would get the [[Hanseatic cities]], the North German East Coast, and even [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rasmussen |first=Hertel |url=https://tidsskrift.dk/historisktidsskrift/article/download/51831/68114?inline=1 |title=Dansk udenrigspolitik 1812-1813 |publisher=Historisk Tidsskrift}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Blomes depeche herom |publisher=Danske Magazin |pages=72}}</ref> Which shows Frederick's realisation of the importance of Norway, for the ''Helstat''
Likewhise under the Napoleonic wars, the lands north of the [[Elbe]] did not show any unwillingness or dissatisfaction with the French presence in Germany.''<ref name=":6" />'' This view was not shared with the rest of the [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire|German states]].''<ref name=":6" />''
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Portrait of Frederick {{abbr|c|circa}}1809
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There were a short german national excitement during the [[German campaign of 1813]], yet that excitement was gone with the creation of the [[German Confederation]], which did not turn out as the german [[National liberalism|nationalliberals]] hoped for.''<ref name=":6" />'' Although during the rise of [[German nationalism|German Nationalism]] in the mid-19th century, the Holsteinians became embarrassed with the Oldenburg monarch's desition to join forces with Napoleon, and the Holsteinian nationalists portaited themselves as victims, who were prevented from fighting with their German brothers''<ref name=":6" />''<ref name=":10" /> This, along with the Danification attempt of Holstein, made the Holsteinian elite look more to the south.<ref name=":11" />
The Napoleonic wars were costly for Denmark and destabilised the build-up of ''Helstatspatriotisme.<ref name=":6" />'' The [[German minority in Denmark|German-speaking minority]] went from 25% to 40% after 1815, which meant that Germans were now, not just a small minority in a bigger and more multicultural realm, but a noteable minority and rival to the Danish-speaking population, which led to [[Schleswig–Holstein question]]<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" />
== 1815-1847 ==
{{Further|Danish Golden Age}}{{See also|National Liberal Party (Denmark)|History of Denmark#Nationalism and liberalism|label 1=National Liberal Party|label 2=Nationalism and liberalism in Denmark}}
Denmark exchanged [[Swedish Pomerania]] in turn for [[Saxe-Lauenburg]] from [[Prussia]].<ref>[https://grosstuchen.de/PrussianSwedish.html grosstuchen.de] Prussian payment for Swedish Pomerania</ref> This meant a further enlargement of German culture in the realm. This is also the time of the [[Danish Golden Age]], which sought to [[Romanticism|Romantisize]] Danish nature, culture and nationality.<ref name="dga">Kulturnet Danmark, [http://www.guldalder.dk/composite-219.htm Guide to the Danish Golden Age] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110125312/http://www.guldalder.dk/composite-219.htm|date=2006-01-10}}</ref> The movement became relevant after the national emergancies the nation faced during the 1810s and glorified [[History of Denmark|Danish history]].<ref name="dga" />
===
What layed under the "[[Golden Age|golden age]]" of Denmark, were an impoverished society. King Frederick, who had a clear goal to preserve to ''Helstat'' with Norway, became more [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]], giving up his liberal worldview he had during his rule as [[Prince regent]].<ref name=":122">{{cite web |author=Jon Gunnar Arntzen |title=Frederik 6 |url=https://nbl.snl.no/Frederik_6 |access-date=15 August 2016 |publisher=Norsk biografisk leksikon}}</ref> Although as the economic depression eased in 1830s, Frederick accepted a minor democratic innovation of regional assemblies in 1834. There were established four regional assemblies.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Kjærsgaard |first=Simon |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/fileadmin/filer/E-boeger-historier-om-demokrati/Historier-om-demokrati.pdf |title=HISTORIER OM DEMOKRATI |publisher=danmarkshistorien.dk |year=2018 |isbn=978-87-999852-6-5 |pages=11–13 |language=Danish |trans-title=History of Democracy}}</ref> One for [[Jutland]], one for Schleswig, one for Holstein and one for [[Zealand]] and the [[Danish Isles|Danish ilses]].<ref name=":02" /> {{abbr|c|circa}} 3% of the population had suffrage in these assemblies.<ref name=":02" /> Even though the regional assemblies were made to advise the [[absolute monarchy]], they eventually developed in opposition to the king, and among other things, made demands to a free constitution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bjørn |first=Claus |title=Fra helstat til nationalstat |year=2003 |language=Danish}}</ref> These regional assemblies unintentedly lead to civil debate and [[Social polarization]] in Schleswig between Danes and Germans.<ref name=":122" />
=== Schleswig-Holstein question ===
{{Main|Schleswig–Holstein question}}
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The polarization of the ''Helstat'' became accual during the 1830s, were two political and national movements had developed in the ''Helstat''.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Jørgensen |first=Claus |title=Fra enevældig helstat til nationalstat, 1814-1914 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/fra-enevaeldig-helstat-til-nationalstat-1814-1914 |website=Danmarkshistorien.dk}}</ref> They both wanted the disestablishment of the absolute monarch and wished for the division of the ''Helstat'' in linguistic borders.<ref name=":12" /> The question of the future of the duchies, also became ever more relevant and caused tension in the ''Helstat.'' [[National Liberal Party (Denmark)|The National Liberal party]] campaigned for Schleswig to become an [[Annexation|integral]] part of Denmark, while separating Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2018-05-18 |title=Kritik af enevælden og debat om Slesvig |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/kritik-af-enevaelden-og-debat-om-slesvig/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921034103/https://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/kritik-af-enevaelden-og-debat-om-slesvig/ |archive-date=21 September 2020 |access-date=2018-06-11 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref> While German nationalists in Schleswig were keen to keep Schleswig and Holstein together, and wanted Schleswig to join the [[German Confederation|German Confederation.]]<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |last=103982@au.dk |date=2018-05-18 |title=Marts 1848 |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/marts-1848/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212040730/https://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/marts-1848/ |archive-date=12 February 2020 |access-date=2018-06-11 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref> The National Liberal Party campaigned with the slogan "''Danmark til ejderen''"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orla Lehmanns tale 'Danmark til Ejderen', 28. maj 1842 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/orla-lehmanns-tale-danmark-til-ejderen-28-maj-1842 |website=Danmarkshistorien.dk}}</ref> (English: Denmark to the [[Eider (river)|Eider]]) and the German nationalists in Schleswig-Holstein campaigned with a contradicting slogan to that of the Danish national liberals, called "''up ewig ungedeelt''"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bjørn |first=Claus |title=up ewig ungedeelt |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/up_ewig_ungedeelt |website=Lex.dk|date=2 December 2014 }}</ref> (English: Forever undivided).
The reigns of Frederick VI and [[Christian VIII of Denmark|Christian VIII]], led to only minor democratic innovations<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |last= |date=2018-04-13 |title=christian 8 1786-1848 |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/christian-8-1786-1848/ |access-date=2018-06-10 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=danish}}</ref>, and the [[King's Law]], Europe's only formal absolutist constitution, was still in place.<ref>[http://www.folketinget.dk/BAGGRUND/00000033/00972093.htm Folketinget] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507190923/http://www.folketinget.dk/BAGGRUND/00000033/00972093.htm|date=7 May 2009}}</ref>
== 1848-1863 ==
In January 1848, [[Christian VIII of Denmark]] died. He was succeded by his son [[Frederick VII of Denmark|Frederick VII.]] Frederick became king during the [[Revolutions of 1848]]. And the newly arising demands of a free constitution became ever more relevant.
=== First Schleswig War ===
{{Main|First Schleswig War}}
{{Quote box
| title = Jens Wulff on the Schleswig Wars
| quote = ''"… the whole world seems to be intoxicated, and
this accursed partisanship dominates everywhere, alas
making enemies of those who previously were friends. Woe
to those who have brought this about. Germans and Danes
lived so peacefully together in times past, but now within
the same country the different nationalities face each other
with enmity"''
| source = Inge Adriansen and Jens Ole Christensen: ''The First Schleswig War'', p. 13
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In march 1848, the Schleswig-Holstein question became increasingly intense and an ultimatum from Schleswig and Holstein was publicised.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web |last= |date=2018-05-18 |title=Marts 1848 |url=http://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/marts-1848/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212040730/https://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/marts-1848/ |archive-date=12 February 2020 |access-date=2018-06-11 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref> Political pressure from the National Liberals intensified, and Frederick VII replaced the government with the [[Moltke I cabinet]]<ref name=":33" /> This saw the rejection of the German demands and led to their own [[provisional government]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Adriansen |first=Inge |url=https://moreinfo.addi.dk/2.11/more_info_get.php?lokalid=51771370&attachment_type=856_a&bibliotek=870970&source_id=870970&key=60c6c443f4dc7eb62e16 |title=The First Schleswig War |publisher=Tøjhusmuseet |pages=13–20 |language=English}}</ref> contingents in Schleswig, now had to choose to go north, to join the [[Royal Danish Army|Danish army]] or go south to join the Schleswig-Holstein army.<ref name=":13" /> This ethnic division splitted and divided many families in Schleswig.<ref name=":13" /> This is also the case of the future king, [[Christian IX of Denmark|Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck]], who stayed in the Danish army, while his brothers joined the revolutionary forces in the south<ref name=":13" /> There were also still some supporters of the unified ''Helstat'', who rejected the ideas of the both nationalistic Danes and Germans<ref name=":13" /> One of Them being Jens Wulff. Opinions like his were found everywhere, but especially in [[Northern Schleswig]], who too, had little support for splitting the ''Helstat.<ref name=":13" />''
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The rebellion officially started when [[Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg|Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein]], took the border fortress of [[Rendsburg]]<ref name="JS">{{cite web |last=Schlürmann |first=Jan |title=The Schleswig-Holstein Rebellion |url=http://www.milhist.dk/trearskrigen/outbreak/outbreak_uk.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024806/http://www.milhist.dk/trearskrigen/outbreak/outbreak_uk.htm |archive-date=20 March 2012 |access-date=24 December 2018 |quote=These three southern regions of the Danish "Gesamtstaat" or "Helstaten" (common name for the union of the kingdom and the duchies) made up about one half of the monarchy's economic power.}}</ref> The war quickly spread, and the German forces took [[Flensburg]] on the 31 of March, although the German advancement [[Battle of Bov|was stopped at Bov]].<ref name="JStenild">{{cite web |last=Stenild |first=Jesper |title=Battle of Bov – 9th of April 1848 |url=http://www.milhist.dk/trearskrigen/bov/bov.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508063812/http://www.milhist.dk/trearskrigen/bov/bov.html |archive-date=8 May 2008 |access-date=17 July 2008}}</ref>''<ref name=":13" />'' During April Prussian troops arrived to help the revolutionaries, and took [[Fredericia]] in May.''<ref name=":13" />'' The Prussian advance was [[Battle of Dybbøl (1848)|stopped at Dybbøl]].<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Frantzen |first=Ole |title=Danmark i krig |publisher=Gyldendal |year=2003 |isbn=87-03-00990-4 |language=Danish |trans-title=Denmark at War}}</ref> In the end the Prussian intervention in the war was decided by the Russian Diplomatic intervention.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=John |title=Threats and Promises The Pursuit of International Influence |date=2000 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University |isbn=9780801862960 |location=Baltimore}}</ref> As head of the senior [[Gottorp line]], Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia]] pointed out the risk of collision to [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]]<ref name=":15" /> The tsar noted the Prussian advance in Jutland as extremely unfriendly and seriously injured the interests of all the powers bordering on the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]<ref name=":15" /> The [[Catherine the Great|Russian Empress]], [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)|Alexandra Feodorovna]] supported the
{{multiple image
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{{multiple image
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| caption1 = After the Battle of Bov, Danish Soldiers Entering Flensburg
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point by writing the her brother''{{efn|Alexandra Feodorovna, born Princess Charlotte of Prussia, Were daughter of [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]], and was thereby a sister to the Prussian king [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|Frederick William IV]]|name=}}''<ref name=":15" />{{blockquote|text=''"It is your troops who have grabbed the weak Denmark with their superior force. The war can be expanded widely if you pursue it. Stop! There is still time! Think about the difficulties Germany has to battle in order to bring about inner security, the dangers which threaten in the West. Do not force upon the Tsar the necessity to come to the assistance with strong measures of another state whose downfall Russia cannot regard with indifference and will not tolerate. It cannot come to pass that Denmark is absorbed into Germany; of this you can be certain."''|title=[[Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)]]|source=}}The encreasing threat of intervention by other European powers led to [[Prussia]] signing the [[Armistice of Malmö]].<ref name=":15" /> This would stop all fighting until spring 1849, when the armistice had ended.<ref name=":14" />''<ref name=":13" />'' Prussian forces again invaded Jutland, yet was [[Skirmish of Århus|stopped at Aarhus]].<ref name="aarDK">{{cite web |title=Rytterfægtningen |url=http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusStadsarkiv/Home/Servicesider/Nyheder/2014/3-kvartal/Ugens-Aarhushistorie-Rytterfaegtningen.aspx?sc_lang=da |accessdate=19 August 2015 |publisher=Aarhus National Archives |language=Danish}}</ref> Danish victories [[Battle of Fredericia|continued at Fredericia]].''<ref name=":13" />'' Another truce was signed, and Prussia proposed a ''[[status quo ante bellum]].<ref name=":15" />'' The Russian tsar had promised Schleswig to the Danish crown by the 1773 [[Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo]] and had also intervened in the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848|Hungarian revolution]], and so the threat of Russian military intervention became over more realistic.''<ref name=":15" />'' After two more years of minor skirmishes and countless negotiations, the [[London Protocol (1852)|London Protocol]] was signed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hjelholt |first=Holger |title=Great Britain, the Danish–German conflict and the Danish succession 1850–1852: From the London Protocol to the Treaty of London (the 2nd of August 1850 and the 8th of May 1852) |publisher=Munksgaard |year=1971 |location=Copenhagen, Denmark |pages=38}}</ref>
=== Constitutions for The Unitary State ===
{{Further|London Protocol (1852)}}{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Christian IX in 1871
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Acording to the London protocol, the [[Great power|Great powers]] decided in Danish favour, that the Danish unitary state should be preserved.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |title=Londontraktaten, 8. maj 1852 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/londontraktaten-8-maj-1852 |website=Danmarkshistorien.dk}}</ref> Yet it also confined with the duchies, by disallowing further integration of a single duchy, into the Danish state.<ref name=":16" /> Since the [[Constitution of Denmark#Drafting and signing of the first constitution (1849)|June constituion]] created in 1849 was only put in force in Denmark, the Schleswig-Holstein question remained unsolved and work for creating a common constitution started. In 1855 the [[rigsdagen]] accepted the Constitution for The Unitary State (Danish: ''Helstatsforfatning'') or ''Fællesforfatningen'' (English: The common constitution).<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Bjørn |first=Claus |date=2014 |title=Helstatsforfatningen |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Helstatsforfatningen?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiA3JCvBhA8EiwA4kujZmciSrMZKlfKwKI2u6SB26soMF1LGlxhmfdj1zYZjJiIqrblsI9q7BoCeqEQAvD_BwE |website=Lex.dk}}</ref> The constituion were put to place in all of the [[Danish Realm|Danish realm]], including the Duchies. Although it was, three years later in 1858, rejected by [[Holstein]] and [[Lauenburg]].<ref name=":17" />
When [[Frederick VII of Denmark]] died in 1863, the National Liberals pressued the newly king, in acordance with the london protocol<ref name=":16" />, King [[Christian IX of Denmark|Christian IX]], to sign a new constitution in November 1863, the so called November constitution (Danish: ''Novemberforfatningen'').<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Hauge |first=Mads |url=https://xn--slgtogkrone-b9a.dk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Christian-9.-og-Dronning-Louise-det-f%C3%B8rste-gl%C3%BCcksborgske-kongepar.pdf |title=Christian 9. og Dronning Louise |publisher=De Danske Kongers Kronologiske Samling |language=Danish}}</ref> The constitution replaced the ''Helstatsforfatning<ref name=":17" />'' and annexed Schleswig into Denmark<ref name=":18" />
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Map of the military events and of the boundary changes during the Second Schleswig War.
| caption2 = Boundary proposals at the London Conference 1864
| direction = vertical
}}
== Dissolution, 1864-1866 ==
Massive [[Protest|protests]] followed, and since the constitution broke the promises of the London Protocol, [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] declared war in early 1864 on behalf of the [[German Confederation]].<ref name=":18" /> This started the War of 1864.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Michael. |first=Embree |title=Bismarck's first war : the campaign of Schleswig and Jutland 1864 |date=2006 |publisher=Helion |isbn=978-1-906033-03-3 |location=Solihull}}</ref>
=== Second Schleswig War ===
{{Main|Second Schleswig War}}
With approximately 60.000 men the Prusso-Austrian army marched into Schleswig.<ref name=":19" /> [[Evacuation of Danevirke|The Danes evacuated]] the ancient [[defense line]] of [[Danevirke|Danewerk]] and instead fortified the flank position of [[Dybbøl]].<ref name=":19" /> Throughout early April, Dybbøl was heavily bombarded, and on the morning of the 18 of April, the Prussians launched an all out assault on the Danish fortifications.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last1=van der Schriek |first1=Jef |last2=van der Schriek |first2=Max |date=2011 |title='Up ewig Ungedeelt!' Schleswig-Holstein 1864–1920 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48601730 |journal=Journal of Conflict Archaeology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=154 |issn=1574-0773 |jstor=48601730}}</ref> The Danes were overrun by the Prussian military and retreated to Als,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Düppeldenkmal |url=https://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/dueppeldenkmal.htm |website=schutzgebiete.de|date=23 December 2018 }}</ref> where they too, [[Battle of Als|were defeated]]. The Danes lost 8.000 men at Dybbøl and Als, and in two months the Danish army had lost over 20% of its army.<ref name=":19" /> The Prussians afterwards proposed a peace to Denmark, even letting Denmark keep [[South Jutland County|Northern Schleswig]]. Yet the Danes rejected, and it would take the occupation of all of Jutland, before king Christian would settle for peace.<ref>From [[:da:2. Slesvigske Krig#Afsluttende kampe]] (in Danish)</ref> Christian, desperate to preserve the ''Helstat'' even proposed Denmark, to join the [[German Confederation|German confederation]], in return for him still being duke in Schleswig, Holstein and [[Saxe-Lauenburg]].<ref name=":20">[http://politiken.dk/kultur/article1038865.ece Hemmeligt arkiv: Kongen tilbød Danmark til tyskerne efter 1864] 18 August 2010 (politiken.dk)</ref> Yet the proposal was rejected in fear of a troublesome Danish [[Minority group|minority]] in the German Confederation.<ref name=":20" /> In the end the treaty of Vienna was signed and Denmark ended up losing all three duchies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The defeat of Austria |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/Franco-German-conflict-and-the-new-German-Reich |accessdate=19 February 2021 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=English}}</ref>
The connection between Schleswig and Holstein meant that Denmark could have won Holstein through Schleswig - instead they lost Schleswig through Holstein.<ref name=":6" />
===
The war of 1864 is considered a [[national trauma]] for Denmark.<ref name="Long Shadow">{{Cite web |last=Glenthøj |first=Rasmus |date=8 April 2019 |title=The Long Shadow of a Defeat |url=https://www.carlsbergfondet.dk/en/Forskningsaktiviteter/Research-Projects/Other-Research-Projects/Rasmus-Glenthoej_The-Long-Shadow-of-a-Defeat |access-date=30 March 2020 |website=www.carlsbergfondet.dk |publisher=Carlsberg Foundation |language=en |quote=The status of the war within Danish history is reflected in the fact, that it is normally referred to simply as '1864', the year the war was fought. The defeat marked the end of the Danish-German composite state, the formation of the Danish nation-state, and the creation of modern-day Denmark. It is seen as a national trauma that gave birth to an existential angst and it has been claimed that the defeat is central to any grasp of Danish identity, culture, history, and politics. |location=Copenhagan}}</ref><ref name="Contested">{{Cite conference |last=Greßhake |first=Florian |date=June 2011 |title=Contested Cultural Heritage – Contested Space. Discourses on the Museum Landscape in the Danish-German Border Region |url=http://www.ep.liu.se/ecp/062/022/ecp11062022.pdf |conference=Current Issues in European Cultural Studies |pages=198 |via=Linköping University Electronic Press}}</ref> The ''Helstat'' was no more and the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|prime minister of Denmark]], [[Ditlev Gothard Monrad]] resigned on 11 July 1864.<ref name="ReferenceA">Johann Schioldann-Nielsen, "Prime Minister D. G. Monrad: manic-depressive disorder and political leadership", ''History of Psychiatry'', March 1996 7: 063-90. Accessed 15 February 2016</ref> The National Liberal Party would see its downfall, and would be dissolved in 1882.<ref name="Burton">{{cite book |last=Sir Richard Francis Burton |url=https://archive.org/details/ultimathuleoras00burtgoog |title=Ultima Thule: Or, A Summer in Iceland |publisher=W.P. Nimmo |year=1875 |location=Original from the University of Michigan |page=[https://archive.org/details/ultimathuleoras00burtgoog/page/n136 104] |quote=National Liberal Party denmark.}}</ref> King Christian and the other politicians would seek to create a new constitution, which was made in 1866, which further Democratized the nation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Den gennemsete Grundlov af 28. juli 1866 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/den-gennemsete-grundlov-af-28-juli-1866 |website=Danmarkshistorien.dk}}</ref>
Denmark was now a state consisting of only Danes, and would even reject the full annexation of Schleswig in 1920, in order not to gain any considerable minority of Germans on its southern border, this would start the [[Easter Crisis]] between the monarch and government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lange |first=Ove |title=Påskekrisen 1920 |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/P%C3%A5skekrisen_1920 |website=Lex.dk}}</ref>
== See also ==
* {{Annotated link|Habsburg monarchy}}
* {{Annotated link|Denmark–Norway}}
* {{Annotated link|federation}}
* {{Annotated link|Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815-1839)}}
* {{Annotated link|Schleswig-Holstein}}
* {{Annotated link|House of Romanov}}
== Footnotes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
|
Revision as of 21:10, 17 April 2024
Danish Unitary State | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1814–1864 | |||||||||||||
Status | personal union between Schleswig, Holstein, Lauenburg and Denmark | ||||||||||||
Common languages | Danish, German, Frisian | ||||||||||||
Religion | Lutheranism | ||||||||||||
King of Denmark, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg | |||||||||||||
• 1808–1839 | Frederik VI | ||||||||||||
• 1839–1848 | Christian VIII | ||||||||||||
• 1848–1863 | Frederik VII | ||||||||||||
• 1863-1906 | Christian IX | ||||||||||||
Prime ministers (1848–1855) Council Presidents (1855–1864) | |||||||||||||
• 1848–1852 | Adam Wilhelm Moltke | ||||||||||||
• 1852–1853 | Christian Albrecht Bluhme | ||||||||||||
• 1853–1854 | Anders Sandøe Ørsted | ||||||||||||
• 1854–1856 | Peter Georg Bang | ||||||||||||
• 1856–1857 | Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ | ||||||||||||
• 1857–1859 | Carl Christian Hall | ||||||||||||
• 1859–1860 | Carl Edvard Rotwitt | ||||||||||||
• 1863–1864 | Ditlev Gothard Monrad | ||||||||||||
Historical era | Late Modern Period | ||||||||||||
• Established | 1814 | ||||||||||||
14 January 1814 | |||||||||||||
1848–1851 | |||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1864 | ||||||||||||
|
The Danish Unitary State (Danish: Helstaten, German: Gesammtstaat[1]) was a Danish political designation for the monarchical state formation of Denmark, Schleswig, Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg, between the two treaties of Vienna in 1815 and 1864. The useage of the term became relevant after the First Schleswig War, when a need for a constitutional framework for the monarchy was present, which ought to follow the premises of the London Protocol[2], that prohibited a closer connection between two of the monarchy's possesions.[3] The political designation was ultimately eleminated after The Second Schleswig War and was replaced by the national state in 1866.
Definitions and meaning
The Danish term Helstaten reffers to two historical state formations of Denmark.[4] One being the twin realms of Denmark–Norway, and the other (and most reffered to) is the personal and for a short time real union between Denmark and the North German duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg (From 1815)[4]
Definition
There are various of different definitions of the word Helstat. Helstat is a compound word, combined from Hel (English: Whole) and stat (English: State), compound to 'Whole-state'. Acording to Salmonsens, a Helstat is:[4]
A state connection under a common monarchy has existed between parts of the state that could neither be described as a Federal State nor as mere provnces, so that the unit could neither be said to constitute a mere real union, a confederation in the narrower sense nor an equivalent. Unity state
— Salmonsens Konversationsleksikon
It is also noted that the term is mainly used in connection with Denmark and the Duchies and the Austrian Realm's Constituion[4] Another definition by the Danish Lexicon of Ordbog over det danske sprog States as following:[4][5]
State, consisting of several parts of the state connected under a common constitution for the common affairs (cf. unitary, federal state); spec. about the state connection that was sought to be maintained between 1850 and 1864 between the Danish Kingdom, Southern Jutland and the German Duchies
— Ordbog over det danske sprog'
Similar definitions are giving by Illustreret dansk konversationslektion and Norsk Riksmålsordbok[6][4]
Despite small disagreements the definitions agree on certain points[4]
- A Helstat is a state formation consisting of more than one political entity
- They share some political aspects (fx foreign affairs)
- Yet the political entities have an extentsive autonomy
It should also be noted that the Salmonsens Konversationsleksikon, Illustreret dansk konversationslektion and Ordbog over det dansk sprog, specifically mentions the state formation of Denmark and the Duchies, as such example of a Helstat[4]
Historic usage in refference to Denmark and Norway
The first mention of the word Helstat in a historic context, is from 1885, on the book Danmark-Norges indre Historie 1660- 1720, by Edward Holm[7][4] reffering to the union between the two nations of Denmark and Norway, as a direct whole state[4][7] Other Danish works mentioning the word in refference to Denmark-Norway includes; Danmark-Norge i det 18. Aarhundrede, by Albert Olsen[8][4], Dansk-Norsk Veksel virkning i det 18. Aarhundred, by Hans Jensen[9][4] and Mellem brødre, by Vilhelm la Cour[10][4]
Olsen, like Holm, describes the Helstat as a opposition to the expression of special interests,[8] yet Olsen does not argue why he chose to call Denmark-Norway a Helstat. Moreover Olsen sees the Helstat as a complete opposite of the Nationalstaten and thereby also equalizes a Multinational state with a Helstat[4]
"It was, however, in the aim of the new government of the two kingdoms to create a distinctly centralized Helstat, and within such a framework local considerations had to naturally always give way to what, according to the opinion of the time, would serve the assembled Monarch"
Vilhelm la Cour: Mellem brødre. Dansk-norske Problemer i det 18. Aarhundredes Helstat,1943, s. 9-10
Jensen's book on Denmark-Norway seems to be the only one reffering to the Helstat, as that of Denmark and the Duchies[4] He defines the goal of the Helstat as being to achieve the biggest possible commonwealth and enitity[4][9] He thereby also devalueates the Helstat with Denmark and the Duchies as characterizing it as uncomplete[4] and instead highlights the union with Norway as the complete version of a Helstat.[4][9] Although Jensen has no Source for the definition he uses.[4]
La Cour, defines the Helstat as an act of Absolute monarchy and unity, in contrast to the other definitions.[4] Such definition is shared by Ole Feldbæk, who in his book Danmark-Norge 1380-1814, describes the Helstat in a contrast to Norwegain indepedence and autonomy[11]
Historic usage in refference to Denmark and the duchies
There are also problems with the argumentation of the historians describing and defining the unitary
state between Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg (also refered to as "the Duchies"; Danish: Hertugdømmerne)[12][13]
Acording to Claus Bjørn the term Helstaten only became politically relevant after the Three Years War[2] and links the term with the period between 1848 and 1863[4][14] He also notes that the traditional usage of the word for historians can be traced back to 1773 in the Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo[4][14]
The reason being that Christian VII of Denmark got full control of Ducal holstein after Tsarskoye Selo[4]
During the aftermath of the First Schleswig War the usage of the word became politically relevant in terms of creating an united constitution for both Denmark and the Duchies[2] The term is mentioned in a Danish state council protocol from a refferate on the 21 December 1850,[15] from a dairy of Christian Dahl from 1848-1849[16] and especially from letters from Danish politicians, such as Ditlev Gothard Monrad and Andreas Frederik Krieger in the 1830s and 1840s[17]
Theres no excact date accepted for the first usage of the political word of Helstaten, although just as Bjørn argues, Christian Molbech states that the term originated in 1848[18] Nevertheless the usage of the term saw an increase, especially politically, during the negotiations of a constitution to the Danish realm[4]
Political ideology
The idea of preserving the Helstat is called Helstatspatriotisme (English: The Unitary State Patriotisme), its ideology is focused on valueing and preserving the Danish led Oldenburg Monarchy and to stop the spread of Nationalism in the possesions of the dynasty[19] Nationalism had been rising since the French revolution and was a founding part of social changes in the Danish realm during the 19th century.[19] The old state formation, made by royal houses and feudalism, was challenged by nationalism and liberalism, and the Helstatspatriotisme were in position to preserve the old state formation of the Oldenburg monarchy.[19] The Oldenburg state is said to be Dano-German from the beginning.[19] Especially during the 17th and 18th centuries when German language and culture began to influence Danish nobility, whom the majoirty had German as first language[19]
Before the waiver of Norway, 25% of Denmark, spoke German, that number rose 40% during the aftermath of the Treaty of Kiel. In the capital of Copenhagen 20% spoke German, and in other cities like Odense, Fredericia and Elsinore, there were a noteable German-speaking population[20][19][21] And the seperation of Danish and German in Denmark and Schleswig should therefore not be seen as necessary for the creation of a national state[19]
This rise of the German culture in Denmark led to several unrests and clashes between the Danes and Germans, like the Royal Guards Mutiny in 1771 as response to the alledged Germanisation of Denmark by Struensee[22], and the German Fued (Danish: Tyskerfejden) which sought to disestablish German occupation of important political and cultural jobs[21]
Ideology in early use
After the reforms by Struensee, the power of government was succeded by Ove Høegh-Guldberg, who reformed the state into a more Danish-centered one rather than German-centered. Laws like the Danish Citizenship Act of 1776 under which access to public positions in the kingdom of Denmark became the prerogative of native-born subjects and those who were considered their equals.[23] Danish also became the official language of The Danish military, and the Politicians and administrators should also use Danish instead of German.[19] It is clear that the takeover and reforms by Høegh-Guldberg was done in a matter, where he legitimized his rule by representing the Danish people[19] and may also appear to be an early form of Danish nationalism and Helstatspatriotisme.[19][20] During his rule and behond, Helstatspatriotismen was prioritised by symbolicly uniting Denmark, Norway and Holstein as three equal parts under the Oldenburg Dynasty[a] in art and literature[19] By that the Danish government wished to establish loyalty to the monarch throughout the whole realm[19]
Danification attempts in Holstein (1806-1813)
After the dissolution of Holy Roman Empire, crown prince Frederick annexed, in acordance with the French, Holstein into the Danish state[24][25] The act was official policy since the Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo and can be seen as an act for Helstatspatriotismen.[24][26] The period between 1806 and 1813 saw increasing Danification of the area.[25] The Danish language was sought to be implemented in offices and churches,[24][25] yet even if the intention was to quell Holsteinian regionalism, it did the exact opposite and the annexation attempt was denounced in 1813.[24][19][25] Modern historian, Steen Bo Frandsen, argues that if the annexation attempt was not implemented, then there would still be holsteinians who wished futher integration into the Danish state long after 1814.[25] It is also argued that before nationalist sentiment began to rise, the major view in Holstein was that the connection to the Oldenburg monarch was a positive thing.[25]
Napoleonic Wars
During the Napoleonic Wars Denmark came though a series of national disasters. Firstly Denmark-Norway lost its fleet during the English Wars, which greatly damaged Dano-Norwegain trade commerce and connection between the altantic territories[b], Norway and Denmark[27] Secondly Denmark faced the Danish state bankruptcy of 1813 which saw the total collapse of the financial industry and trade industry. Lastly Denmark was forced on Napoleon's side and signed for peace at kiel in 1814.[28] This saw the loss of Norway, and a dream of a trio with Denmark, Norway and Holstein demolished. Frederick VI who was a natural supporter of the Helstatspatriotisme, had earlier declined an offer from tzar Alexander I of Russia, which inturn for handing over Norway, Denmark would get the Hanseatic cities, the North German East Coast, and even Holland[29][30] Which shows Frederick's realisation of the importance of Norway, for the Helstat
Likewhise under the Napoleonic wars, the lands north of the Elbe did not show any unwillingness or dissatisfaction with the French presence in Germany.[19] This view was not shared with the rest of the German states.[19]
There were a short german national excitement during the German campaign of 1813, yet that excitement was gone with the creation of the German Confederation, which did not turn out as the german nationalliberals hoped for.[19] Although during the rise of German Nationalism in the mid-19th century, the Holsteinians became embarrassed with the Oldenburg monarch's desition to join forces with Napoleon, and the Holsteinian nationalists portaited themselves as victims, who were prevented from fighting with their German brothers[19][25] This, along with the Danification attempt of Holstein, made the Holsteinian elite look more to the south.[26]
The Napoleonic wars were costly for Denmark and destabilised the build-up of Helstatspatriotisme.[19] The German-speaking minority went from 25% to 40% after 1815, which meant that Germans were now, not just a small minority in a bigger and more multicultural realm, but a noteable minority and rival to the Danish-speaking population, which led to Schleswig–Holstein question[20][21]
1815-1847
Denmark exchanged Swedish Pomerania in turn for Saxe-Lauenburg from Prussia.[31] This meant a further enlargement of German culture in the realm. This is also the time of the Danish Golden Age, which sought to Romantisize Danish nature, culture and nationality.[32] The movement became relevant after the national emergancies the nation faced during the 1810s and glorified Danish history.[32]
Unrest
What layed under the "golden age" of Denmark, were an impoverished society. King Frederick, who had a clear goal to preserve to Helstat with Norway, became more authoritarian, giving up his liberal worldview he had during his rule as Prince regent.[33] Although as the economic depression eased in 1830s, Frederick accepted a minor democratic innovation of regional assemblies in 1834. There were established four regional assemblies.[34] One for Jutland, one for Schleswig, one for Holstein and one for Zealand and the Danish ilses.[34] c 3% of the population had suffrage in these assemblies.[34] Even though the regional assemblies were made to advise the absolute monarchy, they eventually developed in opposition to the king, and among other things, made demands to a free constitution.[35] These regional assemblies unintentedly lead to civil debate and Social polarization in Schleswig between Danes and Germans.[33]
Schleswig-Holstein question
The polarization of the Helstat became accual during the 1830s, were two political and national movements had developed in the Helstat.[36] They both wanted the disestablishment of the absolute monarch and wished for the division of the Helstat in linguistic borders.[36] The question of the future of the duchies, also became ever more relevant and caused tension in the Helstat. The National Liberal party campaigned for Schleswig to become an integral part of Denmark, while separating Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark.[37] While German nationalists in Schleswig were keen to keep Schleswig and Holstein together, and wanted Schleswig to join the German Confederation.[38] The National Liberal Party campaigned with the slogan "Danmark til ejderen"[39] (English: Denmark to the Eider) and the German nationalists in Schleswig-Holstein campaigned with a contradicting slogan to that of the Danish national liberals, called "up ewig ungedeelt"[40] (English: Forever undivided).
The reigns of Frederick VI and Christian VIII, led to only minor democratic innovations[41], and the King's Law, Europe's only formal absolutist constitution, was still in place.[42]
1848-1863
In January 1848, Christian VIII of Denmark died. He was succeded by his son Frederick VII. Frederick became king during the Revolutions of 1848. And the newly arising demands of a free constitution became ever more relevant.
First Schleswig War
"… the whole world seems to be intoxicated, and this accursed partisanship dominates everywhere, alas making enemies of those who previously were friends. Woe to those who have brought this about. Germans and Danes lived so peacefully together in times past, but now within the same country the different nationalities face each other with enmity"
Inge Adriansen and Jens Ole Christensen: The First Schleswig War, p. 13
In march 1848, the Schleswig-Holstein question became increasingly intense and an ultimatum from Schleswig and Holstein was publicised.[43] Political pressure from the National Liberals intensified, and Frederick VII replaced the government with the Moltke I cabinet[43] This saw the rejection of the German demands and led to their own provisional government.[44] contingents in Schleswig, now had to choose to go north, to join the Danish army or go south to join the Schleswig-Holstein army.[44] This ethnic division splitted and divided many families in Schleswig.[44] This is also the case of the future king, Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, who stayed in the Danish army, while his brothers joined the revolutionary forces in the south[44] There were also still some supporters of the unified Helstat, who rejected the ideas of the both nationalistic Danes and Germans[44] One of Them being Jens Wulff. Opinions like his were found everywhere, but especially in Northern Schleswig, who too, had little support for splitting the Helstat.[44]
The rebellion officially started when Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein, took the border fortress of Rendsburg[45] The war quickly spread, and the German forces took Flensburg on the 31 of March, although the German advancement was stopped at Bov.[46][44] During April Prussian troops arrived to help the revolutionaries, and took Fredericia in May.[44] The Prussian advance was stopped at Dybbøl.[47] In the end the Prussian intervention in the war was decided by the Russian Diplomatic intervention.[48] As head of the senior Gottorp line, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia pointed out the risk of collision to Frederick William IV of Prussia[48] The tsar noted the Prussian advance in Jutland as extremely unfriendly and seriously injured the interests of all the powers bordering on the Baltic[48] The Russian Empress, Alexandra Feodorovna supported the
point by writing the her brother[c][48]
"It is your troops who have grabbed the weak Denmark with their superior force. The war can be expanded widely if you pursue it. Stop! There is still time! Think about the difficulties Germany has to battle in order to bring about inner security, the dangers which threaten in the West. Do not force upon the Tsar the necessity to come to the assistance with strong measures of another state whose downfall Russia cannot regard with indifference and will not tolerate. It cannot come to pass that Denmark is absorbed into Germany; of this you can be certain."
The encreasing threat of intervention by other European powers led to Prussia signing the Armistice of Malmö.[48] This would stop all fighting until spring 1849, when the armistice had ended.[47][44] Prussian forces again invaded Jutland, yet was stopped at Aarhus.[49] Danish victories continued at Fredericia.[44] Another truce was signed, and Prussia proposed a status quo ante bellum.[48] The Russian tsar had promised Schleswig to the Danish crown by the 1773 Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo and had also intervened in the Hungarian revolution, and so the threat of Russian military intervention became over more realistic.[48] After two more years of minor skirmishes and countless negotiations, the London Protocol was signed.[50]
Constitutions for The Unitary State
Acording to the London protocol, the Great powers decided in Danish favour, that the Danish unitary state should be preserved.[51] Yet it also confined with the duchies, by disallowing further integration of a single duchy, into the Danish state.[51] Since the June constituion created in 1849 was only put in force in Denmark, the Schleswig-Holstein question remained unsolved and work for creating a common constitution started. In 1855 the rigsdagen accepted the Constitution for The Unitary State (Danish: Helstatsforfatning) or Fællesforfatningen (English: The common constitution).[52] The constituion were put to place in all of the Danish realm, including the Duchies. Although it was, three years later in 1858, rejected by Holstein and Lauenburg.[52]
When Frederick VII of Denmark died in 1863, the National Liberals pressued the newly king, in acordance with the london protocol[51], King Christian IX, to sign a new constitution in November 1863, the so called November constitution (Danish: Novemberforfatningen).[53] The constitution replaced the Helstatsforfatning[52] and annexed Schleswig into Denmark[53]
Dissolution, 1864-1866
Massive protests followed, and since the constitution broke the promises of the London Protocol, Prussia and Austria declared war in early 1864 on behalf of the German Confederation.[53] This started the War of 1864.[54]
Second Schleswig War
With approximately 60.000 men the Prusso-Austrian army marched into Schleswig.[54] The Danes evacuated the ancient defense line of Danewerk and instead fortified the flank position of Dybbøl.[54] Throughout early April, Dybbøl was heavily bombarded, and on the morning of the 18 of April, the Prussians launched an all out assault on the Danish fortifications.[55] The Danes were overrun by the Prussian military and retreated to Als,[56] where they too, were defeated. The Danes lost 8.000 men at Dybbøl and Als, and in two months the Danish army had lost over 20% of its army.[54] The Prussians afterwards proposed a peace to Denmark, even letting Denmark keep Northern Schleswig. Yet the Danes rejected, and it would take the occupation of all of Jutland, before king Christian would settle for peace.[57] Christian, desperate to preserve the Helstat even proposed Denmark, to join the German confederation, in return for him still being duke in Schleswig, Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg.[58] Yet the proposal was rejected in fear of a troublesome Danish minority in the German Confederation.[58] In the end the treaty of Vienna was signed and Denmark ended up losing all three duchies.[59]
The connection between Schleswig and Holstein meant that Denmark could have won Holstein through Schleswig - instead they lost Schleswig through Holstein.[19]
Aftermath and The Revised Constitution (1866)
The war of 1864 is considered a national trauma for Denmark.[60][61] The Helstat was no more and the prime minister of Denmark, Ditlev Gothard Monrad resigned on 11 July 1864.[62] The National Liberal Party would see its downfall, and would be dissolved in 1882.[63] King Christian and the other politicians would seek to create a new constitution, which was made in 1866, which further Democratized the nation.[64]
Denmark was now a state consisting of only Danes, and would even reject the full annexation of Schleswig in 1920, in order not to gain any considerable minority of Germans on its southern border, this would start the Easter Crisis between the monarch and government.[65]
See also
- Habsburg monarchy – Monarchy in Europe (1282–1918)
- Denmark–Norway – Political union (1524-1814)
- federation – Political union of partially self-governing territories under a national government
- Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815-1839) – 1815–1830 kingdom including the Netherlands and Belgium
- Schleswig-Holstein – State in Germany
- House of Romanov – Imperial dynasty of Russia (1613–1917)
Footnotes
- ^ Before the conflict over the Duchies in the mid-1800s, Schleswig was not referred to as one independent entity, but was simply included as a fief under 'Denmark'.
- ^ The "atlantic territories" reffer to Iceland, Faroe Islands and Greenland
- ^ Alexandra Feodorovna, born Princess Charlotte of Prussia, Were daughter of Frederick William III, and was thereby a sister to the Prussian king Frederick William IV
References
- ^ Betrachtungen über den dänischen Gesammtstaat (in German). Hamburg. 1857. p. 24.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c Bjørn, Claus (7 January 2016). "Helstaten". Den store Danske.
- ^ Wammen, Hans (19 February 2024). "Londontraktaten af 1852". Lex.dk.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Degn, Jens (1999). Hvad er helstaten? [What is the unitary state?] (in Danish). Fortid og Nutid. pp. 220–226.
- ^ "helstat". Den Danske Ordbog.
- ^ "helstat". Det Norske Akedemis Ordbok.
- ^ a b Holm, Edward (1885). Danmark-Norges indre Historie 1660-1720 (in Danish). Copenhagen: Forlaget for Universitetsboghandler. p. 72.
- ^ a b Olsen, Albert (1936). Danmark-Norge i det 18. Aarhundred [Denmark-Norway the 19th century] (in Danish). Gyldendal. pp. 75, 143.
- ^ a b c Jensen, Hans (1938). Dansk-norsk Vekselvirkning i det 18. Aarhundrede (in Danish). Fortid og Nutid.
- ^ la Cour, Vilhelm (1943). Mellem brødre [Between Brothers] (in Danish). Eget.
- ^ Fedbæk, Ole. Danmark-Norge 1380-1814 (in Danish). Vol. IV. p. 381.
- ^ Arup, Erik (1903). Den finansielle side af erhvervelsen af hertugdømmerne 1460-1487 [The financial side of the acquisition of the duchies 1460-1487] (in Danish). Historisk Tidsskrift.
- ^ Hansen, Hans. Arkiver fra hertugdømmerne Slesvig og Holsten indtil 1864. Historisk Tidsskrift.
- ^ a b Den Store Danske Encyklopædi, bd. 8, 1997, s. 370
- ^ Statsrådets forhandlinger 1848-63. Vol. III. p. 96.
- ^ Dahl, Christian (1999). dagbog fra Den grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling 1848-49. Claus Bjørn and Christian Larsen.
- ^ Povl, Bagge. Danske politiske breve fra 1830erne og 1840ern. Vol. I.
- ^ Molbech, Christian (1859). Ordbog over det danske Sprog (in Danish). Private. p. 895.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s NATIONALSTATEN (PDF) (in Danish). Roskilde Universitet. pp. 36–46.
- ^ a b c Feldbæk, Ole. Fædreland og Indfødsret. 1700-tallets danske identitet (in Danish). Vol. I. p. 137.
- ^ a b c Winge, Vibeke (1991). Tyskerfejden 1789-1790 [The German Fued 1789-1790] (in Danish). Vol. II.
- ^ Geisler, Jens (2022). "Juleaftensfejden". Dansk Militærhistorie.
- ^ "Indfødsretten". Den Store Danske (in Danish). Retrieved 16 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d Frandsen, Steen. "Holstens indlemmelse 1806". Graenseforeningen.
- ^ a b c d e f g Frandsen, Steen (2008). Holsten i helstaten (in Danish). Historisk Tidsskrift. pp. 330–340.
- ^ a b Glenthøj, Rasmus (2012). Skilsmissen. Dansk og norsk identitet før og efter 1814 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 181.
- ^ Gøbel, Erik. Danske oversøiske handelskompagnier i 17. og 18. århundrede. En forskningsoversigt (PDF).
- ^ "Freden i Kiel 14. januar 1814". danmarkshistorien.dk.
- ^ Rasmussen, Hertel. Dansk udenrigspolitik 1812-1813. Historisk Tidsskrift.
- ^ Blomes depeche herom. Danske Magazin. p. 72.
- ^ grosstuchen.de Prussian payment for Swedish Pomerania
- ^ a b Kulturnet Danmark, Guide to the Danish Golden Age Archived 2006-01-10 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Jon Gunnar Arntzen. "Frederik 6". Norsk biografisk leksikon. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
- ^ a b c Kjærsgaard, Simon (2018). HISTORIER OM DEMOKRATI [History of Democracy] (PDF) (in Danish). danmarkshistorien.dk. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-87-999852-6-5.
- ^ Bjørn, Claus (2003). Fra helstat til nationalstat (in Danish).
- ^ a b Jørgensen, Claus. "Fra enevældig helstat til nationalstat, 1814-1914". Danmarkshistorien.dk.
- ^ "Kritik af enevælden og debat om Slesvig". danmarkshistorien.dk (in Danish). 2018-05-18. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 2018-06-11.
- ^ 103982@au.dk (2018-05-18). "Marts 1848". danmarkshistorien.dk (in Danish). Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 2018-06-11.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Orla Lehmanns tale 'Danmark til Ejderen', 28. maj 1842". Danmarkshistorien.dk.
- ^ Bjørn, Claus (2 December 2014). "up ewig ungedeelt". Lex.dk.
- ^ "christian 8 1786-1848". danmarkshistorien.dk (in Danish). 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2018-06-10.
- ^ Folketinget Archived 7 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "Marts 1848". danmarkshistorien.dk (in Danish). 2018-05-18. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 2018-06-11.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Adriansen, Inge. The First Schleswig War. Tøjhusmuseet. pp. 13–20.
- ^ Schlürmann, Jan. "The Schleswig-Holstein Rebellion". Archived from the original on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
These three southern regions of the Danish "Gesamtstaat" or "Helstaten" (common name for the union of the kingdom and the duchies) made up about one half of the monarchy's economic power.
- ^ Stenild, Jesper. "Battle of Bov – 9th of April 1848". Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
- ^ a b Frantzen, Ole (2003). Danmark i krig [Denmark at War] (in Danish). Gyldendal. ISBN 87-03-00990-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g Davis, John (2000). Threats and Promises The Pursuit of International Influence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 9780801862960.
- ^ "Rytterfægtningen" (in Danish). Aarhus National Archives. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
- ^ Hjelholt, Holger (1971). Great Britain, the Danish–German conflict and the Danish succession 1850–1852: From the London Protocol to the Treaty of London (the 2nd of August 1850 and the 8th of May 1852). Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard. p. 38.
- ^ a b c "Londontraktaten, 8. maj 1852". Danmarkshistorien.dk.
- ^ a b c Bjørn, Claus (2014). "Helstatsforfatningen". Lex.dk.
- ^ a b c Hauge, Mads. Christian 9. og Dronning Louise (PDF) (in Danish). De Danske Kongers Kronologiske Samling.
- ^ a b c d Michael., Embree (2006). Bismarck's first war : the campaign of Schleswig and Jutland 1864. Solihull: Helion. ISBN 978-1-906033-03-3.
- ^ van der Schriek, Jef; van der Schriek, Max (2011). "'Up ewig Ungedeelt!' Schleswig-Holstein 1864–1920". Journal of Conflict Archaeology. 6 (2): 154. ISSN 1574-0773. JSTOR 48601730.
- ^ "Düppeldenkmal". schutzgebiete.de. 23 December 2018.
- ^ From da:2. Slesvigske Krig#Afsluttende kampe (in Danish)
- ^ a b Hemmeligt arkiv: Kongen tilbød Danmark til tyskerne efter 1864 18 August 2010 (politiken.dk)
- ^ "The defeat of Austria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- ^ Glenthøj, Rasmus (8 April 2019). "The Long Shadow of a Defeat". www.carlsbergfondet.dk. Copenhagan: Carlsberg Foundation. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
The status of the war within Danish history is reflected in the fact, that it is normally referred to simply as '1864', the year the war was fought. The defeat marked the end of the Danish-German composite state, the formation of the Danish nation-state, and the creation of modern-day Denmark. It is seen as a national trauma that gave birth to an existential angst and it has been claimed that the defeat is central to any grasp of Danish identity, culture, history, and politics.
- ^ Greßhake, Florian (June 2011). Contested Cultural Heritage – Contested Space. Discourses on the Museum Landscape in the Danish-German Border Region (PDF). Current Issues in European Cultural Studies. p. 198 – via Linköping University Electronic Press.
- ^ Johann Schioldann-Nielsen, "Prime Minister D. G. Monrad: manic-depressive disorder and political leadership", History of Psychiatry, March 1996 7: 063-90. Accessed 15 February 2016
- ^ Sir Richard Francis Burton (1875). Ultima Thule: Or, A Summer in Iceland. Original from the University of Michigan: W.P. Nimmo. p. 104.
National Liberal Party denmark.
- ^ "Den gennemsete Grundlov af 28. juli 1866". Danmarkshistorien.dk.
- ^ Lange, Ove. "Påskekrisen 1920". Lex.dk.