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Adding local short description: "Inconsistent application of principles", overriding Wikidata description "application of different sets of justifications for situations that are essentially the same" (Shortdesc helper) |
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{{short description|Inconsistent application of principles}} |
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A '''double standard''' is the application of different sets of principles for situations that are, in principle, the same |
A '''double standard''' is the application of different sets of [[Principle|principles]] for situations that are, in principle, the same.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of double standard |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/double-standard|access-date=2020-07-27|website=dictionary.com|language=en}}</ref> It is often used to describe treatment whereby one group is given more latitude than another.<ref>{{cite web |last1=(no author) |title=double standard |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/double-standard |website=collinsdictionary.com |publisher=[[HarperCollins Publishers]] |accessdate=3 March 2019 |format=Web article}}</ref> A double-standard arises when two or more people, groups, organizations, circumstances, or events are treated differently even though they should be treated the same way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/double-standard|title=double standard Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en|access-date=9 June 2018}}</ref> Margaret Eichler, author of ''The Double Standard: A Feminist Critique of Feminist Social Science,'' explains that a double standard “implies that two things which are the same are measured by different standards”.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eichler |first1=Margaret |location=London, U.K.|title=The Double Standard: A Feminist Critique of Feminist Social Science |date=1980 |publisher=[[Croom Helm]] |isbn=978-0-85664-536-5 |page=15 |language=English |type=Print}}</ref> |
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Applying different principles to similar |
Applying different principles to similar situations may or may not indicate a double standard. To distinguish between the application of a double standard and a valid application of different standards toward circumstances that only ''appear'' to be the same, several factors must be examined. One is the [[sameness]] of those circumstances – what are the parallels between those circumstances, and in what ways do they differ? Another is the [[philosophy]] or [[belief system]] informing which principles should be applied to those circumstances. Different standards can be applied to situations that appear similar based on a qualifying [[truth]] or [[fact]] that, upon closer examination, renders those situations distinct (i.e. a [[Physical world|physical]] reality, a [[moral]] obligation etc.). However, if similar-looking situations have been treated according to different principles and there is no truth, fact or [[principle]] that distinguishes those situations, then a double standard has been applied. |
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If correctly identified, a double standard is viewed negatively as it usually indicates the presence of [[Hypocrisy|hypocritical]], [[wikt:bias|bias]]ed and/or unfair attitudes leading to [[unjust]] behaviors. |
If correctly identified, a double standard is viewed negatively as it usually indicates the presence of [[Hypocrisy|hypocritical]], [[wikt:bias|bias]]ed and/or unfair attitudes leading to [[unjust]] behaviors. |
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==Examples and common issues== |
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{{See also|Double standard of aging}} |
{{See also|Double standard of aging}} |
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===Gender=== |
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The role that gender plays in determining people's [[moral]], [[social]], [[Politics|political]], and [[Law|legal]] |
The [[Gender role|role that the gender]] of someone plays in determining people's [[moral]], [[social]], [[Politics|political]], and [[Law|legal]] responses to them has been long-debated. Some believe that differences in the way men and women are perceived and treated is a function of social and [[Social environment|environmental]] norms, thus indicating a double standard. One claim is that a double standard exists in society's judgment of women's and men's sexual conduct. Research has found that casual sexual activity is regarded as more acceptable for men than for women.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vrangalova Ph.D. |first1=Zhana |title=Is Our Sexual Double Standard Going Away? |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/strictly-casual/201403/is-our-sexual-double-standard-going-away |work=[[Psychology Today]] |publisher=[[Sussex Publishers]], LLC |accessdate=20 February 2019 |format=Web article |date=3 March 2014}}</ref> According to some, double standards between men and women can potentially exist with regards to [[dating]], [[cohabitation]], [[virginity]], [[marriage]]/[[remarriage]], [[sexual abuse]]/[[Sexual assault|assault]]/[[Sexual harassment|harassment]], [[domestic violence]], and [[singleness]]. |
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Other research contends that women are held to stricter standards of competency than men, as shown in studies involving the completion of perceptual tasks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foschi |first1=Martha |title=Double Standards in the Evaluation of Men and Women |journal=Social Psychology Quarterly |date=September 1996 |volume=59, No. 3 |issue=Special Issue: Gender and Social Interaction |pages=237–254 |doi=10.2307/2787021 |publisher=American Sociological Association|jstor=2787021 }}</ref> |
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=== The Law === |
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⚫ | A double standard may arise if two or more groups who have equal rights |
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===Law=== |
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⚫ | A double standard may arise if two or more groups who have equal legal rights are given different degrees of legal protection or representation. Such double standards are seen as unjustified because they violate a common [[Legal maxim|maxim]] of modern legal [[jurisprudence]] - that all parties should stand equal before the law. Where [[judge]]s are expected to be impartial, they must apply the same standards to all people regardless of their own subjective [[biases]] or [[In-group favoritism|favoritism]] based on [[social class]], [[Social rank|rank]], [[Ethnic group|ethnicity]], [[gender]], [[religion]], [[sexual orientation]], age, or other distinctions. |
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⚫ | A double standard arises in [[politics]] when the treatment of the same political matters between two or more parties (such as the response to a public crisis or the allocation of funding) is handled differently. This could occur because of the nature of political relationships between those tasked with these matters, the degree of reward or power that stands to be gained/lost, or the personal biases/[[prejudice]]s of politicians. |
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===Politics=== |
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The following phrase became an example of policy of double standards: "One man's [[terrorist]] is another man's [[freedom fighter]]",<ref>Satish Chandra Pandey. [https://books.google.com/books?id=T3bAfe2xIH0C&pg=PA17 International Terrorism and the Contemporary World]. Sarup & Sons, 2006. С. 17.</ref> entered into use by the British writer [[Gerald Seymour]] in his work ''[[Harry's Game]]'' in 1975. |
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⚫ | A double standard arises in [[politics]] when the treatment of the same political matters between two or more parties (such as the response to a public crisis or the allocation of funding) is handled differently. This could occur because of the nature of political relationships between those tasked with these matters, the degree of reward or power that stands to be gained/lost, or the personal biases/[[prejudice]]s of politicians. |
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Double standard policies can include situations when a country's or commentator's assessment of the same phenomenon, process or event in [[international relations]] depends on their relationship with or attitude to the parties involved.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} The following phrase became an example of such double standards: "One man's [[terrorist]] is another man's [[freedom fighter]]",<ref>{{Citation|last=Farooqi|first=Anis|title=Gujral, Satish|year=2003|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t035630|work=Oxford Art Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=2020-07-27}}</ref> entered into use by the British writer [[Gerald Seymour]] in his work ''[[Harry's Game]]'' in 1975. |
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Double standards exist when people are preferred or rejected on the basis of their ethnicity in situations in which ethnicity is not a relevant or justifiable factor for discrimination (as might be the case for a cultural performance or ethnic ceremony). |
Double standards exist when people are preferred or rejected on the basis of their ethnicity in situations in which ethnicity is not a relevant or justifiable factor for discrimination (as might be the case for a cultural performance or ethnic ceremony). |
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Ironically, the intentional efforts of some people to counteract [[racism]] and ethnic double standards can sometimes be interpreted by others as actually perpetuating racism and double standards among ethnic groups. Writing for [[The American Conservative]], Rob Dreher recounts the true story of [[Coleman Hughes]], a black student at [[Columbia University]], who was given an opportunity to play in a backup band for Grammy-award-winning pop artist [[Rihanna]] at the 2016 [[MTV Video Music Award]]s Show. According to Hughes, several of his friends were also invited, however, one of them was fired and replaced because his white Hispanic background did not suit the all-black aesthetic that Rihanna's team had chosen for her show. The team had decided that all performers on stage were to be black, aside from Rihanna's regular guitar player.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dreher |first1=Rod |title=The Racial Double Standard |url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/dreher/coleman-hughes-racial-double-standard/ |accessdate=9 March 2019 | |
Ironically, the intentional efforts of some people to counteract [[racism]] and ethnic double standards can sometimes be interpreted by others as actually perpetuating racism and double standards among ethnic groups. Writing for ''[[The American Conservative]]'', Rob Dreher recounts the true story of [[Coleman Hughes]], a black student at [[Columbia University]], who was given an opportunity to play in a backup band for Grammy-award-winning pop artist [[Rihanna]] at the 2016 [[MTV Video Music Award]]s Show. According to Hughes, several of his friends were also invited, however, one of them was fired and replaced because his white Hispanic background did not suit the all-black aesthetic that Rihanna's team had chosen for her show. The team had decided that all performers on stage were to be black, aside from Rihanna's regular guitar player.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dreher |first1=Rod |title=The Racial Double Standard |url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/dreher/coleman-hughes-racial-double-standard/ |accessdate=9 March 2019 |work=The American Conservative |date=5 June 2018}}</ref> |
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Hughes was uncertain about whether he believed this action was unethical, given that the show was racially themed to begin with. He observed what he believed to be a double standard in the entertainment industry, saying, "if a black musician had been fired in order to achieve an all-white aesthetic — it would have made front page headlines. It would have been seen as an unambiguous moral infraction." Hughes's observations highlight the difficulty many people have in distinguishing between the exclusion of one ethnic group in order to celebrate another, and the exclusion of an ethnic group as the exercise of racism or a double standard. |
Hughes was uncertain about whether he believed this action was unethical, given that the show was racially themed to begin with. He observed what he believed to be a double standard in the entertainment industry, saying, "if a black musician had been fired in order to achieve an all-white aesthetic — it would have made front page headlines. It would have been seen as an unambiguous moral infraction." Hughes's observations highlight the difficulty many people have in distinguishing between the exclusion of one ethnic group in order to celebrate another, and the exclusion of an ethnic group as the exercise of racism or a double standard. The article also discussed another incident, in which ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' columnist [[Bari Weiss]], who is Jewish, was heavily criticized for tweeting, "Immigrants: They get the job done," in a positive reference to [[Mirai Nagasu]], a Japanese-American Olympic ice skater, who Weiss was trying to honor. The public debate about ethnicity and double standards remains controversial and, by all appearances, will continue to be a subject of public debate. |
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==Causes and explanations== |
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Double standards are believed to develop in people's minds for a multitude of possible reasons including: finding an excuse for oneself, emotions clouding judgement, twisting facts to support beliefs such as [[confirmation bias]]es, [[cognitive bias]]es, attraction biases, [[prejudice]]s, or the desire to be right. Human beings have a tendency to evaluate the actions of the people they interact with based on who did them. |
Double standards are believed to develop in people's minds for a multitude of possible reasons including: finding an excuse for oneself, emotions clouding judgement, twisting facts to support beliefs such as [[confirmation bias]]es, [[cognitive bias]]es, attraction biases, [[prejudice]]s, or the desire to be right. Human beings have a tendency to evaluate the actions of the people they interact with based on who did them. |
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In a study conducted in 2000, Dr. Martha Foschi observed the application of double standards in group competency tests. She concluded that [[Social status|status]] characteristics, such as [[gender]], [[ethnicity]] and [[socioeconomic class]], can provide a basis for the formation of double standards in which stricter standards are applied to people who are perceived to be in a "lower" status. Dr. Foschi also noted the ways in which double standards can form based on other socially valued attributes such as [[beauty]], [[morality]], and [[mental health]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foschi |first1=Martha |title=Double Standards for Competence: Theory and Research |journal=Annual Review of Sociology | |
In a study conducted in 2000, Dr. Martha Foschi observed the application of double standards in group competency tests. She concluded that [[Social status|status]] characteristics, such as [[gender]], [[ethnicity]] and [[socioeconomic class]], can provide a basis for the formation of double standards in which stricter standards are applied to people who are perceived to be in a "lower" status. Dr. Foschi also noted the ways in which double standards can form based on other socially valued attributes such as [[beauty]], [[morality]], and [[mental health]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foschi |first1=Martha |title=Double Standards for Competence: Theory and Research |journal=[[Annual Review of Sociology]] |year=2000 |volume=26 |pages=21–42 |publisher=Annual Reviews |language=English|jstor=223435 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.21 }}</ref> |
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Dr. Tristan Botelho and Dr. Mabel Abraham, Assistant Professors at the [[Yale School of Management]] and [[Columbia Business School]], studied the effect that gender has on the way people rank others in the financial market setting. Their research showed that average-quality men were given the benefit of the doubt more than average-quality women, who were more often "penalized" in people's judgments. Botelho and Abraham also proved that women and men are similarly risk-loving, contrary to [[popular belief]]. Altogether, their research showed that double standards (at least in the financial market setting) do exist with regards to gender. They encourage the adoption of controls to eliminate [[gender bias]] in application, hiring, and evaluation processes within organizations. Examples of such controls include using only [[initials]] on applications so that applicants' genders are not apparent, or auditioning [[musicians]] from behind a screen so that their skills, and not their gender, influence their acceptance or rejection into [[orchestras]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dr. Tristan Botelho |author2=Dr. Mabel Abraham |title=Pursuing Quality: How Search Costs and Uncertainty Magnify Gender-based Double Standards in a Multistage Evaluation Process |journal=Administrative Science Quarterly |date= |
Dr. Tristan Botelho and Dr. Mabel Abraham, Assistant Professors at the [[Yale School of Management]] and [[Columbia Business School]], studied the effect that gender has on the way people rank others in the financial market setting. Their research showed that average-quality men were given the benefit of the doubt more than average-quality women, who were more often "penalized" in people's judgments. Botelho and Abraham also proved that women and men are similarly risk-loving, contrary to [[popular belief]]. Altogether, their research showed that double standards (at least in the financial market setting) do exist with regards to gender. They encourage the adoption of controls to eliminate [[gender bias]] in application, hiring, and evaluation processes within organizations. Examples of such controls include using only [[initials]] on applications so that applicants' genders are not apparent, or auditioning [[musicians]] from behind a screen so that their skills, and not their gender, influence their acceptance or rejection into [[orchestras]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dr. Tristan Botelho |author2=Dr. Mabel Abraham |title=Pursuing Quality: How Search Costs and Uncertainty Magnify Gender-based Double Standards in a Multistage Evaluation Process |journal=Administrative Science Quarterly |date=1 December 2017 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=698–730 |doi=10.1177/0001839217694358 |url=https://www.gendereconomy.org/double-standards-in-evaluation/ |accessdate=9 March 2019 |language=English |format=Journal article}}</ref> Practices like these are, according to Botelho and Abraham, already being implemented in a number of organizations. |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Society}} |
{{Portal|Society}} |
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{{Div col|colwidth=30em}} |
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* [[Discrimination]] |
* [[Discrimination]] |
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* [[Double bind]] |
* [[Double bind]] |
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* [[Psychological projection]] |
* [[Psychological projection]] |
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* [[Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)]] |
* [[Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)]] |
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{{Div col end|Moral Duality=}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* Axinn, William G., et al. “Gender Double Standards in Parenting Attitudes.” ''Social Science Research'', vol. 40, no. 2, 2011, pp. 417–432., doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.08.010. |
* Axinn, William G., et al. “Gender Double Standards in Parenting Attitudes.” ''[[Social Science Research]]'', vol. 40, no. 2, 2011, pp. 417–432., doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.08.010. |
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* {{ |
* {{Cite book | last=Pollmann | first=K. | title=Double Standards in the Ancient and Medieval World | publisher=[[Duehrkohp & Radicke]] | year=2000 | isbn=978-3-89744-110-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s31wQgAACAAJ | access-date=30 November 2017 | page=}} 327 pages. |
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* {{ |
* {{Cite book | last=Henrard | first=K. | title=Double Standards Pertaining to Minority Protection | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | series=Nijhoff eBook titles | year=2010 | isbn=978-90-04-18579-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnqhSgAACAAJ | access-date=30 November 2017 | page=}} 440 pages. |
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* Hudspeth, Christopher. “8 Modern Day Double Standards.” ''Thought Catalog'', 26 July 2012, thoughtcatalog.com/cehudspeth/2012/07/8-modern-day-double-standards/. |
* Hudspeth, Christopher. “8 Modern Day Double Standards.” ''Thought Catalog'', 26 July 2012, thoughtcatalog.com/cehudspeth/2012/07/8-modern-day-double-standards/. |
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* {{ |
* {{Cite book | last=Peterson | first=N. | title=Studs and Sluts: Virginity-loss Scripts and Sexual Double Standards Among College-age Students | publisher=[[Coe College]] | year=2015 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iszejwEACAAJ | access-date=30 November 2017 | page=}} 127 pages. |
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*{{cite book |title=Double Standard: Social Policy in Europe and the United States |first1=James W. |last1=Russell |year=2011 |
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|location=Lanham, Maryland|isbn=1442206594 |type=E-book |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]]}} |
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* Thomas, Keith. “The Double Standard.” ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', vol. 20, no. 2, Apr. 1959, pp. 195–216., doi:10.2307/2707819. |
* Thomas, Keith. “The Double Standard.” ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', vol. 20, no. 2, Apr. 1959, pp. 195–216., doi:10.2307/2707819. |
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* {{ |
* {{Cite book | last=Wood | first=B. | title=World Order and Double Standards: Peace and Security 1990-91 | publisher=[[Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security]] | year=1991 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSaYAQAACAAJ | access-date=30 November 2017 | page=}} 37 pages. |
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