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{{History of Romania}} |
{{History of Romania}} |
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The term '''Daco-Roman''' describes the [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] culture of [[Dacia]] |
The term '''Daco-Roman''' describes the [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] culture of [[Dacia]] under the rule of the [[Roman Empire]]. It is closely related{{how|date=October 2012}} to the term [[Thraco-Roman]], which tends{{clarifyme|date=October 2012}} to describe the Romanized cultures in the [[Roman provinces]] south of the [[Danube]].{{cn|date=October 2012}} The Romanian [[History of ideas|historian of ideas]] and historiographer [[Lucian Boia]] stated that the Daco-Roman formula, as an origin for the [[Romanian people]], began to surface around 1870s.{{sfn|Boia|2001b|p=92}} |
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The Romanian [[History of ideas|historian of ideas]] and historiographer [[Lucian Boia]] stated that the Daco-Roman formula, as an origin for the [[Romanian people]], began to surface around 1870s.{{sfn|Boia|2001b|p=92}} Philologist [[Alexandru Cihac]] publishes in 1870 in [[Frankfurt]] the first volume of his reference work ''The Daco-Roman Etymological Dictionary: Latin elements compared with the other Romance languages'' (original French title: {{lang|fr|''Dictionnaire d'étymologie daco-romane: éléments latins comparés avec les autres langues romanes''}}).{{sfn|Cihac|1870}} |
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== Historical background == |
== Historical background == |
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Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the [[Danubius]] river ([[Danube]]), in Greek sources the ''Istros'', or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. The [[Carpathian Mountains]] were located in the middle of Dacia, thus corresponds to the present day countries of [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]], as well as smaller parts of [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[Hungary]], and [[Ukraine]]. |
Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the [[Danubius]] river ([[Danube]]), in Greek sources the ''Istros'', or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. The [[Carpathian Mountains]] were located in the middle of Dacia, thus corresponds to the present day countries of [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]], as well as smaller parts of [[Bulgaria]], [[Serbia]], [[Hungary]], and [[Ukraine]]. |
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[[Moesia]] was an ancient region situated in the [[Balkans]], south of Dacia, along the south bank of the Danube, where the [[Moesi]] and Getae lived. In the east it was bounded by the [[Pontus Euxinus]] ([[Black Sea]]) and the river ''Danastris'' ([[Dniester]]), in Greek sources the ''Tyras''. It included territories of modern-day [[Southern Serbia]] (Moesia Superior), Northern [[Republic of Macedonia]]<ref>the regions around [[Skupi]] and [[Kumanovo]]</ref>, [[Northern Bulgaria]], [[Northern Dobruja|Romanian Dobrudja]], Southern [[Moldova]], and [[Budjak]] (Lower Moesia).<ref>{{cite web|title=Map of Moesia Superior and Inferior|url=http://www.severusalexander.com/images/moesia.gif|publisher=severusalexander.com}}</ref> |
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The [[Dacian Kingdom]] reached its maximum expansion during King [[Burebista]], between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. [[Julius Caesar]] intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to [[Pompey]], but was assassinated in [[44 BC]]. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king [[Decebalus]]. |
The [[Dacian Kingdom]] reached its maximum expansion during King [[Burebista]], between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. [[Julius Caesar]] intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to [[Pompey]], but was assassinated in [[44 BC]]. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king [[Decebalus]]. |
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{{Main|Roman Dacia|Dacian Wars}} |
{{Main|Roman Dacia|Dacian Wars}} |
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{{off-topic|date=October 2012}} |
{{off-topic|date=October 2012}} |
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In 87 AD Emperor [[Domitian]] sent six legions into Dacia, which were [[Domitian's Dacian War|defeated at Tapae]]. The Dacians were eventually defeated by Emperor [[Trajan]] in [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|two campaigns]] stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD,<ref>{{Citation|title =Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions|publisher =De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors|url =http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx|accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province of [[Roman Dacia]]. |
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The occupied native population began to become more and more involved into the political life of the Empire. The first one was [[Regalianus]], kinsman of the [[Dacia|Dacian]] king [[Decebalus]]. |
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The occupied native population began to become more and more involved into the political life of the Empire. The tradition of [[Roman Emperor]]s of Thracian origin dates back as early as the 3rd century. The first one was [[Regalianus]], kinsman of the [[Dacia|Dacian]] king [[Decebalus]]. By the 3rd century, the Thracians became an important part of the [[Roman army]]. The army used Latin as its operating language. This continued to be the case well after the 6th century, despite the fact that Greek was the common language of the Eastern empire.<ref>[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ''[[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]]''</ref>{{or|date=October 2012}} This was not simply due to tradition, but also to the fact that about half the Eastern army continued to be recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian regions of the Eastern empire. An analysis of known origins of ''comitatenses'' in the period 350-476 shows that in the Eastern army, the Danubian regions provided 54% of the total sample, despite constituting just 2 of the 7 eastern [[Roman diocese|dioceses]]: [[Diocese of Dacia|Dacia]] and [[Diocese of Thrace|Thracia]].{{sfn|Elton|1996|p=134}} These regions continued to be the prime recruiting grounds for the East Roman army, e.g. the emperor [[Justin I]] (r. 518-27), father of Justinian I, a Latin-speaking Thracian<ref name=autogenerated2>Ion I. Russu, Elementele traco-getice în Imperiul Roman și în Byzantium (veacurile III-VII), Editura Academiei R. S. România, 1976, pag.95</ref><ref>Velizar Iv Velkov, Cities in Thrace and Dacia in Late Antiquity: (studies and Materials), University of Michigan, 1977, pag.47</ref><ref>Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora, Gorgias Press LLC, 2003, ISBN 1-59333-053-7, pag.23</ref><ref>Scott Fitzgerald Johnson, Greek Literature in Late Antiquity, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-5683-7, pag.166</ref><ref>John Julius Norwich, A Short History of Byzantium, Vintage Books, 1997, ISBN 0-679-77269-3, pag.59</ref> peasant from Bederiana (an unlocalized village in an area to this day inhabited by the [[Vlachs of Serbia]]), who bore, like his companions and members of his family (Zimarchus, Dityvistus, Boraides, Bigleniza, Sabatius, etc.) a Thracian name,<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref>James Allan Stewart Evans, The Age of Justinian: The Circumstances of Imperial Power, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-23726-2, pag. 96</ref> and who never learned to speak more than rudimentary Greek. |
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[[File:PraesentalisII2.png|thumb|right|Page from the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', a late Roman register of military commands, depicting shields of the ''magister militum praesentalis II''.]] |
[[File:PraesentalisII2.png|thumb|right|Page from the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', a late Roman register of military commands, depicting shields of the ''magister militum praesentalis II''.]] |
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If, for the first centuries after the Roman conquest of [[Dacia]], the antagonism between the occupied and free [[List of Dacian tribes|Dacian tribes]] and the Romans was clearly visible, as demonstrated by the episode when Emperor [[Galerius]] claimed that the name of the Empire should be changed into the ''"Dacian Empire".''<ref>Lactanius, "Of the manner in which the persecutors died"[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html]: ''"Whatever, by the laws of war, conquerors had done to the conquered, the like did this man presume to perpetrate against Romans and the subjects of Rome, because his forefathers had been made liable to a like tax imposed by the victorious Trajan, as a penalty on the Dacians for their frequent rebellions."'' [...] ''"Long ago, indeed, and at the very time of his obtaining sovereign power, he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian empire."''</ref>{{or|date=October 2012}} |
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=== Post-Roman period === |
=== Post-Roman period === |
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== Famous individuals == |
== Famous individuals == |
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This is a list of several important Daco-Roman individuals: |
This is a list of several important Daco-Roman individuals: |
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* [[Aureolus]], [[Roman army|military commander]] and [[Roman usurper|usurper]] (lived c. 220-268 AD); per [[Zonaras]] he was a herdsman<ref>Zonaras, Op. Cit. xii, 24.</ref> born in the [[Roman Dacia|Roman province of Dacia]], north of the [[Danube]] |
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* [[Flavius Aetius]], often called "[[Last of the Romans|the last of the Romans]]", Dacian<ref>Jordanes, Getica, 176; Merobaudes, Carmina, iv, 42-43, and Panegyrici, ii, 110-115, 119-120; Gregory of Tours, ii.8; Zosimus, v.36.1; Chronica gallica 452, 100. Cited in Jones, p. 21.</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}} and Roman origin |
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* [[Galerius]], Roman Emperor who affirmed his Dacian roots to such an extent that "he had avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name; and he proposed that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian empire"<ref>[[Lactanius]], ''De mortibus persecutorum'', IX, 1; XXVII, 9; FHDR: II, 4, 6.</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}} |
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* [[Leo I the Thracian]], born as Leo Marcellus in the year 401 to a Daco-Roman or Thraco-Roman family (of the [[Dacians|Daci]]<ref>According to [[Candidus]], F.H.G. IV, p.135</ref>{{OR|date = October 2012}}<ref>''The Rome that Did Not Fall...'' p.174</ref>{{failed verification|date = October 2012}} or [[Bessi]]<ref>According to [[John Malalas]], XIV, p.369</ref> tribe){{OR|date = October 2012}} |
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* [[Regalianus]] |
* [[Regalianus]] |
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Revision as of 12:56, 8 October 2012
History of Romania |
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Romania portal |
The term Daco-Roman describes the Romanized culture of Dacia under the rule of the Roman Empire. It is closely related[how?] to the term Thraco-Roman, which tends[clarification needed] to describe the Romanized cultures in the Roman provinces south of the Danube.[citation needed] The Romanian historian of ideas and historiographer Lucian Boia stated that the Daco-Roman formula, as an origin for the Romanian people, began to surface around 1870s.[1]
Historical background
Before the Romans
In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians and the Getae, both peoples being considered by some of the scholars as branches of the Thracians, north of the Haemus Mons (the Balkan Mountains). Furthermore, some of the scholars consider the Dacians and the Getae as being the same people, based on ancient sources and linguistics research, while others see them as related.
Dacia was bounded in the south approximately by the Danubius river (Danube), in Greek sources the Istros, or at its greatest extent, by the Haemus Mons. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia, thus corresponds to the present day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as smaller parts of Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine.
The Dacian Kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. Julius Caesar intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave to Pompey, but was assassinated in 44 BC. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate, assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His powerful state was divided in four and did not become unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian king Decebalus.
Arrival of the Romans
In 87 AD Emperor Domitian sent six legions into Dacia, which were defeated at Tapae. The Dacians were eventually defeated by Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD,[2] and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province of Roman Dacia.
The occupied native population began to become more and more involved into the political life of the Empire. The first one was Regalianus, kinsman of the Dacian king Decebalus.
Post-Roman period
Language
The Roman occupation led to a Roman-Thracian syncretism, and similar to the case of other conquered civilisation (see Gallo-Roman culture developed in Roman Gaul), had as final result the Latinization of many Thracian tribes which were on the edge of the sphere of Latin influence, eventually resulting in the possible extinction of the Daco-Thracian language (unless, of course, Albanian is its descendant), although traces of it are still preserved in the Eastern Romance substratum. Starting from the 2nd century AD, the Latin spoken in the Danubian provinces starts to display its own distinctive features, separate from the rest of the Romance languages, including those of western Balkans (Dalmatian).[3] The Thraco-Roman period of the Romanian language is usually delimited between the 2nd (or earlier, via cultural influence and economic ties) and the 6th or 7th century.[4] It is divided, in turn, into two periods, with the division falling roughly in the 3rd-4th century. The Romanian Academy considers the 5th century as the latest date when the differences between Balkan Latin and western Latin could have appeared,[5] and that between the 5th and 8th centuries, this new language – Romanian - switched from Latin speech, to a neolatine vernacular idiom, called Proto-Romanian.[6][7]
Archaeological sites
Famous individuals
This is a list of several important Daco-Roman individuals:
See also
- Gallo-Roman
- Romano-British culture
- Culture of Ancient Rome
- Dacian language
- Eastern Romance substratum
- Romanian language
- Origin of the Romanians
- Romance languages
- Legacy of the Roman Empire
- The Balkan linguistic union
- History of Romania
Further reading
- Template:Ro icon Sorin Olteanu, The administrative organisation of the Balkan provinces in the 6th century AD
- Template:En icon Stelian Brezeanu: Toponymy and ethnic Realities at the Lower Danube in the 10th Century. “The deserted Cities" in Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De administrando imperio
- Template:En icon Kelley L. Ross The Vlach Connection and Further Reflections on Roman History
Notes
- ^ Boia 2001b, p. 92.
- ^ Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions, De Imperatoribus Romanis, An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors, retrieved 2008-01-10
- ^ Al. Rosetti: "Istoria limbii române" ("History of the Romanian Language"), Bucharest, 1986
- ^ Dicţionarul limbii române (DLR), serie nouă ("Dictionary of the Romanian Language, new series"), Academia Română, responsible editors: Iorgu Iordan, Alexandru Graur, Ion Coteanu, Bucharest, 1983;
- ^ “Istoria limbii române” ("History of the Romanian Language"), II, Academia Română, Bucharest, 1969;
- ^ I. Fischer, "Latina dunăreană" ("Danubian Latin"), Bucharest, 1985.
- ^ A. B. Černjak "Vizantijskie svidetel'stva o romanskom (romanizirovannom) naselenii Balkan V–VII vv; “Vizantinskij vremmenik", LIII, Moscova, 1992
References
- Boia, Lucian (2001b). History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness. Central European University Press}. ISBN 9789639116979.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Cihac, Alexandru (1870). Dictionnaire d'étymologie daco-romane: éléments latins comparés avec les autres langues romanes (in French). Frankfurt: Ludolphe St-Goar. ISBN 9780559388125.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Elton, Hugh (1996). Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815241-5.
{{cite book}}
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(help)