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{{Infobox Former Country |
{{Infobox Former Country |
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| native_name = {{lang|so| |
| native_name = {{lang|so|Dhaqdhaqaaqa Daraawiishta}} |
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| conventional_long_name = Dervish movement |
| conventional_long_name = Dervish movement |
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| common_name = Dervish |
| common_name = Dervish |
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| year_start = |
| year_start = 1899 |
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| year_end = 1920 |
| year_end = 1920 |
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| date_start. = |
| date_start. = |
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| date_end = 9 February |
| date_end = 9 February |
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| event1 = |
| event1 = |
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| date_event1 = |
| date_event1 = |
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| capital = [[Eyl]] (1905-1909)<br>[[Taleh]] (1913-1920) |
| capital = [[Eyl]] (1905-1909)<br>[[Taleh]] (1913-1920) |
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| title_leader = Leader |
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| title_leader = chieftain<ref name="indianauniversity"/><br>sultan<ref name="indianauniversity"/><br>emir<ref name="indianauniversity"/> |
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| leader1 = [[ |
| leader1 = [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]] |
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| year_leader1 = |
| year_leader1 = 1899-1920 |
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| religion = |
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The '''Somali Dervish movement''' ({{lang-so|Dhaqdhaqaaqii Daraawiishta}}) was a popular movement that developed in eastern [[Somaliland]] between 1899 and 1920,<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352">{{cite book|author1=Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ|title=Dictionary of African Biography|author2=Mr. Steven J. Niven|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|pages=35–37}}</ref><ref name="Mohamoud2006p602">{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=60–61, 70–72 with footnotes}}</ref> which was led by the [[Salihiyya]] [[Sufi]] Muslim poet and militant leader [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], also known as Sayyid Mohamed, who called for independence from the British and Italian colonies on the Somali peninsula, the defeat of [[Kingdom of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|forces]], the expulsion of [[Christianity]] and the establishment of a state in Somaliland.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352" /><ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /> The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.<ref>Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147</ref> Hassan established a ruling council called the ''Khususi'' consisting of Islamic clan leaders and elders, added an adviser from the [[Ottoman Empire]] named Muhammad Ali and thus created a multi-clan Islamic movement in what led to the eventual creation of the [[Somalia|state of Somalia]].<ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /><ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Mohamed|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|date=2003|page=27}}</ref> |
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The '''Dervish movement''' ({{lang-so|Imaaraatka, Saldanadii iyo Cuqaasha Daraawiish}}) was a principality, chieftainship, emirate and sultanate<ref name=":0"/> that first developed among the Ali Gheri clan<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abdi |first1=Abdulqadir |title=Divine Madness |date=1993 |publisher=Zed Books |page=101 |quote=to the Dervish cause, such as the Ali Gheri, the Mullah's maternal kinsmen and his first converts. In fact, Swayne had instructions to fine the Ali Gheri 1000 camels for possible use in the upcoming campaign}}</ref><ref name="AngusHamilton"/> between 1895 and 1920,<ref name="xasan">Diiwaanka gabayadii, 1856-1921 , Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan · 1999 , PAGE 219</ref><ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35" /><ref name="Mohamoud2006p60" />, which had a [[polyarchy]] of leaders,<ref name="indianauniversity"/> who called for independence from the British, Abyssinian and Italian colonies.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/><ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/> and the establishment of a state in [[Nugaal]].<ref name="dervishletter"/> They had a ruling council called the ''Khususi'' consisting of decision-makers, thus formed an emirate, sultanate and chieftainship<ref name="indianauniversity"/> which later inspired the [[Somali Youth League]],<ref name="Lewisapd">I. M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.304.</ref> an influential progenitor to the [[Somalia|state of Somalia]].<ref name="Mohamoud2006p60">{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC |year=2006|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=60–61, 70–72 with footnotes}}</ref><ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35">{{cite book|author1=Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong|author2=Mr. Steven J. Niven|title=Dictionary of African Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|pages=35–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mukhtar |first1=Mohamed |title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia |date=2003 |page=27}}</ref> |
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The Dervish movement attracted between 5,000 and 6,000 youth from different clans over 1899 and 1900, acquired firearms and then attacked the Ethiopian army in the [[Jigjiga region]]. The Ethiopians retreated and then gave the Dervishes their first military victory.<ref name="Samatar1989p382">{{cite book|author=Abdi Ismail Samatar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aAojTjUUrI0C&pg=PA38|title=The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884-1986|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-299-11994-2|pages=38–39}}</ref>{{refn|The term Dervish, states Abdullah A. Mohamoud citing Beachey, has origins in the Turkish ''dervi'' or Persian ''darvesh''. It means "ardent fighters for Islam" with an austere lifestyle.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC |year=2006|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|page=71 with footnote 81}}</ref>|group=note}} The Dervish movement then declared the colonial administration in [[British Somaliland]] as their enemy. To end the movement, the British sought out the competing Somali clans as coalition partners against the Dervish movement. The British provided these clans with firearms and supplies to fight against the Dervishes. Punitive attacks were launched against Dervish strongholds in 1904.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352" /><ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /> The Dervish movement suffered losses in the field, regrouped into smaller units and resorted to [[guerrilla warfare]]. Hasan and his loyalist Dervishes moved into the Italian-controlled Somaliland in 1905 after Hasan signed the Illig treaty, under which the Dervishes were ceded the [[Nugaal Valley]],<ref name="samat2">{{cite book|last1=Smtar|first1=Ahmed|title=Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality|date=1988|publisher=[[Zed Books]]|page=32|quote=the allocation of part of the Nugaal valley - in between the British and Italian Somalilands – to Dervish rule}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Njoku|first1=Raphael Chijioke|title=The History of Somalia|date=2013|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|pages=78|quote=}}</ref> which strengthened his movement,<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352" /> and Hasan subsequently received an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Harold|title=Somalia, a Country Study|date=1982|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|page=18|quote=but in 1905 the British accepted Italian mediation in arranging a truce that conferred on the imam an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status in the Nugaal (Nogal) Valley. Mohamed Abdullah did not gain extensive support in Italian Somaliland, although some clans there declared themselves dervishes and robbed cattle from the herds of other Somalis who were deemed to accommodating to the Italians}}</ref> In 1908, the Dervishes entered the British Somaliland again and began inflicting major losses to the British in the interior regions of the Horn of Africa. The British retreated to the coastal regions, leaving the chaotic interior regions in the hands of the Dervishes. During 1905-1910 the Dervishes lost much of their support due to their indiscriminate raids against allies and enemies alike, with several followers subsequently leaving the Dervishes after Hasan was supposedly excommunicated by the head of the Salihiyyah tariqa in Mecca in a famous letter.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mukhtar|first=Mohamed Haji|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/268778107|title=Historical dictionary of Somalia|date=2003|publisher=Scarecrow Press|others=|isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1|edition=|location=Lanham, Md.|pages=197|oclc=268778107}}</ref> |
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The [[World War I|First World War]] shifted the attention of the British elsewhere, although upon its conclusion, in 1920 the British launched a massive combined arms offensive on the [[Taleh]] forts, strongholds of the Dervish movement.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /><ref name="Samatar1989p382" /> The offensive caused significant casualties among the Dervishes, although the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan managed to escape. His death in 1921 due to either [[malaria]] or [[influenza]] ended the Dervish movement.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p352" /><ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /><ref name="ShultzDew2009p672">{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat|author2=Andrea J. Dew|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68}}</ref> |
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The Dervish movement temporarily created a "proto-state" in early 20th-century with |
The Dervish movement temporarily created a mobile Somali "proto-state" in early 20th-century with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population.<ref name="hoehne20162">{{cite book|author=Markus V. Hoehne|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2016|isbn=978-11184-406-43|editor=John M Mackenzie|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069}}</ref> It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The battles between various sides over two decades killed nearly a third of Somaliland's population and ravaged the local economy.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p672" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Michel Ben Arrous|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PQK68LNtjcC|title=African Studies in Geography from Below|author2=Lazare Ki-Zerbo|publisher=African Books|year=2009|isbn=978-2-86978-231-0|page=166}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Robert L. Hess|year=1964|title=The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia|journal=The Journal of African History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=5|pages=415–433|doi=10.1017/S0021853700005107|jstor=179976|number=3}}</ref> Scholars variously interpret the emergence and demise of the militant Dervish movement in Somalia. Some consider the "Sufi Islamic" ideology as the driver, others consider economic crisis to the nomadic lifestyle triggered by the occupation and "colonial predation" ideology as the trigger for the Dervish movement, while post-modernists state that both religion and nationalism created the Dervish movement.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p602" /> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Origins=== |
=== Origins === |
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{{See also|Mohammed Abdullah Hassan}} |
{{See also|Mohammed Abdullah Hassan}}{{multiple image |
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| image1 = Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.jpeg |
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| image1 = Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.jpeg |
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| image2 = Mohammed Abdullah Hassan-dj.jpg |
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| image2 = Mohammed Abdullah Hassan-dj.jpg |
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| footer = [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], leader of the Dervish movement. |
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| footer = [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], emir of the Dervish chieftainship-sultanate-emirate. |
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[[File:Darwiish khusuusi aw abdullah ibrahim.jpg|thumb|[[Aw Abdille Ibrahim]] (pictured) and [[Yusuf Agararan]] were governors in the [[Cal (Darawiish)|Cal (Dervish)]] region.]] |
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According to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, traditional Somali society followed a decentralized structure and a nomadic lifestyle dependent on livestock and pastureland. It was also predominantly Muslim.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353">{{cite book|author1=Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ|title=Dictionary of African Biography|author2=Mr. Steven J. Niven|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|pages=35–37}}</ref><ref name="Mohamoud2006p603">{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=60–61, 70–72 with footnotes}}</ref> As the European colonial powers expanded their reach in the [[Horn of Africa]], the region of Somalia came under the influence of the Ethiopians, the British and the Italians. Ethiopia on its part, focused more on the Ogaden region as their forces were ambushed and defeated by the Geledi in the battle of luuq despite having a large force of riflemen,artillery and horsemen. This caused Ethiopia to rethink its strategy of conquering the coastal southern region and focused on the hinterlands of the Ogaden.<ref name="Divine Madness2">{{cite book|author=Abdi Abdulqadir Sheik-'Abdi|url=https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/998001613506421|title=Divine madness : Mohammed 'Abdulle Hassan (1856-1920)|publisher=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|year=1993|isbn=0862324432:0862324440 (pbk.)|pages=69}}</ref> With foreign rule came the centralization of the economy, which greatly upset the traditional lifestock and pastureland based livelihood of the Somalis. The foreign powers were also all Christians, which created additional suspicions amongst the Somali religious elite.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p603" /> The Ethiopian troops had already proved to be a bane for the Somalis as they were the traditional raiders and plunderers of their grazing herds due to the Dervish raids. The arrival of the [[Colonialism|colonial powers]] and the consequent [[Scramble for Africa|partitioning of Africa]] greatly affected the Somalis, with Sufi poets such as Faarax Nuur writing poems expressing his opposition to foreign rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=70 with footnote 79}}</ref> The Dervish movement can thus be seen as a reaction against the establishment of foreign control in Ethiopia.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p603" /> |
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According to Marion Star, and Angus Hamilton, and [[Auckland Star]], the Ali Gheri clan were the first tribe to adopt the Darawiish (Dervish) identity.<ref name="AngusHamilton">*{{cite book |last1=Bartram |first1=R |title=The annihilation of Colonel Plunkett's force |date=1903 |publisher=The Marion Star |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/296280296/ |quote=By his marriage he extended his influence from Abyssinia, on the west, to the borders of Italian Somaliland, on the east. The '''Ali Gheri were his first''' followers.}}<br>*{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Angus |title=Field Force |publisher= [[Hutchinson & Co]] |date=1911 |page=50 |url=https://archive.org/stream/dli.ministry.06400/209.94.A.61_djvu.txt |quote=it appeared for the nonce as if he were content with the homage paid to his learnings and devotional sincerity by the Ogaden and Dolbahanta tribes. The '''Ali Gheri were his first followers'''}}<br>*{{cite book |last1=Leys |first1=Thomson |title=The British Sphere |publisher=[[Auckland Star]] |date=1903 |page=5 |url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/imageserver/newspapers/P29pZD1BUzE5MDMwNDI0LjEuNSZnZXRwZGY9dHJ1ZQ== |quote='''Ali Gheri were his first''' followers, while these were presently joined by two sections of the Ogaden}}</ref> Somali society followed a decentralized structure and was nomadic,<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/><ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/> whereupon colonial powers of Abyssinia, Italy and the British expanded their reach, the former focused on the hinterlands; the latter two on the coast..<ref name="Divine Madness">{{cite book|author= Abdi Abdulqadir Sheik-'Abdi|title=Divine madness : Mohammed 'Abdulle Hassan (1856-1920)|url=https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/998001613506421|year=1993|publisher=Atlantic Highlands, N.J.|isbn=0862324432:0862324440 (pbk.)|pages=69}}</ref> |
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With foreign rule came the centralization of the economy, which greatly upset the traditional lifestock and pastureland based livelihood of the Somalis.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/> The Ethiopian troops had already proved to be a bane for the Somalis as they were the traditional raiders and plunderers of their grazing herds due to the Dervish raids. The arrival of the [[Colonialism|colonial powers]] and the consequent [[Scramble for Africa|partitioning of Africa]] greatly affected the Somalis, with Sufi poets such as Faarax Nuur writing poems expressing his opposition to foreign rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC |year=2006|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=70 with footnote 79}}</ref><ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/> |
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The Dervish movement was led by a Sufi poet and religious nationalist leader named [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]], also known as Sayid ''Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan''.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353" /> According to Said M. Mohamed, he was born in [[Sacmadeeqa|Sacmadeeqo]] sometime between 1856 and 1864 to a father who was a religious teacher.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353" /> He studied in Somali Islamic seminaries and later went on Hajj to Mecca where he met Shaykh Muhammad Salah of the [[Tariqa|Salihiya Islamic Tariqah]], which states ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'' was a "militant, reformist, and puritanical Sufi order".<ref name="britannicahasan2">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sayyid-Maxamed-Cabdulle-Xasan Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref><ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353" /> The preachings of Salah to Hasan had roots in Saudi [[Wahhabism]], and it considered it a religious duty "to wage a holy war (jihad) against all other forms of Islam, the Western and Christian presence in the Muslim world, and a religious revival", state Richard Shultz and Andrea Dew.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p673">{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat|author2=Andrea J. Dew|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68}}</ref> When Hasan returned to the Horn of Africa, the Somali tradition states that he saw Somali children being converted to [[Christianity]] by missionaries in the British colony. Hasan began preaching against this religious conversion and the British presence. He earned the ire of the British colonial administration who termed him the 'mad mullah', and his Sufi teachings were also opposed by the rival Qadiriya Tariqah – another traditional Sufi group of the region, states Said M. Mohamed.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353" /><ref name="Motadel2014p172">{{cite book|author=David Motadel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUZYBAAAQBAJ|title=Islam and the European Empires|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-966831-1|pages=17–18 with footnotes 49–50, 165–166}}</ref> Another version of the early events link the illegal sale of a gun to Hasan by a corrupt Somali officer in 1899, who reported his gun as stolen rather than purchased by Hasan.<ref name="Njoku2013p752">{{cite book|author=Raphael Chijioke Njoku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C|title=The History of Somalia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2013|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|pages=75–76}}</ref> The British authorities demanded the gun's return, while Hasan replied that the British should leave the country, a sentiment he had previously claimed in 1897 when he declared himself "the leader of a sovereign nation".<ref name="Njoku2013p752" /> Hasan continued to preach against the British introduction of Christianity to Somalia, stating that the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children".<ref name="Njoku2013p752" /> |
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James Hayes Sadler, who was consul general, in a letter to the Marquess of Salisbury, attributed the creation of ''Darawiish'' to the parent clan of [[Bah Ali Gheri]], the Dhulbahante clan as a whole: |
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<blockquote>... the events of the past few months now force us to exercise greater interference than I should have contemplated for some time to come. Our hands have, so to say, been forced by this movement which originated in the Dolbahanta<ref name="parli">Parliamentary Papers: 1850-1908 - Page 31 |
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</ref></blockquote> |
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Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood,<ref name="britannicahasan2" /> rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries.<ref name="Motadel2014p1502">{{cite book|author=Benjamin Hopkins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUZYBAAAQBAJ|title=Islam and the European Empires|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-966831-1|editor=David Motadel|pages=150–151}}, Quote: "Men of religious learning and authority were well-positioned in these societies [Somaliland, Sudan, Northwest Frontier of British India] to straddle the disparate and often conflicting interests of local peoples. The protection of Islam became their rallying cry, providing a coherent narrative of and justification for resistance against the forces of colonialism, as well as a unifying force which superseded particularist tribal identities."</ref> These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or ''Daraawiish'', states Said M. Mohamed.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p353" /> |
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[[Douglas James Jardine]], who wrote the first retrospective book on the dervishes, likewise states that Dhulbahante created the Darawiish: |
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===Movement=== |
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<blockquote>and consciences were salved by the reflection that our obligation to protect the tribe from the man whom they themselves had created, supported and followed was less than our obligations to the Ishaak tribes who had for the most part resisted the movement from its very start. Moreover, as will be recalled, the Dolbahanta were the only tribe with whom we had no formal protective treaty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jardine |first1=Douglas |title=Mad Mullah of Somaliland |date=2015 |page=74}}</ref></blockquote> |
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[[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|260px|[[Taleh]] fortress, the Dervish capital.]] |
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The Dervish movement temporarily created a Somali "proto-state", according to Markus Hoehne.<ref name="hoehne20163">{{cite book|author=Markus V. Hoehne|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2016|isbn=978-11184-406-43|editor=John M Mackenzie|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069}}</ref> It was a mobile state with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population given the guerilla style militant approach of Dervishes and their practice of retreating to sparsely inhabited hinterland whenever the colonial forces with superior firearms overwhelmed them. At the head of this state was the Sufi leader Hasan with the power of final decision. Hasan surrounded himself with a group of commanders for the militant operations supported by the ''khusuusi'' or the Dervish council. Islamic judges settled disputes and enforced the Islamic law in this Dervish state. According to Robert Hess, two of Hasan's chief advisors were [[Nur Ahmed Aman|Sultan Nur]] – previously Habr Yunis chief, and [[Haji Sudi]] Shabeel also known as Ahmad Warsama from [[Adan Madoba]] [[Habr Je'lo]] who was fluent in English.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert L. Hess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=607jAAAAMAAJ|title=Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies|publisher=Boston University Press|year=1968|editor=Norman Robert Bennett|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=R. W. Beachey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920|publisher=Bellew|year=1990|isbn=978-0-947792-43-5|pages=37–44}}</ref> |
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According to Roman Loimeier, Dhulbahante being treatyless was the primary impetus behind the ''Darawiish'', with patricide victim sultan-garad Ali and his successor Diiriye Guure being the only extant heads of tribes in the north not to have signed a colonial treaty:<ref name="loimeier">{{cite book |last1=Loimeier |first1=Roman |title=Muslim Societies in Africa |date=2013 |page=204 |quote=The Dulbahante had a number of good reasons...: first, the British had not concluded a trade agreement or treaty with them and favored competing clans; second, the Dulbahante felt threatened by the Ethiopian advance into the Ogaden, which formed part of Dulbahante pastures}}</ref> |
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The constituent clans of the Dervish during the formative years belonged to sections of the Ogaden, Dhulbahante, Habr Je'lo and Habr Yunis clans:<blockquote>He acquired some notoriety by seditious preaching in Berbera in 1895, after which he returned to his tariga in Kob Faradod, in the Dolbahanta. Here he gradually acquired influence by stopping inter-tribal warfare, and eventually started a religious movement in which the Rer Ibrahim (Mukahil Ogaden), Ba Hawadle (Miyirwalal Ogaden) and the Ali Gheri (Dolbahanta) were the first to join. His emissaries also soon succeeded in winning over the Adan Madoba, notable amongst whom was Haji Sudi, his trusted lieutenant, and the [[Ahmed Farah|Ahmed Farih]] and Rer Yusuf, all Habr Toljaala, and the Musa Ismail of the Eastern Habr Yunis, Habr Gerhajis, with Sultan Nur.<ref>{{cite book|title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04|publisher=H. M. Stationery office|pages=49|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>Between 1900 and 1913, they operated from temporary local centers such as [[Aynabo]] and Illig in Somaliland.<ref name="hoehne20163" /> [[Neville Lyttelton]]'s War Office, and [[Charles Egerton (Indian Army officer)|General Egerton]] described the Nugaal as the "base of operations" against Dervishes.<ref>{{cite book|last1=War Office|first1=British|title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04|date=1907|page=315|quote=situated in every way for a base of operations in the Nogal which it was evident must form the theatre of war}}</ref> |
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{{Blockquote |
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[[File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png|thumb|Dervish Khususi, [[Haji Sudi]] on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. [[Aden]], 1892.]] |
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|text=The Dulbahante had a number of good reasons: first, the British had not concluded a trade agreement or treaty with them and favored competing clans; second, the Dulbahante felt threatened by the Ethiopian advance into the Ogaden, which formed part of Dulbahante pastures |
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The Dervishes wore white [[turban]] and its army utilized horses for movement. They assassinated opposing clan leaders.<ref name="hoehne20163" /> Dervish soldiers used the ''[[dhaanto]]'' and ''geeraar'' traditional dance-song to raise their ''esprit de corps'' and sometimes sang it on horseback.<ref name="Jhmpasots2">{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=John William|url=https://archive.org/details/heelloymodernpoe00john/page/31|title=Heelloy: Modern Poetry and Songs of the Somali|date=1996|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=1874209812|page=[https://archive.org/details/heelloymodernpoe00john/page/31 31]}}</ref> Hasan commanded the Dervish movement soldiers in a martial manner, ensuring that they were religiously committed, powered up for warfare and men of character sworn with an oath of allegiance.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p674">{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat|author2=Andrea J. Dew|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68}}</ref> To ensure unity among his troops, instead of letting them identify themselves by their different tribes, he made them identify themselves uniformly as Dervish.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saadia Touval|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c81yAAAAMAAJ|title=Somali nationalism: international politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1963|isbn=9780674818255|pages=57–59}}</ref> The movement obtained firearms from Sultan Boqor Osman Mahmud of [[Majerteen Sultanate]], as well as the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Sudan]]. In addition, the Dervishes also obtained significant armaments' from the [[Mohamed Abokor|Adan Madoba]] section of the Habr Je'lo clan where, according to the contemporary source ''Official History of the Operations in Somaliland'': "Of the former the Adan Madoba were not only responsible for supplying him [[Abdullah Hassan]] with arms, but also assisted him on all his raids."<ref>{{cite book|title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04|publisher=H. M. Stationery office|pages=41|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Njoku2013p753">{{cite book|author=Raphael Chijioke Njoku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C|title=The History of Somalia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2013|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|pages=75–76}}</ref> The Dervish fought many battles starting in 1899 against the Ethiopian troops.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p674" /> In 1904, the Dervishes were almost annihilated in Jidbaley. Hasan retreated into the Italian Somaliland and entered into a treaty with them, who accepted the control of Eyl port by the Dervishes. This port served as the Dervish headquarters between 1905 and 1909.<ref name="hoehne20163" /> During this period, Hasan rebuilt the Dervish movement army, the Dervishes raided and plundered their neighboring clans, and in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader [[Uways al-Barawi]] and burnt his settlement, according to Mohamed Mukhtar.<ref name="Mukhtar2003p1962">{{cite book|author=Mohamed Haji Mukhtar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1|pages=196–197}}</ref> |
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|author=Roman Loimeier |
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}} |
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In 1913, after the British withdrawal to the coast, the Dervishes created a walled town with fourteen fortresses in [[Taleh]] by importing masons from Yemen. This served as their headquarters.<ref name="macfadyen1252">W. A. MacFadyen (1931), ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1784443 Taleh]'', The Geographical Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 125–128</ref><ref name="Bennett1968p902">{{cite book|author=Robert L. Hess|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=607jAAAAMAAJ|title=Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies|publisher=Boston University Press|year=1968|editor=Norman Robert Bennett|pages=90–97}}</ref> The main fortress, Silsilat, included conical tower [[granaries]] that opened only at the top, wells with sulfurous water, cattle watering stations, a guard tower, walled garden, and tombs. It became the residence of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, his wives and family.<ref name="macfadyen1252" /> The Taleh structures also included the ''Hed Kaldig'' (literally, "place of blood"), where those whom Hasan disliked were executed with or without torture and their bodies left to the hyenas.<ref name="macfadyen1252" /> According to Muktar, Hasan's execution orders also targeted dozens of his former friends and allies.<ref name="Mukhtar2003p1962" /> The town of Taleh was mostly destroyed after a [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] aerial bombardment in early February 1920, though Hasan had already left his compound by then.<ref name="macfadyen1252" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Napier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GM1FDwAAQBAJ|title=The Royal Air Force: A Centenary of Operations|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2018|isbn=978-1-4728-2539-1|pages=33–34}}</ref> In an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent ''Governatori della Somalia'', the British are described taking twenty-seven ''garesas'' or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan.<ref name="caroselli">Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."[https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/handle/2307/4173 viewable link]</ref> |
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Prior to it being a polity, the Dervish began as a legal court in 1895 primarily in Dhulbahante lands which was amicable towards European powers and primarily strove to put down raids.<ref name="alfredpearce">{{cite book |last1=Alfred Pearce |first1=Walter |title=Pilgrim, preacher and pretender |date=1903 |page=7 |url=https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3662794/3662801/ |quote=after his return from Mecca in 1895, he retired to Kob Fardod, his place of residence and a village inhabited by Mullahs in the Dolbahanta country, 170 miles from Berbera. Up to this point Mahomed Abdullah had shown no very decided animus against the British suzerainty ovor Somaliland, and it appeared as if he were content with the homage paid to his learning and devotional sincerity by the Ogaden and Dolbahanta tribes. His fame continued to increase, and he won no little respect for his authority by the tribes electing to regard him as a court of appeal in their tribal disputes. Similarly, and with some measure of success, he strove to put down raiding.}}</ref> The Dervish movement was led by a Sufi poet and religious nationalist leader named [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=ʻAbdi ʻAbdulqadir Sheik-ʻAbdi|title=Divine madness: Moḥammed ʻAbdulle Ḥassan (1856-1920)|date=1993|publisher=Zed Books|page=67|isbn=9780862324438|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=EOhyAAAAMAAJ|access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref> also known as Sayid ''Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan''.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/> According to Said M. Mohamed, he was born in Sacmadeeqo sometime between 1856 and 1864 to a father who was a religious teacher.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/> He studied in Somali Islamic seminaries and later went on Hajj to Mecca where he met Shaykh Muhammad Salah of the [[Tariqa|Salihiya Islamic Tariqah]], which states ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'' was a "militant, reformist, and puritanical Sufi order".<ref name=britannicahasan/><ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/> Although authors such as Richard Shultz and Andrea Dew attributed Dervishism to a "religious revival",<ref name="ShultzDew2009p67">{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|author2=Andrea J. Dew|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ |year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68 }}</ref> and David Motadel to the contendership with the rival Sufi Triqah called ''Qadariyyah'',<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35"/><ref name="Motadel2014p17">{{cite book|author=David Motadel| title=Islam and the European Empires|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUZYBAAAQBAJ|year =2014|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966831-1|pages=17–18 with footnotes 49–50, 165–166}}</ref> other authors such as Jardine downplayed a religious undertone.<ref name="jardine"/>. The watershed in Darawiish diplomacy was the illegal sale by Duale Hirsi of a gun to Darawiish in March 1899, who reported his gun as stolen rather than purchased.<ref name="Njoku2013p75"/> The British authorities demanded the gun's return, whereby the "Oh, man! I have not stolen anything from thee" was given<ref name="indianauniversity"/> a sentiment paired with the statement had previously claimed in 1897 when Hassan declared the Darawiish a sovereign [[Polyarchy|polyarchic]] polity having a "sultan, and emirs, or princes, and chiefs and subjects".<ref name="Njoku2013p75"/> |
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=== Relations with the Biimal === |
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===Movement=== |
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His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is till this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reasons to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of [[Merca]] and its surroundings.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Samatar|first=Said S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4xeh4JcMTwC&q=Merka+Biyamaal&pg=PA66|title=In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa|date=1992|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-70-7|language=en}}</ref> |
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[[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|left|260px|[[Taleh]] [[Dervish_movement_(Somali)#Garesas|Dhulbahante garesa]], the Dervish capital.]] |
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One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' (had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, whom in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Hess|first=Robert L.|date=1964-01-01|title=The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=5|issue=3|pages=415–433, page 422|doi=10.1017/s0021853700005107|jstor=179976}}</ref> The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.<ref name=":12" /> |
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Prior to hostilities, The British empire incurred an economic embargo upon [[Dhulbahante]] vis-a-vis the trading ports from 1899 until mid 1901.<ref name="houseofcommons"/> The constituent clans of the Dervish during the formative years belonged to sections of the Ogaden, Dhulbahante, Habr Je'lo and Habr Yunis clans.<ref>{{cite book|title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04|publisher=H. M. Stationery office|pages=49|language=en |quote= He acquired some notoriety by seditious preaching in Berbera in 1895, after which he returned to his tariga in Kob Faradod, in the Dolbahanta. Here he gradually acquired influence by stopping inter-tribal warfare, and eventually started a religious movement in which the Rer Ibrahim (Mukahil Ogaden), Ba Hawadle (Miyirwalal Ogaden) and the Ali Gheri (Dolbahanta) were the first to join. His emissaries also soon succeeded in winning over the Adan Madoba, notable amongst whom was Haji Sudi, his trusted lieutenant, and the [[Ahmed Farah|Ahmed Farih]] and Rer Yusuf, all Habr Toljaala, and the Musa Ismail of the Eastern Habr Yunis, Habr Gerhajis, with Sultan Nur.}}</ref> |
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In southern Somalia, there was another resistance, the [[Banadir Resistance|Bimal]] or [[Banadir Resistance]]. This was a large resistance lead by the [[Bimaal|Bimal clan]] spanning 3 decades of war. The Bimal being the main element, eventually neighboring adjacent tribes also joined the Bimal in their struggle against the Italians. The Italians feared that the Banadir Resistance would join hands with the Dervishes. During this period, is also when Dervish allies in Benadir had in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader [[Uways al-Barawi]].<ref name="Mukhtar2003p196">{{cite book|author=Mohamed Haji Mukhtar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8108-6604-1|pages=196–197}}</ref> |
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According to Angus Hamilton, the Dervish condition for peace was (a) that the British recognized Dervish independence and (b) that the economic embargo on Dhulbahante<ref name="houseofcommons"/> be lifted in favor of free trade:<ref>Angus Hamilton, 1911, p. 141 "... condition that we recognized his independence, and granted him a seaport east of Berbera with freedom to trade"</ref> |
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[[File:Plan_of_Taleh_Fort.png|left|thumb|250x250px|'The Mullah's fortifications at Taleh'. The tombs of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, Sultan Nur and unnamed Habr Je'lo and Hawiye notabales can be seen in the plan]] |
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The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.<ref>Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147</ref> |
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<blockquote> it was a relief to know, according to a messenger he sent, that he was prepared to make peace on condition that we recognized his independence, and granted him a seaport east of Berbera with freedom to trade</blockquote> |
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A post-Illig treaty letter in 1908 to Cordeaux repeated the emphasis on the following Dervish prerequisite for peace: (a) removal of a trade embargo on the Nugaal for free trade between Warsangeli and Isaaq lands, and (b) the removal of British agents from Buuhoodle and localities in the Nugaal,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kareithi |first1=Amos |title=Special Report |date=2012 |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/special-reports/article/2000067802/mad-mullah-the-brave-man-who-waged-a-war-against-great-britain |quote=if you want peace as I do, remove your party from Bohotle and also remove the horses from Badwein and the Ain Valley, and call back your spies from Jidbali ... if you want peace in the country, let me settle between the Isak and the Warsangeli,}}</ref> a time period wherein Dervishes moved from Illig in Nugaal, contemporary east coast of [[Puntland]] back to central portions of Nugaal valley.<ref name="nugaalmouth"/><ref name=hoehne2016>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|publisher=John Wiley & Sons| editor= John M Mackenzie| author=Markus V. Hoehne| doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069 |year= 2016| isbn= 978-11184-406-43}}</ref> |
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[[File:XaajiSuudicropped2.png |thumb|Dervish Khususi, [[Haji Sudi]] on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. [[Aden]], 1892.]] |
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The Dervishes wore white [[turban]] and its army utilized horses for movement. They assassinated opposing clan leaders.<ref name=hoehne2016/> Dervish soldiers used the ''[[dhaanto]]'' and ''geeraar'' traditional dance-song to raise their ''esprit de corps'' and sometimes sang it on horseback.<ref name="Jhmpasots">{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=John William|title=Heelloy: Modern Poetry and Songs of the Somali|date=1996|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=1874209812|page=[https://archive.org/details/heelloymodernpoe00john/page/31 31]|url=https://archive.org/details/heelloymodernpoe00john/page/31}}</ref> Hasan commanded the Dervish movement soldiers in a martial manner, ensuring that they were religiously committed, powered up for warfare and men of character sworn with an oath of allegiance.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p67"/> To ensure unity among the administrative divisions troops, instead of letting them identify themselves by their different tribes, they identified by new names such as [[Dharbash]], [[Indhabadan]] etc.<ref name="ClaudeEdwardMarjoribanksDansey"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Saadia Touval|title=Somali nationalism: international politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c81yAAAAMAAJ|year=1963|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=57–59|isbn=9780674818255}}</ref> The principality-chieftainship obtained firearms from various sources such as Sultan Boqor Osman Mahmud of [[Majerteen Sultanate]], as well as the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Sudan]]. They were also supplied with arms and munitions by two Habr Yunis men of the Musa Arreh clan, namely, Haji Hirsi of [[Maydh]] and Bulhan Ali, they both operated with in [[Yemen]], the former being stationed at [[Mukalla]] and the latter at [[Aden]].<ref>The scramble in the Horn of Africa:History of Somalia (1827-1877), By Mohamed Osman Omar, p.453.</ref> In addition, the Dervishes also obtained significant armaments' from the [[Mohamed Abokor|Adan Madoba]] section of the Habr Je'lo clan where, according to the contemporary source ''Official History of the Operations in Somaliland'': "Of the former the Adan Madoba were not only responsible for supplying him [[Abdullah Hassan]] with arms, but also assisted him on all his raids."<ref>{{cite book|title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04|publisher=H. M. Stationery office|pages=41|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Njoku2013p75"/> The first confrontation in May 1901 was about retrieving Jama Siyad stock raided by Eric Swayne's colonial force.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p67"/> In 1904, the Dervishes were almost annihilated in Jidbaale, between Xudun and Las Anod. They retreated into the mouth of Nugaal at illig & Eyl and entered into the Illig treaty which ceded much of Nugaal to Dervish whereupon Illig remained a capital until 1907-1908.<ref name=hoehne2016/> |
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In 1908, just prior to British coastal withdrawal, the Dervishes (Darawiish) created a walled fortress with fourteen fortresses in [[Taleh]] via Yemeni masons and the architect Ismail Kharras<ref>British intelligence report, 1916, PRO CO 535 / 47 ; followed by National Archives, PRO WO 106 / 23 ; for accessibility, see Imperialismo e resistenza in Corno d'Africa. Mohammed Abdullah Hassan e il derviscismo somalo (1899-1920), Gerardo Nicolosi, 2002, page 281</ref>; thus Taleh becoming capital.<ref name=macfadyen125/><ref name="Bennett1968p90">{{cite book|author=Robert L. Hess|editor=Norman Robert Bennett|title=Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=607jAAAAMAAJ |year=1968|publisher=Boston University Press|pages=90–97}}</ref> The main fortress, Silsilat, included conical tower [[granaries]] that opened only at the top, wells with sulfurous water, cattle watering stations, a guard tower, walled garden, and tombs. It became the residence of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, his wives and family.<ref name=macfadyen125/> Colonial sources state besides it was the ''Hed Kaldig'', which colonialists argue used torture, including on allies.<ref name=macfadyen125>W. A. MacFadyen (1931), ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1784443 Taleh]'', The Geographical Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 125–128</ref><ref name="Mukhtar2003p196"/> The years since Taleh becoming capital and WW1 had such Darawiish transquility that comissioner [[Horace Archer Byatt]] thought news of Darawiish aggression on August 1913 was incredulous and "had been concocted by the akils":<ref>Douglas Jardine, p. 220</ref> |
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{{Quote |
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|text= it seemed almost certain that the report had been concocted by the akils to lend point to their prayers and entreaties to which, in accordance with the policy of His Majesty's Government, a deaf ear had perforce been turned. |
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}} |
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===Engagements=== |
===Engagements=== |
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{{see also|Somaliland Campaign}} |
{{see also|Somaliland Campaign}} |
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[[File:Mohamud Xoosh, the last castellan of Silsilad.jpg|thumb|left|The last residents of the [[Silsilad]] fort were [[Haji Yusuf Barre]], the singlehanded defender of Taleh, [[Mohamud Hosh]] (pictured), the last castellan of Taleh and [[Jama Biixi Kidin]], an abandoned Dervish child prisoner.]] |
[[File:Mohamud Xoosh, the last castellan of Silsilad.jpg|thumb|left|The last residents of the [[Silsilad]] fort were [[Haji Yusuf Barre]], the singlehanded defender of Taleh, [[Mohamud Hosh]] (pictured), the last castellan of Taleh and [[Jama Biixi Kidin]], an abandoned Dervish child prisoner.]] |
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In August |
In August 1898, the Dervish army occupied [[Burao]], an important centre of [[British Somaliland]], giving Muhammad Abdullah Hassan control over the city's watering places. Hassan also succeeded in making peace between the local clans and initiated a large assembly, where the population was urged to join the war against the British. His forces were supplied with the simple uniforms consisting of "a white cotton outer garment (worn by most Somali men of the time anyway), a white turban, a [[Prayer beads|tasbih]] (or rosary), and a rifle."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Martin|first=B. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0XhcUWa1_4C&pg=PA184|title=Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa|date=2003-02-13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521534512|language=en}}</ref> |
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[[File:Daarta_Sayyidka.jpg|left|thumb|The historic ''Daarta Sayyidka'' Dervish fort in [[Eyl]], [[Puntland]].]] |
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[[File:Daarta Sayyidka.jpg|thumb|left|The historic ''Daarta Sayyidka'' fortress (Dervish fort) in [[Eyl]], [[Puntland]].]] In March 1900, dervish forces attempted to retrieve Abyssinian-looted stock at an Ethiopian outpost near [[Jijiga]]. Despite a heavy loss amounting to 2,800 killed, according to the Ethiopians, Dervish succeeded in recovering the looted stock.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA73|title=The History of Somalia|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313378577|language=en|quote=It was in this mindset that Hassan wrote to the British in 1897 demanding respect for his “country” and to be taken seriously as the leader of a sovereign. "We are a government. We have a '''sultan, and emirs, or princes, and chiefs''' and subjects."}}</ref> After this incident, Dervishes retired back to Buuhoodle.<ref name=":0" /> |
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In March 1900, Hassan along with his dervish forces attacked an Ethiopian outpost near [[Jijiga]]. Capt. Malcolm McNeill who commanded the Somali Field Force against Hassan reported that the Dervish were completely defeated, and that they have suffered a heavy loss amounting to 2,800 killed, according to the Ethiopians.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA73|title=The History of Somalia|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313378577|language=en}}</ref> Similar raids by the dervish would continue despite the losses across the Somali peninsula until 1920. McNeill notes that by June 1900, Hassan made his position even stronger than before his March 1900 defeat and had “practically dominated the whole of the southern portion of our Protectorate”.<ref name=":02" /> |
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The British administration started to coordinate with the Italians and Ethiopians, and by 1901 a joint Anglo-Ethiopian force began to coordinate plans to eradicate the |
The British administration started to coordinate with the Italians and Ethiopians, and by 1901 a joint Anglo-Ethiopian force began to coordinate plans to eradicate the jihadists or limit their reach farther west to the Ogaden or borderland of northern Kenya. Lack of supplies and access to fresh drinking water in the large expanse of flat land made this a challenging feat for the British and their allies. In contrast, Hassan and his dervishes adapted harsh conditions of the land by eating carcasses of beasts and drinking water from the dead bellies of animals.<ref name=":02" /> Despite possessing superior weapons, including [[Maxim gun|Maxim]] machine guns, until 1905, the Anglo-Ethiopian forces were still struggling to gain hold on the dervish movement. |
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Britain launched at least two major offensives aimed at either killing or capturing Hassan between 1913 and 1920. Though they almost succeeded, Hassan proved elusive. Finally, the British Cabinet approved of air operations against the Dervish movement. It is said that the challenge of the Dervishes presented the British with a suitable environment to trial its new doctrine of warfare, which stressed "the use of aircraft as the primary arm, usually supplemented by ground forces, according to particular requirements."<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Raphael Chijioke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA81|title=The History of Somalia|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313378577|language=en}}</ref> |
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In the [[Somaliland campaign (1920)|Somaliland campaign of 1920]], 12 [[Airco DH.9A]] aircraft were used to support the |
In the [[Somaliland campaign (1920)|Somaliland campaign of 1920]], 12 [[Airco DH.9A]] aircraft were used to support the British forces. Within a month, the British had occupied the capital of the Dervish State and Hassan had retreated to the west.<ref name=":13" /> |
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[[File:Nur Hedik wearing the emblematic Kuuk Darawiish prayer bead on his left wrist and the duubcad turban on his head.png|thumb|[[Nur Hedik]], commander of [[Dooxato]], (white shirt), wearing the emblematic ''Kuuk Dervish'' prayer bead on his left wrist and the emblematic Dervish duubcad turban on his head.]] |
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== Demise == |
== Demise == |
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After the [[Somaliland campaign (1920)|bombing campaign]] of the Taleh fort the Dervish retreated in to the Ogaden territory in [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] and the Mullah was able to attract followers from his tribe. The catalyst for the Hagoogane raid happened on May 20, 1920, when a Dervish-Ogaden force raided the Ba Hawadle sub clan of the Ogaden who were under the protection of the Isaaq, killing women and children in the process. Haji Warabe assembled an army composed of 3000 Habr Yunis, [[Habr Je'lo]] and [[Dhulbahante]] warriors. The army set out from [[Togdheer River|Togdheer]], on the dawn of July 20, 1920, Haji's army reached [[Korahe Zone|Korahe]] just west of Shineleh where the Dervish and their tribal allies were camped and commenced to attack with them with force. The Dervish-Ogaden numbering 800 were defeated swiftly and only a 100 survived the onslaught and fled south. Haji and his army looted 60,000 livestock and 700 rifles from their defeated foes. During the midst of the battle Haji Warabe entered the Mullah's tent to face his adversary but found the tent empty with the Mullah's tea still hot.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beachey|first1=R. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ&q=Haji+Waraba|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153|year=1990|isbn=9780947792435}}</ref> The Mullah had fled to [[Imi, Ethiopia|Imi]] where he would die due to influenza shortly afterwards. Haji Warabe's Habr Yunis and [[Habr Je'lo]] warriors divided the livestock and rifles amongst themselves denying the Dhulbahante soldiers their share as mentioned by [[Salaan Carrabey]] in his Guba poem addressed to [[Ali Dhuh]].<ref>A Somali Poetic Combat Pt. I, II and III. pp.43</ref> The looting dealt a severe blow to them economically, a blow from which they did not recover.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Irons|first1=Roy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9MVBAAAQBAJ&q=Three+thousand+Habr+yunis+Dolbahanta+Toljaala&pg=PA209|title=Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland, p. 209.|date=4 November 2013|isbn=9781783463800}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolosi|first1=Gerardo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5Uz5uukdPIC&q=Rer+Ainashe&pg=PA305|title=Imperialismo e resistenza in corno d'Africa: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, P.305|year=2002|isbn=9788849803846}}</ref><ref name="kings coll1">{{cite web|first=|title=King's College London, King's collection: Ismay's summary as Intelligence Officer (1916-1918) of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan|url=http://www.kingscollections.org/exhibitions/archives/armies-abroad/dervish-state/establishment#Gallery[gallery1]/1/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Beachey|first1=R. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ&q=Haji+Waraba|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153|year=1990|isbn=9780947792435}}</ref> |
After the [[Somaliland campaign (1920)|bombing campaign]] of the Taleh fort the Dervish retreated in to the Ogaden territory in [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] and the Mullah was able to attract followers from his tribe. The catalyst for the Hagoogane raid happened on May 20, 1920, when a Dervish-Ogaden force raided the Ba Hawadle sub clan of the Ogaden who were under the protection of the Isaaq, killing women and children in the process. Haji Warabe assembled an army composed of 3000 Habr Yunis, [[Habr Je'lo]] and [[Dhulbahante]] warriors. The army set out from [[Togdheer River|Togdheer]], on the dawn of July 20, 1920, Haji's army reached [[Korahe Zone|Korahe]] just west of Shineleh where the Dervish and their tribal allies were camped and commenced to attack with them with force. The Dervish-Ogaden numbering 800 were defeated swiftly and only a 100 survived the onslaught and fled south. Haji and his army looted 60,000 livestock and 700 rifles from their defeated foes. During the midst of the battle Haji Warabe entered the Mullah's tent to face his adversary but found the tent empty with the Mullah's tea still hot.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beachey|first1=R. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ&q=Haji+Waraba|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153|year=1990|isbn=9780947792435}}</ref> The Mullah had fled to [[Imi, Ethiopia|Imi]] where he would die due to influenza shortly afterwards. Haji Warabe's Habr Yunis and [[Habr Je'lo]] warriors divided the livestock and rifles amongst themselves denying the Dhulbahante soldiers their share as mentioned by [[Salaan Carrabey]] in his Guba poem addressed to [[Ali Dhuh]].<ref>A Somali Poetic Combat Pt. I, II and III. pp.43</ref> The looting dealt a severe blow to them economically, a blow from which they did not recover.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Irons|first1=Roy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9MVBAAAQBAJ&q=Three+thousand+Habr+yunis+Dolbahanta+Toljaala&pg=PA209|title=Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland, p. 209.|date=4 November 2013|isbn=9781783463800}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolosi|first1=Gerardo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5Uz5uukdPIC&q=Rer+Ainashe&pg=PA305|title=Imperialismo e resistenza in corno d'Africa: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, P.305|year=2002|isbn=9788849803846}}</ref><ref name="kings coll1">{{cite web|first=|title=King's College London, King's collection: Ismay's summary as Intelligence Officer (1916-1918) of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan|url=http://www.kingscollections.org/exhibitions/archives/armies-abroad/dervish-state/establishment#Gallery[gallery1]/1/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Beachey|first1=R. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ&q=Haji+Waraba|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153|year=1990|isbn=9780947792435}}</ref> |
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[[File:The scout of Darawiish head of intelligence, Serar Shawe.jpg|thumb|left|Dervish scout on top of a tree]] |
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==Territory== |
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{{multiple image |
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| width = 80 |
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| footer = Illig treaty ceded [[Boocame District]], [[Taleh District]], [[Xudun District]], [[Las Anod District]], [[Bookh]] district (of Ethiopia) and [[Nugaaleed-Bari]] territories to Darawiish |
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| image1 = Darawiish territory according to Somali historian Muxamed Ibraahim Muxamed,.png |
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| alt1 = Yellow cartouche |
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| caption1 = [[Muxamed Ibraahim Muxamed|Ibraahim Muxamed]] map |
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| image2 = Territory of Diiriye Guure's Darawiish.png |
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| alt2 = Red cartouche |
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| caption2 = Ministero delle colonie ([[Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)]]) map |
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}} |
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Dervish territory encompassed fifty thousand square miles,<ref name="yates"/> and the 1905 treaty between the Italians and Dervish, which was terminated within a year, concurred that Dervish territory was limited to the Nugaal, specifically from Ras Garad to Ras Gabbe (in modern-day [[Puntland]]), to [[Xudun, Somalia|Xudun]] (Hudun) to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Docmo (in modern-day [[Bookh]] district of Ethiopia).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Commonwealth office |first1=Foreign and |title=British and Foreign State Papers - |date=1911 |page=548 |quote= a fixed residence at the point most convenient for communication with the sea, between Ras Garad and Ras Gabbe ... The territory assigned to Seyyid Mohammed and his followers is that of the Nogal ... to enter their territories ( those of the English ) in the country of the Nogal to feed their cattle there according to their former custom ... the said cattle shall not be permitted to pass beyond the pasturage of the walls enumerated hereafter .. they are the wells or Halin, and from these to those of Hudin, and from Hudin to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Danot}}</ref> The intermediary Dervish capital, Illig, was "situated at the mouth of the Nogal",<ref name="nugaalmouth">{{cite book |last1=War Office |first1=British |title=Official History of the operations in Somaliland |publisher=Harrison and Sons |quote=Mullah had seized Illig, then a small fishing village situated at the mouth of the Nogal River and ... commenced to construct a formidable fortified camp there}}</ref> whilst the subsequent permanent Dervish capital, [[Taleh]], was described by Noriyuki Katagiri as being the "heart of the Nugaal".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Katagiri |first1=Noriyuki |title=Adapting to Win: How Insurgents Fight and Defeat Foreign States in War |date=2015 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |page=125 |quote=Two years later they moved to Dameero and later to Taleex, the heart of the Nugaal Valley, and built garrisons.}}</ref> |
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An official letter from the Dervishes to Eric Swayne states the Dervish objective was the Nugaal and Buuhoodle:<ref name="dervishletter">{{cite book |last1=Samatar |first1=Said |title=In the Shadow of Conquest |date=1992 |publisher=[[The Red Sea Press]] |page=68 |quote=this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.}}</ref> |
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{{Blockquote |
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|text=this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous. |
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|author=Dervish state on their demarcation |
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}} |
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Notes by H. E Stanton, a British Chief of Staff officer states the following about territories in anti-Dervish expedition:<ref name="offvol2">{{cite book |last1=War Office |first1=British |title=Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04 |date=1907 |publisher=Harrison and Sons |pages=402–412 |edition=Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/stream/officialhistory01stafgoog/officialhistory01stafgoog_djvu.txt |chapter=Volume Two |quote=(anti-dervish expedition) "It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the Nogal district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps" ... "All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three Nogal maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... Nogal No. 1 was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had Nogal No. 2 compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, Nogal No. 3, and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it." ... "They went to Gumburu (see Nogal sketch)" ...}}</ref> |
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{{Blockquote |
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|text=It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the '''Nogal''' district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps. |
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|author=H. E Stanton on Dervish positions |
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}} |
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According to British lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker, the maps for anti-Dervish expeditions were called individually Nogal no. 1 map, Nogal no. 2 map, and Nogal no. 3 map, and included the [[Ciid]] locality like Gumburu:<ref name="offvol2"/> |
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{{Blockquote |
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|text=All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three '''Nogal''' maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... '''Nogal No. 1''' was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had '''Nogal No. 2''' compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, '''Nogal No. 3''', and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it. ... They went to Gumburu (see '''Nogal''' sketch) ... |
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|author=lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker on Darawiish territorial boundaries & jurisdiction}} |
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According to Secretary for War [[H. O. Arnold-Forster]], the suspension of hostilities against Dervishes pragmatically meant withdrawing from the Nogal:<ref>{{cite book |last1=War Office |first1=British |title=Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04 |date=1907 |page=604 |url=https://archive.org/details/officialhistory01stafgoog/page/n360/mode/1up?q=nogal&view=theater |quote=the Secretary of State for War stated in the House of Commons that it had been decided to discontinue the military operations ... orders were sent to the Officer Commmanding 1st Brigade to withdraw from the Nogal by the 8th May}}</ref> [[Neville Lyttelton]]'s War Office, and [[Charles Egerton (Indian Army officer)|General Egerton]] described the Nugaal as the "base of operations" against Dervishes,<ref>{{cite book |last1=War Office |first1=British |title=Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04 |date=1907 |page=315 |quote=situated in every way for a base of operations in the Nogal which it was evident must form the theatre of war}}</ref> and by Dervishes, respectively.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jardine |first1=Douglas |title=Mad Mullah of Somaliland |date=1923 |page=128 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMadMullahOfSomaliland/page/n153/mode/2up?q=summer&view=theater |quote=tract of country known as Nogal, which forms the principal summer grazing ground of the Dolbahanta, and the Mullah's base of operations against the western and north-eastern tribes of the Protectorate. It is well known that the Dolbahanta tribe are adherents of the Mullah}}</ref> The 1900s [[British media industry]] stated that a surprise ambush by British colonial troops into the [[Nugaal]] could end the colonial versus Dervish war, whilst the British parliament was anxious for a "damaging blow" into the Nugaal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jardine |first1=Douglas |title=Mad Mullah of Somaliland |date=1923 |page=124 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMadMullahOfSomaliland/page/n149/mode/2up?q=cheerful&view=theater |quote=Press at home urged General Egerton to make a sudden dash at once for the Nogal with mounted troops. This, they maintained, was all that was necessary now to terminate the Somali war ... His Majesty's Government, however, expressed themselves as ... being anxious to strike an immediate and damaging blow at the Mullah in the Nogal}}</ref> John Spencer described [[Nugaal Valley]] natives as the Dervish leaders' people,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spencer |first1=John |title=Horn of Africa, Volume 1, Issue 2 |date=1978 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |page=65 |quote=impregnable fortifications the Sayyid had constructed for his people in the Nugaal Valley}}</ref> [[Ahmed Ismail Samatar]] stated that Dervish rule was wedged in the Nugaal between Italian and British colonies,<ref name="samat">{{cite book |last1=Smtar |first1=Ahmed |title=Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality |date=1988 |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |page=32 |quote=the allocation of part of the Nugaal valley - in between the British and Italian Somalilands – to Dervish rule}}</ref> and Harold Nelson that Darawiish (Dervish) gained an "autonomous protected status" in the Nugaal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Harold |title=Somalia, a Country Study |date=1982 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |page=18 |quote=an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status in the Nugaal ( Nogal ) Valley ... some clans there declared themselves dervishes}}</ref> According to [[India Command|British India Command]], preparations for meeting Darawiish, by extension meant one had to "advance into the Nogal district".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Army Headquarters India |first1=Intelligence Branch |title=Frontier and Overseas Expeditions from India |date=1907 |page=98 |quote=In April, 1901, Colonel Swayne moved to Burao, which was then made the advanced base. Rain having fallen, the advance into the Nogal district commenced on the 21st May.}}</ref> Lee Cassanelli stated that European colonial powers ceded the Nugaal to Darawiish (Dervish) as a form of placation,<ref name="pennsylvania">{{cite book |last1=Cassanelli |first1=Lee |title=The Shaping of Somali Society |date=2016 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |page=247 |quote=This granted him and his dervish followers a tract of land in the Nugaal in exchange for his promise to keep the peace.}}</ref> with Raphael Chijioke Njoku stating likewise.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |title=The History of Somalia |date=2013 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |quote=following the lllig Treaty of 1904, for instance, the entire Nugaal Valley, a large shallow ... was conceded ... The hope was that this concession would make the Dervishes turn their interest away from the rest of the Italian Somaliland}}</ref> Other authors who have described the Dervish domain as Nugaal include Pilaszewicz and [[B. W. Andrzejewski]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrzejewski |first1=B.W. |title=Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys |date=1985 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=353 |quote=Dervish forces ... besieged in their two forts ... repulsed against enourmous odds the Italian forces ... A mad cleric has come upon us from the heartland of Nugaal}}</ref> and professor Francesca Declich.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Declich |first1=Francesca |title=Translocal Connections across the Indian Ocean: Swahili Speaking Networks on the Move |date=2018 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |page=75 |quote=the Salihiyya Dervish movement ... spread in northern Somalia in the late 1890s ... and first called for jihad in the Nugaal Valley, among Somali pastoral clans}}</ref> |
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[[File:Ismaaciil, son of darawiish peace-time prime minister xaashi suni fooyaan.png|thumb|150px|Ismaaciil, son of Dervish peace-time prime minister [[Xaashi Suni Fooyaan]].]] |
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[[File:The scout of Darawiish head of intelligence, Serar Shawe.jpg|thumb|left|The scout of Dervish head of intelligence, [[Geoffrey Archer's 1916 important members of Darawiish haroun list|Serar Shawe]].]] |
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[[File:Jama Biixi Kidin, the last known Darwiish.png|thumb|150px|Jama Biixi Kidin, last resident of Silsilad]] |
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Native Somali sources concur with British colonial sources on Darawiish jurisdiction being the Nugaal and [[Ciid]] regions, such as the 3rd line of the poem [[Haddaan waayey]]:<ref name="xasan"/>{{efn|name=fn1| For 113 peer reviews on Jama Omar Issa, see the spelling "jaamac cumar ciise" on google scholar.}} |
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{{Verse translation |
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|3 Haddaan waayay Ciidoo, naqliga inaan Nugaal daaqo |
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4 Miyaan waayay neefaan xarbada, naallo ugu fuulo ? |
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|3 If I fell short of establishing as (Darawiish) designated territories [['Iid]], and [[Nugaal Valley]], for grazing |
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4 Did I not successfully mount my steeds, gloriously riding them into battle?}} |
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An interview with Dervish veteran Cabdi-Yaar Cali Guuleed in 1954 states Darawiish territorial demarcation was Nugaal and [['Iid]]:<ref name="xasan"/>{{efn|name=fn1}} |
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{{Verse translation |
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|Weligood Daraawiishi waxay haanka ku hayeen dalka loo yaqaan Nugaal iyo dhulka ciidda cas midna inaysan gacantooda ka bixin |
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|Since its beginnings, the ultimate objective of Darawiish had always been that Nugaal and the reddish soil of [['Iid]] should forever remain in their firm grip }} |
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The sister of the Sayid Mohammed, Caasha, in a 1973 interview stated Nugaal and 'Iid was the boundary delimitation of Darawiish:<ref name="xasan"/>{{efn|name=fn1}} |
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{{Verse translation |
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|Ciid, Nugaal iyo dhulkii dalsanka ahaa waa ka carareen markay degeen Ayl iyo Ilig ... dabadeed maalintii dambe ayay caynka hoosta ka soo geliyeen oo Ciid iyo Nugaal shafka dhigeen |
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|They fled [['Iid]] and Nugaal, the land they viewed as viable when they settled at [[Eyl]] and Illig ... afterwards, they slowly slithered back and declared [['Iid]] and Nugaal as their benchmark}} |
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==Administration== |
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[[File:Xidhiidhiye Jaamac Fararax Maxamuud Sugulle, overseeing the coronation of garaad Abdiqani.png|thumb|[[Jama Sugulle]] (pictured) the head of the 1960s Somalia Dervish police, son of [[Faarax Sugulle]], the head of haroun (government).]] |
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By the mid-1900s, the Darawiish employed officials from Europe, Asia and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], especially from the [[Central Powers]], for positions in the haroun, including Karl-Inger of [[Austria-Hungary]], the Ottoman adviser Mehmet Ali and the Abyssinian officials Aglebi and Fitawaraari.<ref>Sudan Notes and Records, page 47, 1970</ref> |
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A 3 May 1899 joint Dervish-[[Dhulbahante]] letter to James Hayes Sadler stated their leadership consisted of a Sultan, chieftains, an emir (the Sayid / Mullah), and a government.<ref name="indianauniversity">{{cite book |last1=Osman Omar |first1=Mohamed |title=The Scramble in the Horn of Africa; History of Somalia (1827-1977) |date=2001 |publisher=Indiana University |page=333 |url=http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/2960/1/The%20scramble%20in%20the%20Horn%20of%20Africa.%20History%20of%20Somalia%20(1827-1977).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713202443/http://dspace-roma3.caspur.it/bitstream/2307/2960/1/The%20scramble%20in%20the%20Horn%20of%20Africa.%20History%20of%20Somalia%20(1827-1977).pdf |archive-date=13 July 2018 |quote=. This letter is sent by all the Dervishes, the Amir, and all the Dolbahanta to the Ruler of Berbera ... We are a Government, we have a Sultan, an Amir, and Chiefs, and subjects ... In his last letter the Mullah pretends to speak in the name of the Dervishes, their Amir (himself), and the Dolbahanta tribes. This letter shows his object is to establish himself as the Ruler of the Dolbahanta, and it has a Mahdist look}}</ref> An Evening Express excerpt by Walter Alfred Pearce referred to [[Farah Garad#Garadate seat|Diiriye Guure]] as the head of the Dhulbahante clan during this era.<ref name="eveningexpress,walterspearce">{{cite book |last1=Spearce |first1=Walter |title=Somali Campaign |date=August 1903 |url=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:TOLiKgxj78AJ:https://newspapers.library.wales/view/4136185/4136187/47/john%2520powell&hl=en&gl=si&strip=1&vwsrc=0 |quote=The third leader is '''Deeria Goori''', of the Dolbahanta tribe, who was badly wounded at the Battle of Gunrburru ... These men are the '''heads of their respective tribes''', and are all wealthy and powerful. }}</ref> The Dervish movement temporarily created a Somali "proto-state", according to Markus Hoehne.<ref name=hoehne2016/> It was a state with a fluctuating population at the emir of this state being the sayid/Mullah Hasan hving chief executive position. Hasan surrounded himself with a group of commanders for the militant operations supported by the ''khusuusi'' or the Dervish council. Islamic judges settled disputes and enforced the Islamic law in this Dervish state. According to Robert Hess, two of Hasan's chief advisors were [[Nur Ahmed Aman|Sultan Nur]] – previously Habr Yunis chief, and [[Haji Sudi]] Shabeel also known as Ahmad Warsama from [[Adan Madoba]] [[Habr Je'lo]] who was fluent in English.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert L. Hess|editor=Norman Robert Bennett|title=Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=607jAAAAMAAJ |year=1968|publisher=Boston University Press|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=R. W. Beachey|title=The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LxyAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Bellew|isbn=978-0-947792-43-5|pages=37–44}}</ref> |
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According to Charles Egerton, the field marshal of the British empires military operations against the Dervish, the haroun was a government and as such, defeating the Haroun by extension meant defeating the entire Dervish state as well: |
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<blockquote>but the Haroun, which was his emblem of power and seat of government, offered a fairly large though movable objective. Though the Mullah himself might escape, the capture of the Haroun meant the destruction of his prestige, and, in all probability, his own final surrender.<ref name="operations">Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04, page 319, year 1907 "The instructions to Kenna were “ to endeavour by every means to locate the position of the Haroun , and having done so , to try and surprise it by long - distance marching with his mounted troops"</ref></blockquote> |
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According to ''The Times from London'', the heads of the haroun were ''Omar Doreh'' and ''Farah Mahamud Sugulle'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moberly Bell |first1=Charles Frederic |title=The Times from London |date=1910 |page=5 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/33231116/ |quote=I am strengthening the Darud by the issue of over 200 rifles, and an attack on the Haroun under Omar Doreh, who is to take place of Farah Mahmud, is being organized}}</ref> whose deputy was ''Carab Illaawe''.<ref>Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, 1895-1921, p 96, 1976</ref> |
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According to [[Claude Dansey|Claude Edward Marjoribanks Dansey]], the largest and most important Dervish administrative division was the elite [[Shiikhyaale]] (exclusively [[Dhulbahante]]), with other major divisions being [[Dooxato]], [[Golaweyne]], [[Miinanle]] which were likewise predominantly Dhulbahante.<ref name="ClaudeEdwardMarjoribanksDansey">{{cite book |last1=Ciise |first1=Jaamac |title=Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan |date=1976 |pages=175 |quote=largest and most important division, probably looked upon as the reserve composed of Ba-Ararsama, Aligheri, Kayad, Mahomed Gerad and many Hassan Agaz}}</ref> |
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==Religion== |
==Religion== |
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The Dervishes had a local religious strand that of the religious teacher Kudquran,<ref name="ClaudeEdwardMarjoribanksDansey">{{cite book|last1=Ciise|first1=Jaamac|title=Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan|date=1976|pages=175|quote=largest and most important division, probably looked upon as the reserve composed of Ba-Ararsama, Aligheri, Kayad, Mahomed Gerad and many Hassan Agaz}}</ref> and that derived from a Sudanese preacher, the sect Salahiyya,<ref name="denunciatory">Douglas Jardine, 1923 "the Sheikh despatched a denunciatory letter to the Mullah, reproaching him in no measured terms and pointing out that conduct was not only at variance with the tenets of the sect"</ref> was according to an 1899 letter by James Hayes Sadler established 12 years prior, thus in 1887.<ref name="housecommon">{{cite book |last1=of Commons |first1=House |title=Sessional Papers |date=1901 |page=1 |quote=This sect was established in Berbera about twelve years ago. It preaches more regularity in the hour of prayer , stricter attention to the forms of religion , and the interdiction of Kat — a leaf the Arabs and coast Somalis are much addicted to chewing on account of its strengthening ... This teaching has not found much favour with the people of the town.}}</ref> In their specific sect, they taught life sobriety and abstemiousness and teetotalism and nephalism pertaining to mind-altering substances.<ref name="housecommon" /> This sect was espoused until 1910 when its founder in Mecca denounced the Dervish via a letter.<ref name="denunciatory" /> Nonetheless, some authors trivialized the role of religion: out of the twenty-seven forts built by the Dervish, not a single one of them had a mosque constructed within them, which according to one colonial official placed doubt that there was a religious impulse behind Dervish statehood.<ref>The National Archives UK - CO 1069-8-64</ref> The general consul of the Somali Coast Protectorate based in Berbera downplayed the role of antagonism to Christian missionaries to the Dervish that "originated in the Dolbahanta":<ref name="presencemission">{{cite book |last1=Omar Issa |first1=Jama |title=Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan 1895-1920 |date=2005 |page=45 |quote=I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta , though it is doubtless a useful level with which to try and raise disaffection amongst ... I am a Hashimi by descent, Shaffei by doctrine, a Sunni and belonging to the Ahmedieh tarika. This is for my part}}</ref> |
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[[File:Daahir Afqarshe, son of Cabdi Afqarshe, first African to die in airstrike.png|thumb|180px|Daahir Afqarshe (pictured), son of [[Jidali_fort#Afqarshe_Ismail| Cabdi Afqarshe Ismail]], the first person to die in an airstrike in Africa. The honorific surname ''Afqarshe'' (mouth-hider) which postulates taciturnity, indicates the primacy of reticence and introvertedness in ''Dervish'' culture]] |
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Scholars variously interpret the emergence and demise of the militant Dervish movement in Somalia. Some consider the "Sufi Islamic" ideology as the driver, others consider economic crisis to the nomadic lifestyle triggered by the occupation and "colonial predation" ideology as the trigger for the Dervish movement, while post-modernists state that both religion and nationalism created the Dervish movement.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/> The Dervishes had a local religious strand that of the religious teacher Kudquran,<ref name="ClaudeEdwardMarjoribanksDansey"/> and that derived from a Sudanese preacher, the sect Salahiyya,<ref name="denunciatory">Douglas Jardine, 1923 "the Sheikh despatched a denunciatory letter to the Mullah, reproaching him in no measured terms and pointing out that conduct was not only at variance with the tenets of the sect"</ref> was according to an 1899 letter by James Hayes Sadler established 12 years prior, thus in 1887.<ref name="housecommon">{{cite book |last1=of Commons |first1=House |title=Sessional Papers |date=1901 |page=1 |quote=This sect was established in Berbera about twelve years ago. It preaches more regularity in the hour of prayer , stricter attention to the forms of religion , and the interdiction of Kat — a leaf the Arabs and coast Somalis are much addicted to chewing on account of its strengthening ... This teaching has not found much favour with the people of the town.}}</ref> In their specific sect, they taught life sobriety and abstemiousness and teetotalism and nephalism pertaining to mind-altering substances.<ref name="housecommon"/> This sect was espoused until 1910 when its founder in Mecca denounced the Dervish via a letter.<ref name="denunciatory"/> Nonetheless, some authors trivialized the role of religion: out of the twenty-seven [[Dhulbahante garesa]]s built by the Dervish, not a single one of them had a mosque constructed within them, which according to one colonial official placed doubt that there was a religious impulse behind Dervish statehood.<ref>The National Archives UK - CO 1069-8-64</ref> The general consul of the Somali Coast Protectorate based in Berbera downplayed the role of antagonism to Christian missionaries to the Dervish that "originated in the Dolbahanta":<ref name="presencemission">{{cite book |last1=Omar Issa |first1=Jama |title=Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan 1895-1920 |date=2005 |page=45 |quote=I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta , though it is doubtless a useful level with which to try and raise disaffection amongst ... I am a Hashimi by descent, Shaffei by doctrine, a Sunni and belonging to the Ahmedieh tarika. This is for my part}}</ref> |
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[[Douglas Jardine]] likewise deemphasized a religious role, rather attributing Dervish motives to "avarice" and them considering tribal confrontations as a "national sport".<ref name="jardine">Douglas Jardine, 1923, p. 50 "So few were the followers whom religion or politics attracted to the Mullah's standard, that we must look elsewhere for the motive which inspired the majority of his following ; and we find it in the cardinal sin of the Somali, avarice. Inter-tribal fighting and raiding constitute the Somali's national sport"</ref> |
[[Douglas Jardine]] likewise deemphasized a religious role, rather attributing Dervish motives to "avarice" and them considering tribal confrontations as a "national sport".<ref name="jardine">Douglas Jardine, 1923, p. 50 "So few were the followers whom religion or politics attracted to the Mullah's standard, that we must look elsewhere for the motive which inspired the majority of his following ; and we find it in the cardinal sin of the Somali, avarice. Inter-tribal fighting and raiding constitute the Somali's national sport"</ref> Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood,<ref name="britannicahasan">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sayyid-Maxamed-Cabdulle-Xasan Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan], Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries.<ref name="Motadel2014p150">{{cite book|author=Benjamin Hopkins|editor=David Motadel|title=Islam and the European Empires|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUZYBAAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966831-1|pages=150–151}}, Quote: "Men of religious learning and authority were well-positioned in these societies [Somaliland, Sudan, Northwest Frontier of British India] to straddle the disparate and often conflicting interests of local peoples. The protection of Islam became their rallying cry, providing a coherent narrative of and justification for resistance against the forces of colonialism, as well as a unifying force which superseded particularist tribal identities."</ref> Hassan stated the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children".<ref name="Njoku2013p75">{{cite book|author=Raphael Chijioke Njoku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C|title=The History of Somalia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2013|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|pages=75–76}}</ref> These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or ''Daraawiish'', states Said M. Mohamed.<ref name="AkyeampongNiven2012p35">{{cite book|author1=Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ|title=Dictionary of African Biography|author2=Mr. Steven J. Niven|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5|pages=35–37}}</ref> |
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[[File:Flag of Khaatumo State of Somalia.svg|thumb|left|The [[Khatumo]] flag created by Rooda Xasan features a Dervish rider]] |
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Although in incendiary letters, Hassan stated the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children".<ref name="Njoku2013p75">{{cite book|author=Raphael Chijioke Njoku|title=The History of Somalia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37857-7|pages=75–76}}</ref> in the 3rd May 1899 Darawiish proclamation of independence letter, the Dervish acknowledged the existence of churches in the Somali Coast Protectorate, and claims to "assist" the "biladiyahs" (inhabitants).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Omar |first1=Mohamed Osman |title=Somalia: Past and Present |date=2006 |page=95 |quote=We assist your Biladiyahs, and turn away those who backbite you ... We inform you that there is peace in all the country; there is no fear. Secondly, I ask you, by God, by your Prophet, by your religion, and by your Church, do not create a disturbance in the country}}</ref> |
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== |
== Legacy == |
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[[File:Ismail Mire, Shiikhyaale commander poet.jpg|thumb|180px|Commander-poet [[Ismail Mire]] (pictured) administered the largest infantry [[Shiikhyaale]] and [[Adan Ali Gurey]] the second-largest, [[Golaweyne]].]] |
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Sadler stated that the Dervish-inhabited district had a dozen ''sheikhs'' (chieftains).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Auswärtige Politik |first1=Institut für |title=Das Staatsarchiv |date=1902 |page=39 |quote=The Mollah was reported still to be in the recesses of that country and to be contemplating seizing the twelve principal Sheikhs of the district}}</ref> A Dhulbahante chieftain found in Xalin on 25th January 1904, was arrested.<ref>{{cite book |last1=War Office |first1=British |date=1907 |page=246 |quote=The 1st Brigade had a slight skirmish near Halin on the 25th capturing a leading chieftain of the Dolbahanta.}}</ref> According to Angus Hamilton, the task of these dervish sheikhs (chiefs) was the "prevention of the capricious".<ref>Angus Hamilton, 1911, p. 94 "...Reports from the spies showed, |
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too, that there was a movement in existence which, supported by the more influential Sheiks, aimed at the prevention of the capricious cruelties"</ref> The Somali term for chieftain is ''caaqil''.<ref>Abdi, Ahmednur Mohamed. Conflict Transformation in the Horn of Africa Region. Diss. Sudan University of Science and Technology, 2016.</ref> A transcription by Lidwien Kapteijns named Muuse Taagane, Maxamuud Dheri, Aaden Udaweyne, Xirsiwaal Maxamuud, and Xasan Gaagguf as chieftains during the 1904 Jidbali period.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Afdub |first1=Mursal |date=1999 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |page=45 |url=https://org.uib.no/smi/sa/10/10Defeat.pdf |quote=Our titled chiefs have become like broken basketry |title=THE DEFEAT OF THE INFIDELS}}</ref> |
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According to Douglas Jardine, [[Dhulbahante]] were the "true Dervishes" and the majority Dervish tribe:<ref name="jardine"/> |
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{{Quote |
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|text=It is difficult to estimate accurately the number of his sincere converts, but it would be generous to say that there were not less than 2,000 or more than 4,000. Chiefly drawn from the wilder and more remote sections of the Dolbahanta tribe, they represented the true Dervishes, most of whom fell on the field of battle during the earlier expeditions |
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The first four expeditions corresponded with the first four years of the century, the 1901 expedition being described by Malcolm McNeill as a campaign to "defeat the Mullah and to punish the Dolbahanta",<ref>{{cite book |last1=McNeill |first1=Malcolm |title=King's African Rifles |date=2011 |page=113 |quote=Swayne left Burao on 22 May, 1901, when the rains had replenished the wells, to defeat the Mullah and to punish the Dolbahanta for having supported him.}}</ref> the 1902 expedition by Eric Swayne as facing a predominantly Dhulbahante Darawiish force,<ref>Angus Hamilton, 1911, p. 94 "... riflement wore white puggarees ... The Mullah's force was mostly of the Dolbahanta tribe, who had driven all their stock away upon our advance"</ref> the 1903 expedition by the Evening Express as facing a predominantly Dhulbahante Darawiish force,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Powell |first1=Baden |title=Somali Campaign, Over 1,000 Spearmen Killed |date=1903 |publisher=Evening Express |page=3 |url=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:qdUkzgT_FMUJ:https://newspapers.library.wales/view/4135120/4135123+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=si |quote=appears from several sources of information that the Dolbahantas, who are now the Mullah's main support, are pressing him to move to Nogal}}</ref> and the 1904 expedition by [[India Command|British India Command]] as attacking a force "mainly composed of Dolbahantas".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Army Headquarters India |first1=Intelligence Branch |title=Frontier And Overseas Expeditions From India |date=1907 |publisher=Government Monotype Press |page=135 |quote=Moreover it appears that only a portion of their line, which was about two miles long, actually attacked the square, otherwise a more effectual blow might have been dealt at the Mulla’ s power. The punishment, however, received in the pursuit practically disposed of this force, which was mainly composed of Dolbahantas, the pick of the Mulla’s fighting men.}}</ref> |
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=== Southern relations === |
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His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is till this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reasons to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of [[Merca]] and its surroundings.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Samatar|first=Said S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4xeh4JcMTwC&q=Merka+Biyamaal&pg=PA66|title=In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa|date=1992|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0-932415-70-7|language=en}}</ref> |
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One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' ( had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, whom in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Hess|first=Robert L.|date=1964-01-01|title=The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=5|issue=3|pages=415–433, page 422|doi=10.1017/s0021853700005107|jstor=179976|s2cid=162991126}}</ref> The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.<ref name=":12" /> |
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In southern Somalia, there was another resistance, the [[Banadir Resistance|Bimal]] or [[Banadir Resistance]]. This was a large resistance lead by the [[Bimaal|Bimal clan]] spanning 3 decades of war. The Bimal being the main element, eventually neighboring adjacent tribes also joined the Bimal their struggle against the Italians. The Italians feared that the Banadir Resistance would join hands with the Dervish principality-sultanate-emirate Nugaal. During this period, is also when Dervish allies in Benadir had in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader [[Uways al-Barawi]] according to Mohamed Mukhtar.<ref name="Mukhtar2003p196">{{cite book|author=Mohamed Haji Mukhtar|title=Historical Dictionary of Somalia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DPwOsOcNy5YC |year=2003| publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn= 978-0-8108-6604-1|pages=196–197}}</ref> |
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===Garesas=== |
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In the official Dervish-written letter's description of the 1920 air, sea and land campaign and the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent ''Governatori della Somalia'', the British are described taking twenty-seven ''garesas'' or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan:<ref name="caroselli">Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."[https://arcadia.sba.uniroma3.it/handle/2307/4173 viewable link]</ref>{{efn|name=fn2|*To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see [[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Language/2021 June 9#Colonial fort quote|this link]] and [[Wikipedia:Reference_desk/Archives/Language/2022_January_7#Caroselli|this link]]<br>*The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).}} |
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{{Verse translation |
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| Ai primi di aprile giungeva, a mezzo di corrieri dervisc di Belet Uen, una lettera diretta dal Mulla “Agli Italiani” con la quale, in sostanza, giustificando la sua rapida sconfitta coll’attriburla a defezione dei suoi seguaci Dulbohanta, chiedeva la nostra mediazione presso gli Inglesi ... Gl’Inglesi che sapevano questo ci son piombati addosso con tutta la gente e con sei volatili (aeroplani) ... i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro. |
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| In early April there came, by way of dervish couriers of Beledweyne, a letter sent by the Mullah "To The Italians" in which, in substance, he justified his rapid defeat by attributing it to the defection of his Dhulbahante followers and asked for our mediation with the English. The English, who knew this, descended on us with all their men and with six birds (airplanes)." ... the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven ''garesas'' (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them.}} |
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[[File:Flag of Khaatumo State of Somalia.svg|thumb|left|The [[Khatumo]] flag created by Rooda Xasan features a Dervish rider]] |
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===Legacy=== |
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According to the Somali historian and novelist [[Farah Awl]] the Sayyid had a significant influence on Sheikh Bashir through listening to his poetry and conversations, an influence that impelled him to a "war with the British". After studying in the markaz in Beer he opened a Sufi tariqa (order) sometime in the 1930s, where he preached his ideology of anti-imperialism, stressing the evil of colonial rule and the bringing of radical change through war. His ideology was shaped by a millennial bent, which according to Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm is the "hope of a complete and radical change in the world shorn of all its present deficiencies".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hobsbawm|first=Eric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MBPDgAAQBAJ|title=Primitive Rebels|date=2017-06-01|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14300-2|language=en}}</ref> The Dervish movement would subsequently inspire [[Sheikh Bashir]], the nephew of [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]] who was named by him, to wage his own [[1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion]] together with [[Habr Je'lo]] tribesmen against the British authorities in [[Somaliland]].<ref>Jama Mohamed, ‘The Evils of Locust Bait’: Popular Nationalism During the 1945 Anti‐Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland, ''Past & Present'', Volume 174, Issue 1, February 2002, Pages 201–202</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=of Rodd|first=Lord Rennell|title=British Military Administration in Africa 1941-1947|publisher=HMSO|year=1948|pages=481}}</ref> |
According to the Somali historian and novelist [[Farah Awl]] the Sayyid had a significant influence on Sheikh Bashir through listening to his poetry and conversations, an influence that impelled him to a "war with the British". After studying in the markaz in Beer he opened a Sufi tariqa (order) sometime in the 1930s, where he preached his ideology of anti-imperialism, stressing the evil of colonial rule and the bringing of radical change through war. His ideology was shaped by a millennial bent, which according to Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm is the "hope of a complete and radical change in the world shorn of all its present deficiencies".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hobsbawm|first=Eric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MBPDgAAQBAJ|title=Primitive Rebels|date=2017-06-01|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14300-2|language=en}}</ref> The Dervish movement would subsequently inspire [[Sheikh Bashir]], the nephew of [[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]] who was named by him, to wage his own [[1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion]] together with [[Habr Je'lo]] tribesmen against the British authorities in [[Somaliland]].<ref>Jama Mohamed, ‘The Evils of Locust Bait’: Popular Nationalism During the 1945 Anti‐Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland, ''Past & Present'', Volume 174, Issue 1, February 2002, Pages 201–202</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=of Rodd|first=Lord Rennell|title=British Military Administration in Africa 1941-1947|publisher=HMSO|year=1948|pages=481}}</ref> |
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[[File:Calaamada ciidamada daraawishta2.png|thumb|right|Logo of the [[Puntland Dervish Force]], named in honor of the Dervishes]] |
[[File:Calaamada ciidamada daraawishta2.png|thumb|right|Logo of the [[Puntland Dervish Force]], named in honor of the Dervishes]] |
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The [[Dervish]] legacy in [[Somalia]] and [[Somaliland]] has been influential. It was the "most important revivalist Islamic movements" in Somalia, state Hasan and Robleh.<ref name=hasanrobleh2004>Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, pages 143, 146-148, 150-152</ref> The movement and particularly its leader has been controversial among Somalis. Some cherish it as the founder of modern Somali nationalism, while some others view it as an ambitious Muslim brotherhood militancy that destroyed Somalia's opportunity to move towards modernization and progress in favor of a puritanical Islamic state embedded with Islamic education – ideas enshrined in the contemporary constitution of Somalia.<ref name=hasanrobleh2004/> Yet others such as Aidid consider the Dervish legacy was one of cruelty and violence against those Somalis who disagreed with or refused to submit to Hasan. These Somalis were "declared infidels" and Dervish soldiers were ordered by Hasan to "kill them, their children and women and snatch all their property", according to Shultz and Dew.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p67"/><ref name="Huisman2011p12">{{cite book|author=Kimberly A. Huisman |editor=Kimberly A. Huisman |editor2=Mazie Hough|display-editors=et al|title=Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tuVFN5VmkjcC |year=2011|publisher=North Atlantic Books|isbn=978-1-55643-926-1|pages=12–13}}</ref> Another legacy that came out of the prolonged struggle and violence between the colonial powers and the Dervish movement, according to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, was the arming of the Somali clans followed by decades of destructive clan-driven [[militarism]], violent turmoil, and high human costs well after the demise of the Dervish movement.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p60"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Rebecca Richards|title=Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz6gCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-00466-0|pages=76–77}}</ref> |
The [[Dervish]] legacy in [[Somalia]] and [[Somaliland]] has been influential. It was the "most important revivalist Islamic movements" in Somalia, state Hasan and Robleh.<ref name=hasanrobleh2004>Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, pages 143, 146-148, 150-152</ref> The movement and particularly its leader has been controversial among Somalis. Some cherish it as the founder of modern Somali nationalism, while some others view it as an ambitious Muslim brotherhood militancy that destroyed Somalia's opportunity to move towards modernization and progress in favor of a puritanical Islamic state embedded with Islamic education – ideas enshrined in the contemporary constitution of Somalia.<ref name=hasanrobleh2004/> Yet others such as Aidid consider the Dervish legacy was one of cruelty and violence against those Somalis who disagreed with or refused to submit to Hasan. These Somalis were "declared infidels" and Dervish soldiers were ordered by Hasan to "kill them, their children and women and snatch all their property", according to Shultz and Dew.<ref name="ShultzDew2009p67">{{cite book|author1=Richard H. Shultz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswzCgAAQBAJ|title=Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat|author2=Andrea J. Dew|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-231-12983-1|pages=67–68}}</ref><ref name="Huisman2011p12">{{cite book|author=Kimberly A. Huisman |editor=Kimberly A. Huisman |editor2=Mazie Hough|display-editors=et al|title=Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tuVFN5VmkjcC |year=2011|publisher=North Atlantic Books|isbn=978-1-55643-926-1|pages=12–13}}</ref> Another legacy that came out of the prolonged struggle and violence between the colonial powers and the Dervish movement, according to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, was the arming of the Somali clans followed by decades of destructive clan-driven [[militarism]], violent turmoil, and high human costs well after the demise of the Dervish movement.<ref name="Mohamoud2006p60">{{cite book|author=Abdullah A. Mohamoud|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahHabajshuwC|title=State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001)|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-55753-413-2|pages=60–61, 70–72 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rebecca Richards|title=Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz6gCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-00466-0|pages=76–77}}</ref> |
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Hasan and his Dervish movement have inspired a nationalistic following in contemporary Somalia.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Lotje de Vries|author2=Pierre Englebert|author2link=Pierre Englebert|author3=Mareike Schomerus|title=Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ol5qDwAAQBAJ |year=2018|publisher=Springer International |isbn=978-3-319-90206-7|pages=96–97}}</ref><ref name="Samatar1982">{{cite book|author=Said S. Samatar|title=Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism: The Case of Sayid Mahammad 'Abdille Hasan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhpfSYOQQxQC|year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23833-5|pages=20–24, 72–73}}</ref> The military government of Somalia led by [[Mohamed Siad Barre]], for example, erected statues visible between Makka Al Mukarama and Shabelle Roads in the heart of [[Mogadishu]]. These were for three major Somali History icons: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish movement, Stone Thrower and [[Hawo Tako]]. The Dervish period spawned many [[war]] [[poets]] and [[peace]] [[poets]] involved in a struggle known as the ''Literary war'' which had a profound effect on [[Somali literature|Somali poetry and Literature]], with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan featuring as the most prominent poet of that Age.<ref>SOMALIA: A Nation's Literary Death Tops Its Political Demise by Said S Samatar</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2018}} |
Hasan and his Dervish movement have inspired a nationalistic following in contemporary Somalia.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Lotje de Vries|author2=Pierre Englebert|author2link=Pierre Englebert|author3=Mareike Schomerus|title=Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ol5qDwAAQBAJ |year=2018|publisher=Springer International |isbn=978-3-319-90206-7|pages=96–97}}</ref><ref name="Samatar1982">{{cite book|author=Said S. Samatar|title=Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism: The Case of Sayid Mahammad 'Abdille Hasan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhpfSYOQQxQC|year=1982|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23833-5|pages=20–24, 72–73}}</ref> The military government of Somalia led by [[Mohamed Siad Barre]], for example, erected statues visible between Makka Al Mukarama and Shabelle Roads in the heart of [[Mogadishu]]. These were for three major Somali History icons: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish movement, Stone Thrower and [[Hawo Tako]]. The Dervish period spawned many [[war]] [[poets]] and [[peace]] [[poets]] involved in a struggle known as the ''Literary war'' which had a profound effect on [[Somali literature|Somali poetry and Literature]], with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan featuring as the most prominent poet of that Age.<ref>SOMALIA: A Nation's Literary Death Tops Its Political Demise by Said S Samatar</ref>{{full citation needed|date=September 2018}} The flag of [[Khatumo]], designed by [[Rooda Xassan]] features a Dervish cavalryman.<ref>https://www.ceegaag.com/calanka-khaatumo-ha-dhicin-oo-ha-dheeliyin/</ref> |
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Revision as of 23:29, 17 February 2022
Dervish movement Dhaqdhaqaaqa Daraawiishta | |||||||||
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1899–1920 | |||||||||
Capital | Eyl (1905-1909) Taleh (1913-1920) | ||||||||
Leader | |||||||||
• 1899-1920 | Mohammed Abdullah Hassan | ||||||||
History | |||||||||
• Established | 1899 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 9 February 1920 | ||||||||
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Today part of | Somalia Somaliland Ethiopia |
The Somali Dervish movement (Somali: Dhaqdhaqaaqii Daraawiishta) was a popular movement that developed in eastern Somaliland between 1899 and 1920,[1][2] which was led by the Salihiyya Sufi Muslim poet and militant leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, also known as Sayyid Mohamed, who called for independence from the British and Italian colonies on the Somali peninsula, the defeat of Ethiopian forces, the expulsion of Christianity and the establishment of a state in Somaliland.[1][2] The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.[3] Hassan established a ruling council called the Khususi consisting of Islamic clan leaders and elders, added an adviser from the Ottoman Empire named Muhammad Ali and thus created a multi-clan Islamic movement in what led to the eventual creation of the state of Somalia.[2][1][4]
The Dervish movement attracted between 5,000 and 6,000 youth from different clans over 1899 and 1900, acquired firearms and then attacked the Ethiopian army in the Jigjiga region. The Ethiopians retreated and then gave the Dervishes their first military victory.[5][note 1] The Dervish movement then declared the colonial administration in British Somaliland as their enemy. To end the movement, the British sought out the competing Somali clans as coalition partners against the Dervish movement. The British provided these clans with firearms and supplies to fight against the Dervishes. Punitive attacks were launched against Dervish strongholds in 1904.[1][2] The Dervish movement suffered losses in the field, regrouped into smaller units and resorted to guerrilla warfare. Hasan and his loyalist Dervishes moved into the Italian-controlled Somaliland in 1905 after Hasan signed the Illig treaty, under which the Dervishes were ceded the Nugaal Valley,[7][8] which strengthened his movement,[1] and Hasan subsequently received an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status.[9] In 1908, the Dervishes entered the British Somaliland again and began inflicting major losses to the British in the interior regions of the Horn of Africa. The British retreated to the coastal regions, leaving the chaotic interior regions in the hands of the Dervishes. During 1905-1910 the Dervishes lost much of their support due to their indiscriminate raids against allies and enemies alike, with several followers subsequently leaving the Dervishes after Hasan was supposedly excommunicated by the head of the Salihiyyah tariqa in Mecca in a famous letter.[10]
The First World War shifted the attention of the British elsewhere, although upon its conclusion, in 1920 the British launched a massive combined arms offensive on the Taleh forts, strongholds of the Dervish movement.[2][5] The offensive caused significant casualties among the Dervishes, although the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan managed to escape. His death in 1921 due to either malaria or influenza ended the Dervish movement.[1][2][11]
The Dervish movement temporarily created a mobile Somali "proto-state" in early 20th-century with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population.[12] It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The battles between various sides over two decades killed nearly a third of Somaliland's population and ravaged the local economy.[11][13][14] Scholars variously interpret the emergence and demise of the militant Dervish movement in Somalia. Some consider the "Sufi Islamic" ideology as the driver, others consider economic crisis to the nomadic lifestyle triggered by the occupation and "colonial predation" ideology as the trigger for the Dervish movement, while post-modernists state that both religion and nationalism created the Dervish movement.[2]
History
Origins
According to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, traditional Somali society followed a decentralized structure and a nomadic lifestyle dependent on livestock and pastureland. It was also predominantly Muslim.[15][16] As the European colonial powers expanded their reach in the Horn of Africa, the region of Somalia came under the influence of the Ethiopians, the British and the Italians. Ethiopia on its part, focused more on the Ogaden region as their forces were ambushed and defeated by the Geledi in the battle of luuq despite having a large force of riflemen,artillery and horsemen. This caused Ethiopia to rethink its strategy of conquering the coastal southern region and focused on the hinterlands of the Ogaden.[17] With foreign rule came the centralization of the economy, which greatly upset the traditional lifestock and pastureland based livelihood of the Somalis. The foreign powers were also all Christians, which created additional suspicions amongst the Somali religious elite.[16] The Ethiopian troops had already proved to be a bane for the Somalis as they were the traditional raiders and plunderers of their grazing herds due to the Dervish raids. The arrival of the colonial powers and the consequent partitioning of Africa greatly affected the Somalis, with Sufi poets such as Faarax Nuur writing poems expressing his opposition to foreign rule.[18] The Dervish movement can thus be seen as a reaction against the establishment of foreign control in Ethiopia.[16]
The Dervish movement was led by a Sufi poet and religious nationalist leader named Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, also known as Sayid Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan.[15] According to Said M. Mohamed, he was born in Sacmadeeqo sometime between 1856 and 1864 to a father who was a religious teacher.[15] He studied in Somali Islamic seminaries and later went on Hajj to Mecca where he met Shaykh Muhammad Salah of the Salihiya Islamic Tariqah, which states The Encyclopedia Britannica was a "militant, reformist, and puritanical Sufi order".[19][15] The preachings of Salah to Hasan had roots in Saudi Wahhabism, and it considered it a religious duty "to wage a holy war (jihad) against all other forms of Islam, the Western and Christian presence in the Muslim world, and a religious revival", state Richard Shultz and Andrea Dew.[20] When Hasan returned to the Horn of Africa, the Somali tradition states that he saw Somali children being converted to Christianity by missionaries in the British colony. Hasan began preaching against this religious conversion and the British presence. He earned the ire of the British colonial administration who termed him the 'mad mullah', and his Sufi teachings were also opposed by the rival Qadiriya Tariqah – another traditional Sufi group of the region, states Said M. Mohamed.[15][21] Another version of the early events link the illegal sale of a gun to Hasan by a corrupt Somali officer in 1899, who reported his gun as stolen rather than purchased by Hasan.[22] The British authorities demanded the gun's return, while Hasan replied that the British should leave the country, a sentiment he had previously claimed in 1897 when he declared himself "the leader of a sovereign nation".[22] Hasan continued to preach against the British introduction of Christianity to Somalia, stating that the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children".[22]
Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood,[19] rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries.[23] These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or Daraawiish, states Said M. Mohamed.[15]
Movement
The Dervish movement temporarily created a Somali "proto-state", according to Markus Hoehne.[24] It was a mobile state with fluid boundaries and fluctuating population given the guerilla style militant approach of Dervishes and their practice of retreating to sparsely inhabited hinterland whenever the colonial forces with superior firearms overwhelmed them. At the head of this state was the Sufi leader Hasan with the power of final decision. Hasan surrounded himself with a group of commanders for the militant operations supported by the khusuusi or the Dervish council. Islamic judges settled disputes and enforced the Islamic law in this Dervish state. According to Robert Hess, two of Hasan's chief advisors were Sultan Nur – previously Habr Yunis chief, and Haji Sudi Shabeel also known as Ahmad Warsama from Adan Madoba Habr Je'lo who was fluent in English.[25][26]
The constituent clans of the Dervish during the formative years belonged to sections of the Ogaden, Dhulbahante, Habr Je'lo and Habr Yunis clans:
He acquired some notoriety by seditious preaching in Berbera in 1895, after which he returned to his tariga in Kob Faradod, in the Dolbahanta. Here he gradually acquired influence by stopping inter-tribal warfare, and eventually started a religious movement in which the Rer Ibrahim (Mukahil Ogaden), Ba Hawadle (Miyirwalal Ogaden) and the Ali Gheri (Dolbahanta) were the first to join. His emissaries also soon succeeded in winning over the Adan Madoba, notable amongst whom was Haji Sudi, his trusted lieutenant, and the Ahmed Farih and Rer Yusuf, all Habr Toljaala, and the Musa Ismail of the Eastern Habr Yunis, Habr Gerhajis, with Sultan Nur.[27]
Between 1900 and 1913, they operated from temporary local centers such as Aynabo and Illig in Somaliland.[24] Neville Lyttelton's War Office, and General Egerton described the Nugaal as the "base of operations" against Dervishes.[28]
The Dervishes wore white turban and its army utilized horses for movement. They assassinated opposing clan leaders.[24] Dervish soldiers used the dhaanto and geeraar traditional dance-song to raise their esprit de corps and sometimes sang it on horseback.[29] Hasan commanded the Dervish movement soldiers in a martial manner, ensuring that they were religiously committed, powered up for warfare and men of character sworn with an oath of allegiance.[30] To ensure unity among his troops, instead of letting them identify themselves by their different tribes, he made them identify themselves uniformly as Dervish.[31] The movement obtained firearms from Sultan Boqor Osman Mahmud of Majerteen Sultanate, as well as the Ottoman Empire and Sudan. In addition, the Dervishes also obtained significant armaments' from the Adan Madoba section of the Habr Je'lo clan where, according to the contemporary source Official History of the Operations in Somaliland: "Of the former the Adan Madoba were not only responsible for supplying him Abdullah Hassan with arms, but also assisted him on all his raids."[32][33] The Dervish fought many battles starting in 1899 against the Ethiopian troops.[30] In 1904, the Dervishes were almost annihilated in Jidbaley. Hasan retreated into the Italian Somaliland and entered into a treaty with them, who accepted the control of Eyl port by the Dervishes. This port served as the Dervish headquarters between 1905 and 1909.[24] During this period, Hasan rebuilt the Dervish movement army, the Dervishes raided and plundered their neighboring clans, and in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader Uways al-Barawi and burnt his settlement, according to Mohamed Mukhtar.[34]
In 1913, after the British withdrawal to the coast, the Dervishes created a walled town with fourteen fortresses in Taleh by importing masons from Yemen. This served as their headquarters.[35][36] The main fortress, Silsilat, included conical tower granaries that opened only at the top, wells with sulfurous water, cattle watering stations, a guard tower, walled garden, and tombs. It became the residence of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, his wives and family.[35] The Taleh structures also included the Hed Kaldig (literally, "place of blood"), where those whom Hasan disliked were executed with or without torture and their bodies left to the hyenas.[35] According to Muktar, Hasan's execution orders also targeted dozens of his former friends and allies.[34] The town of Taleh was mostly destroyed after a RAF aerial bombardment in early February 1920, though Hasan had already left his compound by then.[35][37] In an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent Governatori della Somalia, the British are described taking twenty-seven garesas or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan.[38]
Relations with the Biimal
His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is till this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reasons to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of Merca and its surroundings.[39]
One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' (had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, whom in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal.[40] The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.[40]
In southern Somalia, there was another resistance, the Bimal or Banadir Resistance. This was a large resistance lead by the Bimal clan spanning 3 decades of war. The Bimal being the main element, eventually neighboring adjacent tribes also joined the Bimal in their struggle against the Italians. The Italians feared that the Banadir Resistance would join hands with the Dervishes. During this period, is also when Dervish allies in Benadir had in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader Uways al-Barawi.[41]
The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.[42]
Engagements
In August 1898, the Dervish army occupied Burao, an important centre of British Somaliland, giving Muhammad Abdullah Hassan control over the city's watering places. Hassan also succeeded in making peace between the local clans and initiated a large assembly, where the population was urged to join the war against the British. His forces were supplied with the simple uniforms consisting of "a white cotton outer garment (worn by most Somali men of the time anyway), a white turban, a tasbih (or rosary), and a rifle."[43]
In March 1900, Hassan along with his dervish forces attacked an Ethiopian outpost near Jijiga. Capt. Malcolm McNeill who commanded the Somali Field Force against Hassan reported that the Dervish were completely defeated, and that they have suffered a heavy loss amounting to 2,800 killed, according to the Ethiopians.[44] Similar raids by the dervish would continue despite the losses across the Somali peninsula until 1920. McNeill notes that by June 1900, Hassan made his position even stronger than before his March 1900 defeat and had “practically dominated the whole of the southern portion of our Protectorate”.[44]
The British administration started to coordinate with the Italians and Ethiopians, and by 1901 a joint Anglo-Ethiopian force began to coordinate plans to eradicate the jihadists or limit their reach farther west to the Ogaden or borderland of northern Kenya. Lack of supplies and access to fresh drinking water in the large expanse of flat land made this a challenging feat for the British and their allies. In contrast, Hassan and his dervishes adapted harsh conditions of the land by eating carcasses of beasts and drinking water from the dead bellies of animals.[44] Despite possessing superior weapons, including Maxim machine guns, until 1905, the Anglo-Ethiopian forces were still struggling to gain hold on the dervish movement.
Britain launched at least two major offensives aimed at either killing or capturing Hassan between 1913 and 1920. Though they almost succeeded, Hassan proved elusive. Finally, the British Cabinet approved of air operations against the Dervish movement. It is said that the challenge of the Dervishes presented the British with a suitable environment to trial its new doctrine of warfare, which stressed "the use of aircraft as the primary arm, usually supplemented by ground forces, according to particular requirements."[45]
In the Somaliland campaign of 1920, 12 Airco DH.9A aircraft were used to support the British forces. Within a month, the British had occupied the capital of the Dervish State and Hassan had retreated to the west.[45]
Demise
Korahe raid
In the early 20th century during the Dervish wars, the British and Abbyssinians came to an agreement that cross border camel raiding between the Somali tribes was to be banned and that the offending tribes would be punished by their respective governments. The Abyssinians only nominally having control over the Haud failed to meet their end of the agreement and this resulted in the Dervish and Ogaden alliance raiding with impunity while the Isaaq and Dhulbahante were unable to avenge the raids due to the British Camel Corps restraining them and returning looted Ogaden livestock. The secretary administrator of British Somaliland, Douglas James Jardine noted that the Isaaq sub clans inhabiting the Haud were in fact militarily superior and stronger than their Ogaden counterparts. After a series of Dervish-Ogaden raids, tribal elders held talks with the British Government, forcing the latter to lift the ban and let the clans deal with the Dervish-Ogaden themselves. The man chosen to lead the tribal forces was Akil (tribal chief) Haji Mohammad Bullaleh (also known as Haji Warabe) who himself had previous quarrels with the Mullah.[46][47]
After the bombing campaign of the Taleh fort the Dervish retreated in to the Ogaden territory in Abyssinia and the Mullah was able to attract followers from his tribe. The catalyst for the Hagoogane raid happened on May 20, 1920, when a Dervish-Ogaden force raided the Ba Hawadle sub clan of the Ogaden who were under the protection of the Isaaq, killing women and children in the process. Haji Warabe assembled an army composed of 3000 Habr Yunis, Habr Je'lo and Dhulbahante warriors. The army set out from Togdheer, on the dawn of July 20, 1920, Haji's army reached Korahe just west of Shineleh where the Dervish and their tribal allies were camped and commenced to attack with them with force. The Dervish-Ogaden numbering 800 were defeated swiftly and only a 100 survived the onslaught and fled south. Haji and his army looted 60,000 livestock and 700 rifles from their defeated foes. During the midst of the battle Haji Warabe entered the Mullah's tent to face his adversary but found the tent empty with the Mullah's tea still hot.[48] The Mullah had fled to Imi where he would die due to influenza shortly afterwards. Haji Warabe's Habr Yunis and Habr Je'lo warriors divided the livestock and rifles amongst themselves denying the Dhulbahante soldiers their share as mentioned by Salaan Carrabey in his Guba poem addressed to Ali Dhuh.[49] The looting dealt a severe blow to them economically, a blow from which they did not recover.[50][51][52][53]
Religion
The Dervishes had a local religious strand that of the religious teacher Kudquran,[54] and that derived from a Sudanese preacher, the sect Salahiyya,[55] was according to an 1899 letter by James Hayes Sadler established 12 years prior, thus in 1887.[56] In their specific sect, they taught life sobriety and abstemiousness and teetotalism and nephalism pertaining to mind-altering substances.[56] This sect was espoused until 1910 when its founder in Mecca denounced the Dervish via a letter.[55] Nonetheless, some authors trivialized the role of religion: out of the twenty-seven forts built by the Dervish, not a single one of them had a mosque constructed within them, which according to one colonial official placed doubt that there was a religious impulse behind Dervish statehood.[57] The general consul of the Somali Coast Protectorate based in Berbera downplayed the role of antagonism to Christian missionaries to the Dervish that "originated in the Dolbahanta":[58]
I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta
— Consul general
Douglas Jardine likewise deemphasized a religious role, rather attributing Dervish motives to "avarice" and them considering tribal confrontations as a "national sport".[59] Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood,[60] rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries.[61] Hassan stated the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children".[62] These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or Daraawiish, states Said M. Mohamed.[63]
Legacy
According to the Somali historian and novelist Farah Awl the Sayyid had a significant influence on Sheikh Bashir through listening to his poetry and conversations, an influence that impelled him to a "war with the British". After studying in the markaz in Beer he opened a Sufi tariqa (order) sometime in the 1930s, where he preached his ideology of anti-imperialism, stressing the evil of colonial rule and the bringing of radical change through war. His ideology was shaped by a millennial bent, which according to Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm is the "hope of a complete and radical change in the world shorn of all its present deficiencies".[64] The Dervish movement would subsequently inspire Sheikh Bashir, the nephew of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan who was named by him, to wage his own 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion together with Habr Je'lo tribesmen against the British authorities in Somaliland.[65][66]
The Dervish legacy in Somalia and Somaliland has been influential. It was the "most important revivalist Islamic movements" in Somalia, state Hasan and Robleh.[67] The movement and particularly its leader has been controversial among Somalis. Some cherish it as the founder of modern Somali nationalism, while some others view it as an ambitious Muslim brotherhood militancy that destroyed Somalia's opportunity to move towards modernization and progress in favor of a puritanical Islamic state embedded with Islamic education – ideas enshrined in the contemporary constitution of Somalia.[67] Yet others such as Aidid consider the Dervish legacy was one of cruelty and violence against those Somalis who disagreed with or refused to submit to Hasan. These Somalis were "declared infidels" and Dervish soldiers were ordered by Hasan to "kill them, their children and women and snatch all their property", according to Shultz and Dew.[68][69] Another legacy that came out of the prolonged struggle and violence between the colonial powers and the Dervish movement, according to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, was the arming of the Somali clans followed by decades of destructive clan-driven militarism, violent turmoil, and high human costs well after the demise of the Dervish movement.[70][71]
Hasan and his Dervish movement have inspired a nationalistic following in contemporary Somalia.[72][73] The military government of Somalia led by Mohamed Siad Barre, for example, erected statues visible between Makka Al Mukarama and Shabelle Roads in the heart of Mogadishu. These were for three major Somali History icons: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish movement, Stone Thrower and Hawo Tako. The Dervish period spawned many war poets and peace poets involved in a struggle known as the Literary war which had a profound effect on Somali poetry and Literature, with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan featuring as the most prominent poet of that Age.[74][full citation needed] The flag of Khatumo, designed by Rooda Xassan features a Dervish cavalryman.[75]
History of Somalia |
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Somalia portal |
History of Somaliland |
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Somaliland portal |
See also
- Hasna Doreh
- Nur Ahmed Aman
- Abdullahi Sadiq
- Haji Sudi
- History of Somalia
- Somali aristocratic and court titles
Notes
References
- ^ a b c d e f Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Mr. Steven J. Niven (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
- ^ a b c d e f g Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 60–61, 70–72 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
- ^ Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147
- ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. 27.
- ^ a b Abdi Ismail Samatar (1989). The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884-1986. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-299-11994-2.
- ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. p. 71 with footnote 81. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
- ^ Smtar, Ahmed (1988). Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality. Zed Books. p. 32.
the allocation of part of the Nugaal valley - in between the British and Italian Somalilands – to Dervish rule
- ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-Clio. p. 78.
- ^ Nelson, Harold (1982). Somalia, a Country Study. Library of Congress. p. 18.
but in 1905 the British accepted Italian mediation in arranging a truce that conferred on the imam an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status in the Nugaal (Nogal) Valley. Mohamed Abdullah did not gain extensive support in Italian Somaliland, although some clans there declared themselves dervishes and robbed cattle from the herds of other Somalis who were deemed to accommodating to the Italians
- ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003). Historical dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1. OCLC 268778107.
- ^ a b Richard H. Shultz; Andrea J. Dew (2009). Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-12983-1.
- ^ Markus V. Hoehne (2016). John M Mackenzie (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069. ISBN 978-11184-406-43.
- ^ Michel Ben Arrous; Lazare Ki-Zerbo (2009). African Studies in Geography from Below. African Books. p. 166. ISBN 978-2-86978-231-0.
- ^ Robert L. Hess (1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3). Cambridge University Press: 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976.
- ^ a b c d e f Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Mr. Steven J. Niven (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
- ^ a b c Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 60–61, 70–72 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
- ^ Abdi Abdulqadir Sheik-'Abdi (1993). Divine madness : Mohammed 'Abdulle Hassan (1856-1920). Atlantic Highlands, N.J. p. 69. ISBN 0862324432:0862324440 (pbk.).
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help) - ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 70 with footnote 79. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
- ^ a b Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Richard H. Shultz; Andrea J. Dew (2009). Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-12983-1.
- ^ David Motadel (2014). Islam and the European Empires. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18 with footnotes 49–50, 165–166. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1.
- ^ a b c Raphael Chijioke Njoku (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.
- ^ Benjamin Hopkins (2014). David Motadel (ed.). Islam and the European Empires. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1., Quote: "Men of religious learning and authority were well-positioned in these societies [Somaliland, Sudan, Northwest Frontier of British India] to straddle the disparate and often conflicting interests of local peoples. The protection of Islam became their rallying cry, providing a coherent narrative of and justification for resistance against the forces of colonialism, as well as a unifying force which superseded particularist tribal identities."
- ^ a b c d Markus V. Hoehne (2016). John M Mackenzie (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069. ISBN 978-11184-406-43.
- ^ Robert L. Hess (1968). Norman Robert Bennett (ed.). Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies. Boston University Press. p. 103.
- ^ R. W. Beachey (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920. Bellew. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-947792-43-5.
- ^ Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. H. M. Stationery office. p. 49.
- ^ War Office, British (1907). Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. p. 315.
situated in every way for a base of operations in the Nogal which it was evident must form the theatre of war
- ^ Johnson, John William (1996). Heelloy: Modern Poetry and Songs of the Somali. Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 1874209812.
- ^ a b Richard H. Shultz; Andrea J. Dew (2009). Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-12983-1.
- ^ Saadia Touval (1963). Somali nationalism: international politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa. Harvard University Press. pp. 57–59. ISBN 9780674818255.
- ^ Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. H. M. Stationery office. p. 41.
- ^ Raphael Chijioke Njoku (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.
- ^ a b Mohamed Haji Mukhtar (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
- ^ a b c d W. A. MacFadyen (1931), Taleh, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 125–128
- ^ Robert L. Hess (1968). Norman Robert Bennett (ed.). Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies. Boston University Press. pp. 90–97.
- ^ Michael Napier (2018). The Royal Air Force: A Centenary of Operations. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-1-4728-2539-1.
- ^ Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven garesas (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."viewable link
- ^ Samatar, Said S. (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-0-932415-70-7.
- ^ a b Hess, Robert L. (1 January 1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433, page 422. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976.
- ^ Mohamed Haji Mukhtar (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
- ^ Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147
- ^ Martin, B. G. (13 February 2003). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521534512.
- ^ a b c Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
- ^ a b Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
- ^ The Mad Mullah Of Somaliland, Douglas Jardine, pp. 306
- ^ Personal and Historical Memoirs of an East Africa Administrator pp.112-113
- ^ Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. ISBN 9780947792435.
- ^ A Somali Poetic Combat Pt. I, II and III. pp.43
- ^ Irons, Roy (4 November 2013). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland, p. 209. ISBN 9781783463800.
- ^ Nicolosi, Gerardo (2002). Imperialismo e resistenza in corno d'Africa: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, P.305. ISBN 9788849803846.
- ^ "King's College London, King's collection: Ismay's summary as Intelligence Officer (1916-1918) of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan".
- ^ Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. ISBN 9780947792435.
- ^ Ciise, Jaamac (1976). Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan. p. 175.
largest and most important division, probably looked upon as the reserve composed of Ba-Ararsama, Aligheri, Kayad, Mahomed Gerad and many Hassan Agaz
- ^ a b Douglas Jardine, 1923 "the Sheikh despatched a denunciatory letter to the Mullah, reproaching him in no measured terms and pointing out that conduct was not only at variance with the tenets of the sect"
- ^ a b of Commons, House (1901). Sessional Papers. p. 1.
This sect was established in Berbera about twelve years ago. It preaches more regularity in the hour of prayer , stricter attention to the forms of religion , and the interdiction of Kat — a leaf the Arabs and coast Somalis are much addicted to chewing on account of its strengthening ... This teaching has not found much favour with the people of the town.
- ^ The National Archives UK - CO 1069-8-64
- ^ Omar Issa, Jama (2005). Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan 1895-1920. p. 45.
I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta , though it is doubtless a useful level with which to try and raise disaffection amongst ... I am a Hashimi by descent, Shaffei by doctrine, a Sunni and belonging to the Ahmedieh tarika. This is for my part
- ^ Douglas Jardine, 1923, p. 50 "So few were the followers whom religion or politics attracted to the Mullah's standard, that we must look elsewhere for the motive which inspired the majority of his following ; and we find it in the cardinal sin of the Somali, avarice. Inter-tribal fighting and raiding constitute the Somali's national sport"
- ^ Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Benjamin Hopkins (2014). David Motadel (ed.). Islam and the European Empires. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1., Quote: "Men of religious learning and authority were well-positioned in these societies [Somaliland, Sudan, Northwest Frontier of British India] to straddle the disparate and often conflicting interests of local peoples. The protection of Islam became their rallying cry, providing a coherent narrative of and justification for resistance against the forces of colonialism, as well as a unifying force which superseded particularist tribal identities."
- ^ Raphael Chijioke Njoku (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.
- ^ Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Mr. Steven J. Niven (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
- ^ Hobsbawm, Eric (1 June 2017). Primitive Rebels. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-0-349-14300-2.
- ^ Jama Mohamed, ‘The Evils of Locust Bait’: Popular Nationalism During the 1945 Anti‐Locust Control Rebellion in Colonial Somaliland, Past & Present, Volume 174, Issue 1, February 2002, Pages 201–202
- ^ of Rodd, Lord Rennell (1948). British Military Administration in Africa 1941-1947. HMSO. p. 481.
- ^ a b Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, pages 143, 146-148, 150-152
- ^ Richard H. Shultz; Andrea J. Dew (2009). Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-12983-1.
- ^ Kimberly A. Huisman (2011). Kimberly A. Huisman; Mazie Hough; et al. (eds.). Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents. North Atlantic Books. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-55643-926-1.
- ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 60–61, 70–72 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
- ^ Rebecca Richards (2016). Understanding Statebuilding: Traditional Governance and the Modern State in Somaliland. Routledge. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-317-00466-0.
- ^ Lotje de Vries; Pierre Englebert; Mareike Schomerus (2018). Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment. Springer International. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-3-319-90206-7.
- ^ Said S. Samatar (1982). Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism: The Case of Sayid Mahammad 'Abdille Hasan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–24, 72–73. ISBN 978-0-521-23833-5.
- ^ SOMALIA: A Nation's Literary Death Tops Its Political Demise by Said S Samatar
- ^ https://www.ceegaag.com/calanka-khaatumo-ha-dhicin-oo-ha-dheeliyin/
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