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{{Short description|Competitive winter sport}} |
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{{About|the sport of competitive cross-country skiing|cross-country skiing in general|Cross-country skiing}} |
{{About|the sport of competitive cross-country skiing|cross-country skiing in general|Cross-country skiing}} |
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<noinclude>{{User:RMCD bot/subject notice|1=Cross-country ski competition|2=Talk:Cross-country skiing (sport)#Requested move 12 January 2022}} |
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</noinclude>{{Good article}} |
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{{Infobox sport |
{{Infobox sport |
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|name = Cross-country ski competition |
|name = Cross-country ski competition |
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|image = |
|image = File:Дёминский Лыжный Марафон 2015.jpg |
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|imagesize = 245px |
|imagesize = 245px |
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|caption = [[ |
|caption = [[Demino Ski Marathon]], 2015 |
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|union = [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] |
|union = [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] |
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|nickname = Cross-country, XC skiing |
|nickname = Cross-country, XC skiing |
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|venue = |
|venue = |
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|obsolete = |
|obsolete = |
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|olympic = [[Cross-country skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|1924]] |
|olympic = [[Cross-country skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|1924 (men)]], [[Cross-country skiing at the 1952 Winter Olympics|1952 (women)]] |
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|paralympic = [[1976 Winter Paralympics|1976]] |
|paralympic = [[1976 Winter Paralympics|1976]] |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Competitive cross-country skiing''' encompasses a variety of race formats and course lengths. Rules of [[cross-country skiing]] are sanctioned by the [[International Ski Federation]] and by various national organizations. International competitions include the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships]], the [[FIS Cross-Country World Cup]], and at the [[Cross-country skiing at the Winter Olympics|Winter Olympic Games]]. Such races occur over [[homologated]], groomed courses designed to support [[Cross-country skiing#Classic|classic (in-track)]] and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ [[Cross-country skiing#Skate skiing|skate skiing]]. It also encompasses cross-country [[ski marathon]] events, sanctioned by the [[Worldloppet Ski Federation]], and cross-country [[ski orienteering]] events, sanctioned by the [[International Orienteering Federation]]. Related forms of competition are [[biathlon]], where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and [[paralympic cross-country skiing]] that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment. |
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The '''sport of cross-country skiing''' encompasses a variety of formats for [[cross-country skiing]] races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the [[International Ski Federation]] and by national organizations, such as the [[U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association]]<ref> |
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{{cite web |
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Norwegian army units were skiing for sport (and prizes) in the 18th century. Starting in the latter part of the 20th century, technique evolved from the striding in-track classic technique to include skate-skiing, which occurs on courses that have been groomed with wide lanes for those using the technique. At the same time, [[Cross-country skiing#Equipment|equipment]] evolved from skis and poles that were made of wood and other natural materials to comprising such man-made materials as [[fiberglass]], [[carbon fiber]], and [[polyethylene|polyethylene plastics]].<ref name="Kuz01">{{Cite thesis |type=Licentiate |title=Investigation of the most essential factors influencing ski glide |url=http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1757/2006/03/LTU-LIC-0603-SE.pdf |last=Kuzmin |first=Leonid |year=2006 |publisher=Luleå University of Technology |access-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref> |
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| last = Directors |
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| first = |
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Athletes train to achieve endurance, strength, speed, skill and flexibility at different levels of intensity. Off-season training often occurs on dry land, sometimes on [[Roller skiing|roller skis]]. The organization of cross-country ski competitions aims to make those events accessible both to spectators and television audiences. As with other sports that require endurance, strength and speed, some athletes have chosen to use banned [[performance-enhancing drugs]]. |
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| title = Cross Country Sport Committee |
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| work = USSA Programs |
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| publisher = U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association (USSA) |
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| date = 2012 |
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| url = http://ussa.org/ussa/cross-country-sport-committee |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-04}}</ref> and Cross Country Ski Canada.<ref>{{cite web |
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| last = Directors |
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| first = |
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| title = Rules and Regulations |
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| publisher = Cross Country Ski Canada |
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| date = 2012 |
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| url = http://www.cccski.com/Events/Rules-and-Regulations.aspx |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-04}}</ref> International competitions include the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships]], the [[FIS Cross-Country World Cup]], and at the [[Cross-country skiing at the Winter Olympics|Winter Olympic Games]]. Such races occur over [[homologated]], groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and free-style events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country [[ski marathon]] events, sanctioned by the [[Worldloppet Ski Federation]], and cross-country [[ski orienteering]] events, sanctioned by the [[International Orienteering Federation]]. Norwegian army units were skiing for sport (and prizes) in the 18th century. Competition has been evolving to make it more interesting for spectators. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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[[File: |
[[File:AIN.11161.1695.jpg|thumb|Local championship, [[Ballangen]], Norway, 1925]] |
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[[File:Martin Matsbo.jpg|thumb|right|Swedish competitor, [[Martin Matsbo]], in April 1935]] |
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In 1767 Danish-Norwegian general, Carl Schack Rantzau, codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each: 1. shooting at prescribed targets at 40-50 paces while skiing at "top speed" (precursor to biathlon) 2. "hurling" themselves while racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis" (precursor to slalom), 3. downhill racing on large slopes without "riding or resting on their stick," or falling (precursor to downhill racing) and 4. "long racing" with full military kit and a gun on the shoulder over ca. 2.5 km of "flat ground" within 15 minutes (precursor to cross-country skiing).<ref name = Huntford> |
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{{Main article|History of skiing}} |
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In 1767 Danish-Norwegian general, [[:da:Schack Carl Rantzau|Carl Schack Rantzau]], codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each:<ref name = Huntford> |
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{{cite book |
{{cite book |
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| last = Huntford |
| last = Huntford |
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| publisher = Bloomsbury Academic |
| publisher = Bloomsbury Academic |
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| date = November 2008 |
| date = November 2008 |
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| page = [https://archive.org/details/twoplanksandpass00hunt/page/436 436] |
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| location = |
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| |
| isbn = 978-1-84725-236-4 |
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| url = https://archive.org/details/twoplanksandpass00hunt/page/436 |
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| language = English |
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}}</ref><ref name=Bergsland>Bergsland, Einar (1946): ''På ski.'' Oslo: Aschehoug.</ref> |
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| isbn = 978-1847252364 }}</ref><ref name=Bergsland>Bergsland, Einar (1946): ''På ski.'' Oslo: Aschehoug.</ref> An early record of a public ski competition occurred in [[Tromsø]], 1843. The announcement called the event a "wagering race on skis."<ref name="Olav 1993">Bø, Olav: ''Skiing throughout history'', translated by W. Edson Richmond. Oslo: Samlaget, 1993.</ref> A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 when [[Mathias Zdarsky]] advocated the "Lilienfelder Ski Method" as an alternative to the Norwegian technique.<ref name=Bergsland/> In Norwegian, ''langrenn'' refers to "competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in groomed tracks in the shortest possible time." Alpine skiing competitions (known as ''hill races'') existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races (competitive cross-country skiing) and ski jumping (now known as the Nordic disciplines). The alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920. ''Ski touring competitions'' ({{lang-no|turrenn}}) are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is usually within age intervals.<ref name=Idrettsleksikon>''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports), Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990. ISBN 82-573-0408-5</ref> |
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*Shooting at prescribed targets at 40–50 paces while skiing downhill at "top speed" (precursor to biathlon). |
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*"Hurling" themselves while racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis" (precursor to slalom). |
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*Downhill racing on large slopes without "riding or resting on their stick" or falling (precursor to downhill racing). |
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*"Long racing" with full military kit and a gun on the shoulder over ca. 2.5 km of "flat ground" within 15 minutes (precursor to modern cross-country skiing). |
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An early record of a public ski competition was for an 1843 event in [[Tromsø]]. The announcement called the event a "wagering race on skis".<ref name="Olav 1993">Bø, Olav: ''Skiing throughout history'', translated by W. Edson Richmond. Oslo: Samlaget, 1993.</ref> A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 from how skiing was practiced up until then when [[Mathias Zdarsky]] advocated the "Lilienfelder Ski Method" as an alternative to the Norwegian technique.<ref name=Bergsland/> In Norwegian, ''langrenn'' refers to "competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in pre-set tracks in the shortest possible time". Alpine skiing competitions (known as ''hill races'') existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races (competitive cross-country skiing) and ski jumping (now known as the Nordic disciplines). The alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920. ''Ski touring competitions'' ({{lang-no|turrenn}}) are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is usually within age categories.<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><!----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports), Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990. ISBN 82-573-0408-5---> |
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A new technique, [[Cross-country_skiing#Skate_skiing|skate skiing]], was introduced to competition in the 20th Century. At the first German ski championship, held at the [[Feldberg (Black Forest)|Feldberg]] in the [[Black Forest]] in 1900, the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross-country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing—a technique unknown to the spectators.<ref name=Vaage>Vaage, Jacob: ''Norske ski erobrer verden.'' Oslo: Gyldendal, 1952.</ref> [[Johan Grøttumsbråten]] used the skating technique at the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1931|1931 World Championship]] in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing.<ref name="Olav 1993"/> This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. Finnish skier Pauli Siitonen developed a precursor to the style in the 1970s, when he would leave one ski in the track and skate to the side with the other in marathon or other endurance events. It became widespread during the 1980s after the success of [[Bill Koch (skier)|Bill Koch]] ([[United States|USA]]) in [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1982|1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships]] drew more attention to the skating style. Norwegian skier [[Ove Aunli]] started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style.<ref> |
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In the 1800s racers used a single, wooden pole, which was longer and stronger than modern poles, and could be used for braking downhill, as well. In Norway, racing with two poles ("Finland style") met with resistance, starting in the 1880s, when some race rules forbade them; objections included issues of aesthetics—how they made skiers "[waddle] like geese". As the use of pairs of pole became the norm, materials favored lightness and strength, starting with [[bamboo]], which gave way to fiberglass, used at the [[1968 Winter Olympics]], [[aluminum]], used at the [[1972 Winter Olympics]], and ultimately carbon fiber, introduced in 1975.<ref name= Aftenposten> |
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{{cite news |
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| last = Brugge |
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| first = Mette |
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| title = Skistavens historie: Hjelpemiddel og bråkmaker |
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| newspaper = [[Aftenposten]] |
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| location = Oslo |
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| pages = 14 |
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| language = no |
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| date = 20 December 2015 |
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| url = http://www.aftenposten.no/fakta/innsikt/Skistavens-historie-Hjelpemiddel-og-brakmaker-8288452.html |
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| access-date = 22 December 2015}}</ref> |
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===Skate skiing=== |
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[[Skate skiing]] was introduced to competition in the 20th Century. At the first German ski championship, held at the [[Feldberg (Black Forest)|Feldberg]] in the [[Black Forest]] in 1900, the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross-country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing—a technique unknown to the spectators.<ref name=Vaage>Vaage, Jacob: ''Norske ski erobrer verden.'' Oslo: Gyldendal, 1952.</ref> [[Johan Grøttumsbråten]] used the skating technique at the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1931|1931 World Championship]] in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing.<ref name="Olav 1993"/> This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. Finnish skier [[Pauli Siitonen]] developed a variant of the style for marathon or other endurance events in the 1970s by leaving one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski (one-sided skating);<ref name=marathonskate>{{Citation |
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| last = Field |
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| first = Patrick |
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| last2 = Corradini |
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| first2 = Angelo |
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| title = Wordloppet Anniversary Book—30 years of skiing around the world (Skating, Siitonen and Koch) |
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| work = Anniversary Book |
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| publisher = World Loppet Ski Foundation |
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| editor-last = Paal |
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| editor-first = Epp |
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| editor-last2 = Corradini |
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| editor-first2 = Angelo |
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| date = 2007 |
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| url = http://www.worldloppet.com/magazines/pdf/WL-anniversary-book-full.pdf |
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| access-date = 1 April 2016 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150927233904/http://www.worldloppet.com/magazines/pdf/WL-anniversary-book-full.pdf |
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| archive-date = 27 September 2015 |
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| url-status = dead |
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}}</ref> this became known as the "marathon skate".<ref> |
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{{cite web |
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| last = Editor |
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| title =Marathon Skate |
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| work = Cross Country Ski Tips and Information |
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| publisher = XCSki.com |
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| date = 2010 |
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| url = http://www.skixc.com/skate-marathon.html |
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| access-date = 4 January 2015 }}</ref> American skier [[Bill Koch (skier)|Bill Koch]] further developed the marathon skate technique in the late 1970s.<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><ref name = CSMonitor> |
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{{cite news |
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| last = Robbins |
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| first = Paul |
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| title = Skier Bill Koch the winter after his cross-country championship |
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| newspaper = The Christian Science Monitor |
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| location = Boston |
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| date = 11 January 1983 |
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| url = http://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0111/011131.html |
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| access-date = 13 December 2015 }}</ref><!----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990, p. 273.---> Skate skiing became widespread during the 1980s after Koch's success with it in the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1982|1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships]] drew more attention to the technique.<ref name=marathonskate/> Norwegian skier, [[Ove Aunli]], started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style.<ref name = Bengtsson> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
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| last = Bengtsson |
| last = Bengtsson |
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| first = Bengt Erik |
| first = Bengt Erik |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Cross-country skating: How it started |
| title = Cross-country skating: How it started |
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| work = Skiing History Magazine |
| work = Skiing History Magazine |
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| publisher = International Skiing History Association |
| publisher = International Skiing History Association |
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| date = |
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| url = https://skiinghistory.org/history/cross-country-skating-how-it-started |
| url = https://skiinghistory.org/history/cross-country-skating-how-it-started |
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| |
| access-date = 20 October 2014 }}</ref> Skating is most effective on wide, smooth, groomed trails, using fiberglass skis that glide well; it also benefits a stronger athlete—which, according to Olav Bø, are the reasons that the technique made a breakthrough in the early 1980s.<ref name="Olav 1993"/> Athletes widely adopted skating to both sides by the time of the 1985 world championship and it was formally adopted by the FIS in 1986<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><!----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990, p. 273.--->—despite initial opposition from Norway, the Soviet Union and Finland—while preserving events using only classic technique.<ref name = Bengtsson/> |
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==Winter Olympic Games== |
==Events== |
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===Winter Olympic Games=== |
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[[File:Sverre Stenersen.jpg|thumb|alt=A man in blue clothes with a number "33" cross-country skiing in front of three other men.|right|[[Sverre Stenersen]] |
[[File:Sverre Stenersen.jpg|thumb|alt=A man in blue clothes with a number "33" cross-country skiing in front of three other men.|right|[[Sverre Stenersen]] headed for victory in [[Nordic combined]] at the 1956 Winter Olympic Games in [[Cortina d'Ampezzo]], Italy.]] |
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The [[Winter Olympic Games]] are a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. The first Winter Olympics, the [[1924 Winter Olympics]], was held in [[Chamonix]], France and included [[Nordic skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|Nordic skiing]] (which includes [[Cross-country skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|cross-country skiing]]) among the five principal disciplines. Cross-country events have evolved in the Winter Olympics since 1924, as seen in the following timeline:<ref name=oly>{{cite web|title=Cross Country Skiing Equipment and History|url=http://www.olympic.org/cross-country-skiing-equipment-and-history?tab=history|publisher=International Olympic Committee| |
The [[Winter Olympic Games]] are a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. The first Winter Olympics, the [[1924 Winter Olympics]], was held in [[Chamonix]], France and included [[Nordic skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|Nordic skiing]] (which includes [[Cross-country skiing at the 1924 Winter Olympics|cross-country skiing]]) among the five principal disciplines. Cross-country events have evolved in the Winter Olympics since 1924, as seen in the following timeline:<ref name=oly>{{cite web|title=Cross Country Skiing Equipment and History|url=http://www.olympic.org/cross-country-skiing-equipment-and-history?tab=history|publisher=International Olympic Committee|access-date=11 October 2014}}</ref> |
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*[[1924 Winter Olympics]]: Cross-country skiing debuts. |
*[[1924 Winter Olympics]]: Cross-country skiing debuts. |
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*[[1952 Winter Olympics]].: |
*[[1952 Winter Olympics]].: Women's Nordic skiing debuts |
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*[[1956 Winter Olympics]]: |
*[[1956 Winter Olympics]]: men's 30 km and the women's 3 × 5 km relay added. |
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*[[1964 Winter Olympics]]: |
*[[1964 Winter Olympics]]: Women's 5 km added. |
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* [[Paralympic cross-country skiing]] |
*[[1976 Winter Paralympics]]: [[Paralympic cross-country skiing]] added. |
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*1980: |
*[[1980 Winter Olympics]]: Women's 20 km added. |
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*1989: Men’s 15 km and women’s 10 km replaced with the pursuit. |
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*[[2002 Winter Olympics]]: Appearance of sprint and mass start events in Salt Lake City. |
*[[2002 Winter Olympics]]: Appearance of sprint and mass start events in Salt Lake City. |
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==FIS events== |
===FIS events=== |
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[[Image:Campeonato mundial.jpg|thumb| |
[[Image:Campeonato mundial.jpg|thumb|Classical event during the [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2009|FIS Nordic World Ski Championships of 2009]] in [[Liberec]], [[Czech Republic]].]] |
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The [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships]] have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held annually, including years with [[Winter Olympic Games]]. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years.<ref name=FIS> |
The [[FIS Nordic World Ski Championships]] have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held annually, including years with [[Winter Olympic Games]]. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years.<ref name=FIS>{{citation |
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{{cite web |
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| last = Editors |
| last = Editors |
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| first = |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = FIS History |
| title = FIS History |
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| work =About FIS |
| work = About FIS |
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| publisher = International Ski Federation |
| publisher = International Ski Federation |
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| date = |
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| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/inside-fis/about/fis-history/snowsports/ |
| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/inside-fis/about/fis-history/snowsports/ |
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| access-date = 23 October 2014 |
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| accessdate = 2014-10-23 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140807205119/http://www.fis-ski.com/inside-fis/about/fis-history/snowsports/ |
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| archivedate = }}</ref> |
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| archive-date = 7 August 2014 |
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| url-status = dead |
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}}</ref> |
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FIS events include: |
FIS events include:<ref name=FIS/> |
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* The |
* The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships (also including [[ski jumping]] and [[nordic combined]] events) |
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* [[FIS Cross-Country World Cup]]: each year [[List of FIS Cross-Country World Cup champions|medalists]] are announced who have the highest total scores at the end of the World Cup season |
* [[FIS Cross-Country World Cup]]: each year [[List of FIS Cross-Country World Cup champions|medalists]] are announced who have the highest total scores at the end of the World Cup season |
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* The [[Tour de Ski]]: modeled on the [[Tour de France]] of cycling, it is held annually during late December and early January in the [[Czech Republic]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and [[Switzerland]], as part of the FIS Cross-Country World Cup (since 2006) |
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* The [[Holmenkollen ski jump]] |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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* The [[FIS Nordic Combined World Cup]] |
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|+ FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medal events<ref name=FIS/> |
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* The [[Tour de Ski]]: held annually since 2006, modeled on the [[Tour de France]], held in the [[Czech Republic]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and [[Switzerland]]. |
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|- |
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! Event |
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! [[List of FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in men's cross-country skiing|Dates for Men]] |
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! [[List of FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in women's cross-country skiing|Dates for Women]] |
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|- |
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| Individual sprint |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 2001–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 2001–Present |
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|- |
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| Team sprint |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 2005–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 2005–Present |
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|- |
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| 5 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1962–1999 |
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|- |
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| 10 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1991–1999 |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1954–Present |
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|- |
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| 15 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1954–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1989–2003 |
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|- |
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| 17–18 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1925–1950 |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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|- |
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| 20 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1978–1987 |
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|- |
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| 30 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1926–2003 |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1989–Present |
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|- |
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| 50 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1925–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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|- |
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| 4 × 10 km relay |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1933–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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|- |
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| 3 × 5 km relay |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1954–1970 |
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|- |
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| 4 × 5 km relay |
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| style="text-align:center;" | N/A |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1974–Present |
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|- |
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| Combined/double pursuit/Skiathlon |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1993–Present |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 1993–Present |
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|} |
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== |
===Ski marathon=== |
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{{anchor|Ski marathon|Marathon}} |
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[[File:Tartu Maraton 2006-2.jpg|thumb|right|'''Marathon''' mass start at the 2006 [[Tartu Maraton]].]] |
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[[File:Tartu Maraton 2006-2.jpg|thumb|right|Marathon mass start at the 2006 [[Tartu Maraton]].]] |
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A ski marathon is a long-distance, usually point-to-point race, of more than 40 kilometers; some are held concurrent with shorter races and participation is usually open to the public. In Norwegian, such a race is called ''turrenn'' ("ski touring race").<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/> Major events have more than 10,000 participants where mass starts often have a modified starting order by groupings of participants—who have been judged to be of similar ability, beginning with the elite skiers group and ending with a group of the least experienced skiers.<ref name=WLRules>{{cite web |
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A ski marathon is a long distance race, usually more than 40 kilometers. Skiers can use either classic (skate) techniques depending on the rules of the race. In 2011 the most important races were included in a cross country long distance cup called [[Swix]] Ski Classics. The 2015 cup includes:<ref>{{cite web|title=SWIX Ski Classics|url=http://www.swixskiclassics.com/|accessdate=5 November 2014}}</ref> |
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| url = http://www.worldloppet.com/rules_and_regulations.php |
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* La Sgambeda |
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| title = WL Rules and Regulations—Everything you need to know |
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* [[Jizerská padesátka]] |
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| last = Directors |
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* La Diagonala |
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| date = 2015 |
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* [[Marcialonga]] |
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| publisher = Worldloppet Ski Federation |
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* [[König Ludwig Lauf]] |
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| access-date = 13 December 2015 |
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* [[Vasaloppet]] in [[Dalarna]], [[Sweden]], held annually on the first Sunday of March—the world's oldest such race (90 km) |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151106150757/http://www.worldloppet.com/rules_and_regulations.php |
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* [[Birkebeinerrennet|Birkebeineren]] |
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| archive-date = 6 November 2015 |
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* [[Årefjällslopet]] |
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| url-status = dead |
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}}</ref> <!----- Competition also takes place within classes or age groups. For instancen, at the Birkebeinerrennet the highest age group is 90-94 years.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gudbrandsdølen Dagningen|title=Birkebeiner Tollef (94) kom vel i mål|url=http://www.gd.no/birken/birkebeiner-tollef-94-kom-vel-i-mal/s/1-934610-6555321|access-date=14 December 2015|date=16 March 2013}}</ref>----> Skiers can use either classic or skate-skiing techniques, depending on the rules of the race. Awards are usually based on overall placement, placement by sex of athlete, and by age category.<ref name=WLRules/> There are two major series in this category, the [[Ski Classics]] and the [[Worldloppet Ski Federation|Worldloppet]]. |
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====Ski Classics series==== |
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The Ski Classics cup was first arranged in 2011. The Czech skier [[Stanislav Rezac]] won the men's overall cup, and the Swiss skier [[Seraina Boner]] won the ladies' overall cup. In 2012 Norwegian cross country skier [[Anders Aukland]] won the overall cup. He participated for the Norwegian team [[Team Xtra Personell]]. The Swedish skier [[Jenny Hansson]] won the ladies' overall cup. In 2014 Rickard Tynell won the first race, held in Switzerland due to lack of snow in Czech Republic. |
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{{main article|Ski Classics}} |
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Ski Classics is a commercially sponsored international long-distance cross-country skiing cup competition, held in Europe. It originated in January 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langd.se/ski-classics-vill-goumlra-laangloppen-mera-populaumlra.4855276.html|title=Ski Classics – vill göra långloppen mera populära|publisher=Längd|date=30 November 2010|access-date=5 March 2015}}</ref> As of the winter of 2015–6, the tour consisted of eight long-distance events, preceded by a prologue of 15 km and La Sgambeda of 24 km:<ref> |
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{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.vismaskiclassics.com |
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| title = Visma Ski Classics |
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| last = Nilsson |
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| first = David |
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| date = 2015 |
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| access-date = 15 December 2015 |
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}}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|+ Classic Series events |
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|- bgcolor="#efefef" |
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! Event |
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! Classic |
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! Freestyle |
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! Location |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Jizerská padesátka|Jizerská Padesátka]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 25 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 30 km |
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| [[Bedřichov (Jablonec nad Nisou District)|Bedřichov]], [[Czech Republic]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marcialonga]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 70 / 45 km |
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| |
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| [[Moena]] – [[Cavalese]], [[Italy]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[König Ludwig Lauf]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 23 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 23 km |
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| [[Oberammergau]], [[Germany]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Vasaloppet]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 90 / 45 / 30 km |
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| |
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| [[Sälen]] – [[Mora (locality)|Mora]], [[Sweden]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Switzerland}} [[Engadin Skimarathon]] |
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| |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 42 / 21 / 17 km |
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| [[Maloja Pass|Maloja]] – [[S-chanf]], [[Switzerland]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Switzerland}} La Diagonala |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 65 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 65 km |
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| [[Engadin]] – [[St. Moritz]], Switzerland |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Norway}} [[Birkebeinerrennet]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 54 km |
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| |
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| [[Rena, Norway|Rena]] – [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Årefjällsloppet]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 65 km |
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| |
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| [[Vålådalen]] – [[Åre, Sweden]] |
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|- |
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|} |
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<!---- Comment out united material |
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In 2011 Czech skier, [[Stanislav Rezac]], won the first men's overall cup, and Swiss skier, [[Seraina Boner]], won the ladies' overall cup. In 2012 Norwegian cross-country skier, [[Anders Aukland]], won the overall cup. He participated for the Norwegian team [[Team Xtra Personell]]. The Swedish skisr, [[Jenny Hansson]], won the ladies' overall cup. In 2014 Rickard Tynell won the first race, held in Switzerland due to lack of snow in Czech Republic.-----> |
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==== Worldloppet series==== |
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{{main article|Worldloppet Ski Federation}} |
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*[[Canadian Ski Marathon]] (160 km) |
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The Worldloppet Ski Federation recognizes twenty ski marathons including those in the Ski Classics series (except La Diagonala and Årefjällslopet). They recognize those athletes who complete Worldloppet races in 10 different countries, at least one of which has to be on another continent, to qualify as a "Worldloppet Master". The organization, sanctioned by FIS, seeks to attract elite racers to its events with the FIS Worldloppet Cup and aims thereby to "increase media and spectator interest in long distance racing".<ref> |
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*[[American Birkebeiner]] in Hayward, Wisconsin (54 km classic and 50 km freestyle) |
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{{cite web |
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*[[Engadin Skimarathon]] in [[Switzerland]] |
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| url = http://www.worldloppet.com/fmcrules.php |
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* [[Boreal Loppet]], held in [[Forestville, Quebec]], [[Canada]].<ref name=Worldloppet> |
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| title = FIS Worldloppet Cup presented by Worldloppet—Rules |
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| last = Editors |
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| date = 2015 |
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| publisher = Worldloppet Ski Federation |
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| access-date = 15 December 2015 |
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}}</ref> Notable races, other than the Ski Classics series include:<ref name=Worldloppet> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last =Editors |
| last =Editors |
||
| first = |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = What is Worldloppet? |
| title = What is Worldloppet? |
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| work = |
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| publisher = Worldloppet Ski Federation |
| publisher = Worldloppet Ski Federation |
||
| date =2012 |
| date =2012 |
||
| url = http://www.worldloppet.com/what_is_worldloppet.php |
| url = http://www.worldloppet.com/what_is_worldloppet.php |
||
| access-date = 23 October 2014 |
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| accessdate = 2014-10-23 |
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}}</ref> |
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| archiveurl = |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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| archivedate = }}</ref> |
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|+ Worldloppet Series events |
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|- bgcolor="#efefef" |
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! Event |
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! Classic |
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! Freestyle |
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! Location |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Kangaroo Hoppet]] |
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| |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 42 / 21 km |
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| [[Falls Creek, Victoria|Falls Creek, Victoria, Australia]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Dolomitenlauf]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 42 / 21 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 60 km |
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| [[Obertilliach]] / [[Lienz]], [[Austria]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|France}} [[Transjurassienne]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 25 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 76 / 54 km |
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| [[Les Rousses]] / [[Lamoura]] – [[Mouthe]], [[France]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Sapporo International Ski Marathon]] |
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| |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 25 km |
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| [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Tartu Maraton]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 63 / 31 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 63 / 31 km |
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| [[Otepää]] – [[Elva, Estonia|Elva]], [[Estonia]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Gatineau Loppet]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 53 / 29 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 53 / 29 km |
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| [[Gatineau|Gatineau, Quebec]], [[Canada]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|US}} [[American Birkebeiner]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 54 / 23 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 / 23 km |
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| [[Cable, Wisconsin|Cable]] – [[Hayward, Wisconsin]], [[United States]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Finlandia Hiihto]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 62 / 32 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 km |
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| [[Lahti]], [[Finland]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Demino Ski Marathon]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 25 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 km |
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| [[Rybinsk]], [[Russia]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Bieg Piastów]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 /26 km |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 30 km |
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| [[Szklarska Poręba]], [[Poland]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Fossavatn Ski Marathon]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 km |
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| |
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| [[Ísafjörður]], [[Iceland]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|China}} [[Vasaloppet China]] |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 50 km |
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| |
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| [[Changchun]], [[China]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Merino Muster]] |
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| |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 42 / 21 km |
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| [[Wanaka]], [[New Zealand]] |
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|- |
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| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Ushuaia Loppet]] |
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| |
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| style="text-align:center;" | 42 km |
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| [[Ushuaia]], [[Argentina]] |
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|} |
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== |
===Ski orienteering=== |
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{{Main article|Ski orienteering}} |
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[[File:Biathlon Oberhof 2013-039.jpg|thumb|right|Olympic women's '''biathlon''' gold medalists [[Olga Zaitseva]] and [[Andrea Henkel]] at the World Cup pursuit race in [[Oberhof, Germany|Oberhof]], 2013.]] |
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[[File:Biathlon Oberhof 2013-039.jpg|thumb|right|Olympic women's biathlon gold medalists [[Olga Zaitseva]] and [[Andrea Henkel]] at the World Cup pursuit race in [[Oberhof, Germany|Oberhof]], 2013.]] |
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'''[[Ski orienteering]]''' is an [[orienteering]] discipline recognized by the [[International Orienteering Federation]].<ref name=skiorient>{{cite web |
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[[Ski orienteering]] is an [[orienteering]] discipline recognized by the [[International Orienteering Federation]].<ref name=skiorient>{{cite web |
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| last = Webmaster |
| last = Webmaster |
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| first = |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Ski Orienteering |
| title = Ski Orienteering |
||
| work = |
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| publisher = International Orienteering Federation |
| publisher = International Orienteering Federation |
||
| date = 2011 |
| date = 2011 |
||
| url = http://orienteering.org/ski-orienteering/ |
| url = http://orienteering.org/ski-orienteering/ |
||
| |
| access-date = 5 November 2014 }}</ref> The [[World Ski Orienteering Championships]] is organized every odd year and includes sprint, middle and long distance competitions, and a [[Relay]] for both men and women. The [[World Cup in Ski Orienteering|World Cup]] is organized every even year.<ref name=skiorient/> [[Junior World Ski Orienteering Championships]] and [[World Masters Ski Orienteering Championships]] are organized annually.<ref name=skiorient/> |
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===Biathlon=== |
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'''[[Biathlon]]''' combines cross-country skiing and [[shooting sport|rifle shooting]]. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules; in any given competition one of the following penalties would apply:<ref> |
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{{Main article|Biathlon}} |
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[[Biathlon]] combines cross-country skiing and [[shooting sport|rifle shooting]]. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules; in any given competition one of the following penalties would apply:<ref> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| |
|last = IBU Congress |
||
|title = IBU Event and Competition Rules |
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| first = |
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|work = Rules adopted by the 2012 10th Regular IBU Congress |
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| authorlink = |
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|publisher = International Biathlon Union |
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| title = IBU Event and Competition Rules |
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|date = 2012 |
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| work = Rules adopted by the 2012 10th Regular IBU Congress |
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|url = http://www3.biathlonworld.com/en/downloads.html |
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| publisher = International Biathlon Union |
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| |
|access-date = 5 November 2014 |
||
|url-status = dead |
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| url = http://www3.biathlonworld.com/en/downloads.html |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141017181656/http://www3.biathlonworld.com/en/downloads.html |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-05 }}</ref> |
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|archive-date = 17 October 2014 |
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* Skiing around a {{convert|150|m|ft|adj = on}} penalty loop—typically taking 20–30 seconds for elite biathletes to complete, depending on weather and snow conditions. |
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}}</ref> |
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* Skiing around a {{convert|150|m|ft|adj = on}} penalty loop, which, depending on conditions, takes 20–30 seconds for elite athletes to complete. |
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* Adding one minute to the skier's total time. |
* Adding one minute to the skier's total time. |
||
* Use of an extra cartridge (placed at the shooting range) to hit the target; only three such extras are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each target left standing. |
* Use of an extra cartridge (placed at the shooting range) to hit the target; only three such extras are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each target left standing. |
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===Paralympic=== |
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[[Image:Paralympic XC ski sitting.JPG|thumb|[[Olena Iurkovska]] of [[Ukraine]] competing on cross-country sit-skis at the [[2010 Winter Paralympics|2010 '''Winter Paralympics''']].]] |
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{{Main article|Paralympic cross-country skiing}} |
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'''[[Paralympic cross-country skiing]]''' is an adaptation of [[cross-country skiing]] for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing is one of two [[Paralympic nordic skiing|Nordic skiing]] disciplines in the [[Paralympic Games|Winter Paralympic Games]]; the other is [[biathlon]]. Competition is governed by the [[International Paralympic Committee]] (IPC). Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. The classifications are for:<ref name = "Nordic Skiing Classification"> |
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[[Image:Paralympic XC ski sitting.JPG|thumb|[[Olena Iurkovska]] of [[Ukraine]] competing on cross-country sit-skis at the [[2010 Winter Paralympics]].]] |
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[[Paralympic cross-country skiing]] is an adaptation of [[cross-country skiing]] for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing is one of two [[Paralympic nordic skiing|Nordic skiing]] disciplines in the [[Paralympic Games|Winter Paralympic Games]]; the other is [[biathlon]]. Competition is governed by the [[International Paralympic Committee]] (IPC). Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. The classifications are for:<ref name = "Nordic Skiing Classification"> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = IPC |
| last = IPC |
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| first = |
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| authorlink = |
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| title = Nordic Skiing Classification |
| title = Nordic Skiing Classification |
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| work = IPC Cross-Country Skiing and Biathlon |
| work = IPC Cross-Country Skiing and Biathlon |
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Line 174: | Line 424: | ||
| date =2013 |
| date =2013 |
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| url = http://www.paralympic.org/nordic-skiing/rules-and-regulations/classification |
| url = http://www.paralympic.org/nordic-skiing/rules-and-regulations/classification |
||
| |
| access-date = 4 October 2014}}</ref> |
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* Standing skiers with arm impairments, leg impairments or with both arm and leg impairments. |
* Standing skiers with arm impairments, leg impairments or with both arm and leg impairments. |
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* Sit-Skiers, all with leg impairments, but with varying degrees of torso control. |
* Sit-Skiers, all with leg impairments, but with varying degrees of torso control. |
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* Skiers with visual impairment including blindness, low visual acuity, and limited field of vision. |
* Skiers with visual impairment including blindness, low visual acuity, and limited field of vision. |
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== Technique and equipment== |
=={{anchor|skiathlon}} Technique and equipment== |
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[[File:BRINK Joergen.jpg|[[Jörgen Brink]] skis with |
[[File:BRINK Joergen.jpg|[[Jörgen Brink]] skis with classic, diagonal-stride technique uphill in track at [[Holmenkollen]] in 2007.|thumb|right]] |
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Cross |
Cross-country ski competitors employ one of two techniques, according to the event: classic and skating (in freestyle races, where all techniques are allowed).<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets> |
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{{cite encyclopedia |
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| editor1 = Rolf Bryhn | editor2 = Knut Are Tvedt |
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| encyclopedia = Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon (Encyclopedia of Sports) |
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| pages = 455 |
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| publisher = Kunnskapsforlaget |
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| place = Oslo |
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| date = 1990 |
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| isbn = 82-573-0408-5 |
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}}</ref> <em>Skiathlon</em> combines the two techniques in one race.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Cross Country|url=http://nordic.usskiteam.com/cross-country-programs|website=US Ski Team|access-date=5 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105073106/http://nordic.usskiteam.com/cross-country-programs|archive-date=5 November 2014}}</ref> |
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[[Ski]]s are lighter, narrower and designed to be faster than those used in [[Cross-country skiing#Equipment|recreational cross-country skiing]]. For classic events, typical ski lengths are between 195 |
[[Ski]]s are lighter, narrower and designed to be faster than those used in [[Cross-country skiing#Equipment|recreational cross-country skiing]] and made of [[composite material]]s.<ref name="Kuz01"/> For classic events, typical ski lengths are between 195 and 210 centimetres, while ski lengths for skating are 170 to 200 cm.<ref name=oly/> Skis for skating are also more rigid than skis for classical.<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><!----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990, p. 273.----> Skis are [[ski wax|waxed]] for speed and, in the case of classic skis, traction when striding forward. Racing [[ski boots]] are also lighter than recreational ones and are attached at the toe only to [[Nordic Integrated System|bindings]] that are specialized for classic or skate skiing. |
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Racing ski poles are usually made from [[carbon fiber]] and feature smaller, lighter baskets than [[Cross-country skiing#Poles|recreational poles]]. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing.<ref name=Talesnick>{{cite book |
Racing ski poles are usually made from [[carbon fiber]] and feature smaller, lighter baskets than [[Cross-country skiing#Poles|recreational poles]]. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing.<ref name=Talesnick>{{cite book |
||
| last = Talesnick |
| last = Talesnick |
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| first = Stan |
| first = Stan |
||
| authorlink = |
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| title = The Better Way to Go: Cross Country Skiing |
| title = The Better Way to Go: Cross Country Skiing |
||
| publisher = Consolidated Amethyst Communications |
| publisher = Consolidated Amethyst Communications |
||
| date = March 1983 |
| date = March 1983 |
||
| page = [https://archive.org/details/betterwaytogocro0000tale/page/111 111] |
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| location = |
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| |
| isbn = 978-0-920474-17-4 |
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| url = https://archive.org/details/betterwaytogocro0000tale/page/111 |
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| isbn = 978-0920474174 }}</ref> |
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}}</ref> |
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===Classic=== |
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In classic cross-country skiing the skis remain parallel, as the skier strides straight ahead. The undersides of the skis have a grip section in the middle treated with a special [[ski wax]] that provides friction when the foot is still, yet glides when the foot is in motion, while the rest of the ski bottom has a glide wax. Classic events occur on courses with tracks set by a grooming machine at precise intervals and with carefully planned curvature.<ref name=wst>{{cite web|title=Adult Cross-Country Skiing Instruction|url=http://www.skiboston.com/skitrack/skischool/adult_lessons.php|publisher=Weston Ski Track|accessdate=18 October 2014}}</ref> Both poles may be used simultaneously ("double-poling") or with alternating foot and arm extended (as with running or walking) with the pole pushing on the side opposite of the extended, sliding ski. In classic skiing the alternating technique is used for the "diagonal stride"—the predominant classic sub-technique.<ref name="Rees"/> |
|||
In classic cross-country skiing the skis remain parallel, as the skier strides straight ahead. The undersides of the skis have a grip section in the middle treated with a special [[Ski wax#Grip wax|ski wax]] that provides friction when the foot is still, yet glides when the foot is in motion, while the rest of the ski bottom has a [[Ski wax#Glide wax|glide wax]]. Classic events occur on courses with tracks set by a grooming machine at precise intervals and with carefully planned curvature. Both poles may be used simultaneously ("double-poling") or with alternating foot and arm extended (as with running or walking) with the pole pushing on the side opposite of the extended, sliding ski. In classic skiing the alternating technique is used for the "diagonal stride"—the predominant classic sub-technique.<ref name="Rees"/> In diagonal-stride legs move like in ordinary walking, but with longer and more powerful steps. Diagonal is useful on level ground and on gentle uphill slopes. Uphill steps are shorter and more frequent. With double-poling both poles are used simultaneously for thrust, which may be augmented with striding. Double-poling is useful on level ground and on gentle downhill slopes. On steep uphills fishbone technique can be used.<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><!----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990, p. 69. ----> |
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===Skating=== |
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[[File:Michal Malak at Tour de Ski retouched.jpg|[[Michal Malák]] '''skate-skis''' at a qualifier for the [[Tour de Ski]], 2007.|thumb|right]] |
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[[File:Michal Malak at Tour de Ski retouched.jpg|[[Michal Malák]] skate skis at a qualifier for the [[Tour de Ski]], 2007.|thumb|right]] |
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While skate-skiing, the skier provides propulsion on a firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle, in a manner similar to [[ice skating]]. Skis are waxed with a glide wax over their entire length, making them faster than classic skis. Free-style events take place on smooth, wide specially groomed courses.<ref name=wst/> With the skating technique double-poling is usually employed with alternating skating strides or with every skate stride. The following table puts these poling sequences into order according to the speed achieved as a progression of "gears." In the lowest gear (rarely used in racing), one is poling on the side of the sliding ski, similar to diagonal stride. In the highest gear, the poles offer negligible added power and are often not used for propulsion.<ref name="Rees">{{Cite book | edition = 3d | publisher = Copp C. Pitman | isbn = 978-0-7730-4045-8 | oclc = 300405310 | last = Rees | first = David| title = Cross-country skiing: touring and competition | location = Toronto | year = 1981}}</ref> |
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While skate skiing, the skier provides propulsion on a firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle, in a manner similar to [[ice skating]]. Skis are waxed with a glide wax over their entire length, making them faster than classic skis. Freestyle events take place on smooth, wide, specially groomed courses. With the skating technique double-poling is usually employed with alternating skating strides or with every skate stride. The following table puts these poling sequences into order according to the speed achieved as a progression of "gears". In the lowest gear (rarely used in racing), one is poling on the side of the sliding ski, similar to diagonal stride. In the highest gear, the athlete skates without poles.<ref name="Rees">{{Cite book | edition = 3d | publisher = Copp C. Pitman | isbn = 978-0-7730-4045-8 | oclc = 300405310 | last = Rees | first = David| title = Cross-country skiing: touring and competition | location = Toronto | year = 1981}}</ref> There are equivalent terms in other languages; for example in Norwegian, skating is likened to paddling or dancing, depending on the tempo.<ref name = Kunnskapsforlagets/><!-----''Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon'' (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget, 1990, p. 273. ----> |
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;Skate-skiing terminiogy |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
||
|+ Skate-skiing terminology |
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|- |
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! "Gear" |
! "Gear" |
||
! Term used in the US<ref>{{cite web |
! Term used in the US<ref name=USSACompetencies>{{cite web |
||
| |
|last = Cross Country Competencies Task Force |
||
|title = Cross Country Athlete Competencies |
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| first = |
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|work = Development resources |
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| authorlink = |
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|publisher = United States Ski and Snowboard Association |
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| title = Cross Country Athlete Competencies |
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|date = 2002 |
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| work = Development resources |
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|url = http://nordic.usskiteam.com/sites/default/files/documents/athletics/nordic/2011-12/documents/XC%20Athlete%20Competencies.pdf |
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| publisher = United States Ski and Snowboard Association |
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| |
|access-date = 5 November 2014 |
||
|url-status = dead |
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| url = http://nordic.usskiteam.com/sites/default/files/documents/athletics/nordic/2011-12/documents/XC%20Athlete%20Competencies.pdf |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140206145930/http://nordic.usskiteam.com/sites/default/files/documents/athletics/nordic/2011-12/documents/XC%20Athlete%20Competencies.pdf |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-05}}</ref> |
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|archive-date = 6 February 2014 |
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! Term used in Canada |
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}}</ref> |
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! Term used in Canada<ref name=CCCLTAD/> |
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|- |
|- |
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| 1st |
| 1st |
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Line 233: | Line 496: | ||
|- |
|- |
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| 5th |
| 5th |
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| Skate without poles |
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| V skating: Without poling |
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| Free-skate |
| Free-skate |
||
|} |
|} |
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The primary turns used for racing, are the [[parallel turn]], which is used while descending and can provide braking, and the step turn, which is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats.<ref name=Turns> |
The primary turns used for racing, are the [[parallel turn]], which is used while descending and can provide braking, and the step turn, which is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats.<!---<ref name=Turns> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = Hindman |
| last = Hindman |
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Line 246: | Line 509: | ||
| date = 2003 |
| date = 2003 |
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| url = http://www.crosscountryskier.com/training_technique_jan_2003.html |
| url = http://www.crosscountryskier.com/training_technique_jan_2003.html |
||
| |
| access-date = 21 October 2014}}</ref>---><ref name=PSIA>{{cite web |
||
| |
|last = PSIA Standards Committee |
||
|title = Cross Country Certification Standards 2014 |
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| first = |
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|publisher = Professional Ski Instructors of America |
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| authorlink = |
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| |
|date = June 2014 |
||
|url = http://www.thesnowpros.org/Portals/0/Cache/Pages/PSIA_XC_Standards%202012_FINAL_6.4.14.pdf |
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| work = |
|||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150421223704/http://www.thesnowpros.org/Portals/0/Cache/Pages/PSIA_XC_Standards%202012_FINAL_6.4.14.pdf |
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| publisher = Professional Ski Instructors of America |
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| |
|url-status = dead |
||
|archive-date = 21 April 2015 |
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| url = http://www.thesnowpros.org/Portals/0/Cache/Pages/PSIA_XC_Standards%202012_FINAL_6.4.14.pdf |
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|access-date = 22 October 2014 |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-10-22}}</ref> |
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}}</ref> The [[snowplough turn|wedge turn]] (or "snowplow turn"),<ref name=PSIA/> is sometimes used for braking and turning. |
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==Skier |
==Skier development and training== |
||
[[File:Rollski DM Lanzenhain.jpg|thumb|right|Dry-land |
[[File:Rollski DM Lanzenhain.jpg|thumb|right|Dry-land training and racing with roller skis]] |
||
Countries with cross-country ski teams |
Countries with cross-country ski teams usually have a strategy for developing promising athletes and programs to encourage participation in the sport, starting at a young age. One example is Cross-Country Ski Canada's "Long-Term Athlete Development" program.<ref name=CCCLTAD> |
||
{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = Rees |
| last = Rees |
||
| first = Dave |
| first = Dave |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = Cross-Country Skiing—A Sport For Life |
| title = Cross-Country Skiing—A Sport For Life |
||
| work = |
|||
| publisher = Cross Ski Country Canada |
| publisher = Cross Ski Country Canada |
||
| date = 2007 |
| date = 2007 |
||
| url = http://www.cccski.com/getmedia/13d28c29-2b22-45c8-9caf-0a855583fe08/LTAD-guide-CCC.pdf.aspx |
| url = http://www.cccski.com/getmedia/13d28c29-2b22-45c8-9caf-0a855583fe08/LTAD-guide-CCC.pdf.aspx |
||
| |
| access-date = 9 November 2014}}</ref> The program encompasses youth development, training, introduction to competition and improvement of promising athletes with an emphasis on "stamina (endurance), strength, speed, skill and suppleness (flexibility)". It covers age groups from toddlers to mature adults, who are able to enjoy and participate in the sport.<ref name=CCCLTAD/> Similarly, the USSA has an outline of "Cross Country Athlete Competencies" that has four phases beginning at 12 years old and under and addressing the 21 and older phase at the top. The program encompasses six "domains:"<ref name = USSACompetencies/> |
||
*Technical skills specific to cross-country ski racing. |
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*Physiological and motor skills addressing physical fitness, strength, power, and endurance. |
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*Psychological and sociological skills, emphasizing sound relationships and the mental skills required for competition. |
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*Training and competition performance, addressing goal-directed training to achieve favorable competition results. |
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*Equipment selection, use, and maintenance of the athlete's skis, boots, bindings, wax, clothing, and poles necessary to success. |
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*Education that eventually allows the athlete to become his or her own coach. |
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Ski training for the athlete depends on whether the desired specialty emphasizes endurance (marathon) or intensity (mid-distance events). The "intensity" theory of ski training uses stress to break down muscles |
Ski training for the athlete depends on whether the desired specialty emphasizes endurance (marathon) or intensity (mid-distance events). The "intensity" theory of ski training uses stress to break down muscles and recovery to build them up stronger than before. In this theory, there are five levels of [[Exercise intensity|intensity]] for training:<ref name=fish> |
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{{cite |
{{cite journal |
||
| last = Fish |
| last = Fish |
||
| first = Bryan |
| first = Bryan |
||
Line 278: | Line 546: | ||
| work = Training Tips from CXC |
| work = Training Tips from CXC |
||
| publisher = Cross Country Skier |
| publisher = Cross Country Skier |
||
| date = December 2008 |
| date = December 2008}}</ref><ref name=kuzzy/> |
||
#Aerobic: Low-intensity, aerobic training (at 60–70% of an athlete's maximum intensity) should consume most of the training hours for endurance athletes.<ref name=fish/> |
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| url = http://www.crosscountryskier.com/magazine/08_dec/cxc.htm |
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#Strength: Strength training improves flexibility and joint motion to minimize injury and to improve overall strength, not addressed by sport-specific training.<ref name=fish/> |
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| accessdate = 2014-11-09}}</ref> |
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#Lactate Threshold: This level builds an efficient base speed by training the body to convert blood [[Lactic acid#Exercise and lactate|lactate]] into energy, rather than creating a sensation of tired muscles.<ref name=kuzzy/> |
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#VO<sub>2</sub> max: This level uses [[interval training]] to build the athlete's [[VO2 max|VO<sub>2</sub> max]]—volume of oxygen that the lungs pass into the musculature via the cardiovascular system.<ref name=kuzzy/> |
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#Speed: This level of training addresses the athlete's ability to sprint and is neuromuscular, essentially training the muscles to move quickly.<ref name=kuzzy/> |
|||
Athletes train for each level on a seasonal schedule designed for the targeted events: marathon or mid-distance.<ref name=kuzzy/> Additional aspects of training address aerobic (low-intensity) exercise—especially for endurance—and strength to improve joint flexibility and to minimize the risk of injury.<ref name=kuzzy> |
Athletes train for each level on a seasonal schedule designed for the targeted events: marathon or mid-distance.<ref name=kuzzy/> Additional aspects of training address aerobic (low-intensity) exercise—especially for endurance—and strength to improve joint flexibility and to minimize the risk of injury.<ref name=kuzzy> |
||
{{cite |
{{cite journal |
||
| last = Kuzzy |
| last = Kuzzy |
||
| first = Garrott |
| first = Garrott |
||
| title = Intensity training |
| title = Intensity training |
||
| work = |
|||
| publisher = Cross Country Skier |
| publisher = Cross Country Skier |
||
| date = December 2008}}</ref> Cross-country ski training occurs throughout the year, including on dry land where athletes engage in [[roller skiing]] and ski striding to maintain ski-specific muscle fitness.<ref> |
|||
| date = December 2008 |
|||
| url = http://www.crosscountryskier.com/magazine/08_dec/cxc.htm |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-11-09}}</ref> Cross-country ski training occurs throughout the year, including on dry land where athletes engage in [[roller skiing]] and ski striding to maintain ski-specific muscle fitness.<ref> |
|||
{{cite book |
{{cite book |
||
| last = Hall |
| last = Hall |
||
| first = Marty |
| first = Marty |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = One Stride Ahead |
| title = One Stride Ahead |
||
| publisher = Winchester Press |
| publisher = Winchester Press |
||
| edition = 5 |
| edition = 5 |
||
| date = March 1982 |
| date = March 1982 |
||
| page = [https://archive.org/details/onestrideaheadex0000hall/page/237 237] |
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| location = |
|||
| |
| isbn = 978-0-87691-331-4 |
||
| url = https://archive.org/details/onestrideaheadex0000hall/page/237 |
|||
| isbn = 978-0876913314}}</ref> |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
==Race management== |
==Race management== |
||
[[File:Womens team sprint medal ceremony Oslo 2011.jpg|Event celebration with a podium ceremony is part of |
[[File:Womens team sprint medal ceremony Oslo 2011.jpg|Event celebration with a podium ceremony is part of race management.|thumb|right]] |
||
In its "Organizing committee handbook |
In its "Organizing committee handbook", the FIS covers aspects of race management, including the layout of the competition venue, organization of the events (including scheduling, officiating, and awards), and addressing ancillary factors, such as the role of the media.<ref name = FISOrganizing>{{cite web |
||
{{cite web |
|||
| last = FIS Cross-Country Committee |
| last = FIS Cross-Country Committee |
||
| title = Organizing committee manual |
| title = Organizing committee manual |
||
Line 316: | Line 580: | ||
| date = 2011 |
| date = 2011 |
||
| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/28/70/WCOCHandbookV8-1_English.pdf |
| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/28/70/WCOCHandbookV8-1_English.pdf |
||
| access-date = 9 November 2014 |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-11-09 }}</ref> National handbooks, such as the "USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook"<ref> |
|||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141125010415/http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/28/70/WCOCHandbookV8-1_English.pdf |
|||
| archive-date = 25 November 2014 |
|||
| url-status = dead |
|||
}}</ref> National handbooks, such as the "USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook"<ref> |
|||
{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| |
|last = USSA |
||
|title = USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook |
|||
| first = |
|||
|publisher = U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association |
|||
| title = USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook |
|||
| |
|date = 2004 |
||
|url = https://www.nensa.net/organizers/resources/USSA/USSATechnicalManual.pdf |
|||
| publisher = U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association |
|||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141109175519/https://www.nensa.net/organizers/resources/USSA/USSATechnicalManual.pdf |
|||
| date = 2004 |
|||
|url-status = dead |
|||
| url = https://www.nensa.net/organizers/resources/USSA/USSATechnicalManual.pdf |
|||
|archive-date = 9 November 2014 |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-11-09 }}</ref> and the "Cross Country Canada officials manual,"<ref name=CCCOfficialsManual> |
|||
|access-date = 9 November 2014 |
|||
}}</ref> and the "Cross Country Canada officials manual",<ref name=CCCOfficialsManual> |
|||
{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = Thomson |
| editor-last = Thomson |
||
| first = Jim |
| editor-first = Jim |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = Cross Country Canada officials manual |
| title = Cross Country Canada officials manual |
||
| work = Version 3.4 |
| work = Version 3.4 |
||
Line 335: | Line 604: | ||
| date = November 2009 |
| date = November 2009 |
||
| url = http://www.cccski.com/getmedia/79317bda-f719-4390-a8cd-a7636ef63ba9/CompetitionOfficialsHandbookv34.pdf.aspx |
| url = http://www.cccski.com/getmedia/79317bda-f719-4390-a8cd-a7636ef63ba9/CompetitionOfficialsHandbookv34.pdf.aspx |
||
| |
| access-date = 9 November 2014}}</ref> provide further guidance, sometimes specific to their venues. |
||
An important aspect of race preparation is |
An important aspect of race preparation is [[Cross-country skiing trail#Grooming|grooming]] the course to provide a surface for skate-skiing and setting tracks for classic events. This takes into account snow physics, methods for packing snow and surface shaping, and the equipment used for these functions. Also key is the layout of grooming and track setting in the stadium with various formats for starts, finishes and intermediate functions for relays and pursuits.<ref name=CCCOfficialsManual/> |
||
==Design of racing venues== |
==Design of racing venues== |
||
[[File:Lahden stadion 2010-03-06.JPG|thumb|right|A cross-country skiing stadium was part of the |
[[File:Lahden stadion 2010-03-06.JPG|thumb|right|A cross-country skiing stadium was part of the racing venue at the Lahti Ski Games 2010.]] |
||
In its "Cross-country homologation manual", the FIS recognizes that fans of the sport wish to follow it on television. With this in mind, the manual addresses how to design the [[Cross-country skiing trail#Competition|race course]] and the stadium in a manner that not only enhances the experience of spectators, but of viewers, as well—not just to show the athletes in action, but to show the ways in which fans enjoy the action. The manual includes considerations of:<ref name=FIShomologation>{{cite web |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
| last = FIS Cross-Country Committee |
| last = FIS Cross-Country Committee |
||
| title = Cross-country homologation manual |
| title = Cross-country homologation manual |
||
| work = |
|||
| edition = 6 |
| edition = 6 |
||
| publisher = International Ski Federation |
| publisher = International Ski Federation |
||
| date = 2012 |
| date = 2012 |
||
| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/26/87/Homologationmanual2012_VersionJAA4inclcover_English.pdf |
| url = http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/26/87/Homologationmanual2012_VersionJAA4inclcover_English.pdf |
||
| |
| access-date = 8 November 2014 |
||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140220123119/http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Cross-Country/04/26/87/Homologationmanual2012_VersionJAA4inclcover_English.pdf |
|||
| archive-date = 20 February 2014 |
|||
| url-status = dead |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
*Course design criteria |
*Course design criteria |
||
*Requirements for different race formats |
*Requirements for different race formats |
||
Line 358: | Line 629: | ||
*Waxing rooms with ski test areas |
*Waxing rooms with ski test areas |
||
*Warm up course |
*Warm up course |
||
A course is expected to test the skier's technical and physical abilities, to be laid out in a manner that takes advantage of the natural terrain, and to provide smooth transitions among uphills, downhills and "undulating" |
A course is expected to test the skier's technical and physical abilities, to be laid out in a manner that takes advantage of the natural terrain, and to provide smooth transitions among uphills, downhills and "undulating" terrain—distributed approximately evenly among the three. The manual advocates that courses present a variety of uphills, varying in lengths and gradients between 6% and 12%, which are arrayed efficiently within the venue. It cites two types of stadium, the horseshoe (preferred for television) and the "ski in, ski out" layout. It emphasizes the importance of accommodating television coverage at the start, finish, and exchange zones for equipment or relays. In addition, television coverage requires a variety of facilities to support the activities of the press.<ref name=FIShomologation/> |
||
[[Climate change]] is causing venues, accustomed to natural snow, to rely increasingly on [[Snowmaking|man-made snow]] to provide the grooming surface on the race course. Such snow tends to be denser and icier than natural snow, which increases the speed of skiers, especially on downhills. With the increase of speed and a harder surface, comes the increased risk of injuries from falls. The FIS claims to be compiling data on the comparative frequency and severity of falls, but wasn't sharing the information, as of January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bellisle|first=Martha|date=2022-01-11|title=Climate change: Athletes flag the dangers of manmade snow|url=https://apnews.com/article/sports-environment-and-nature-2020-tokyo-olympics-biathlon-great-britain-olympic-team-1eff5ec8f255c18f9f90526f402b0aaa|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-12|website=AP NEWS|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
==Doping== |
==Doping== |
||
As with other |
As with other sports, some competitors in cross-country skiing have chosen to enhance their performance through [[Doping in sport#Endurance sports|doping]].<ref> |
||
{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = Culpepper |
| last = Culpepper |
||
| first = Chuck |
| first = Chuck |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = Denial coaching |
| title = Denial coaching |
||
| work = |
|||
| publisher = Sports on Earth |
| publisher = Sports on Earth |
||
| date = |
| date = 12 February 2014 |
||
| url = http://www.sportsonearth.com/article/67670770/doping-in-cross-country-skiing-is-still-a-problem-sochi-olympics-russia |
|||
| |
| access-date = 9 November 2014 }}</ref> Anti-doping tests at the 2001 World Nordic skiing championships in Lahti, Finland revealed that [[Jari Isometsä]], [[Janne Immonen]] and two other skiers from Finland's gold-medal relay team, [[Mika Myllylä]] and [[Harri Kirvesniemi]], and two female skiers tested positive for [[hydroxyethyl starch]] (HES), a [[blood plasma]] expander usually used to [[Masking agent|cover up]] the use of [[erythropoietin]] (EPO). EPO boosts the oxygen-carrying capability of [[hemoglobin]]. In addition, the team head coach left needles and drip bags at a public location near the Helsinki airport.<ref> |
||
{{cite web |
{{cite web |
||
| last = Seiler |
| last = Seiler |
||
| first = Stephen |
| first = Stephen |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = Doping Disaster for Finnish Ski Team: a Turning Point for Drug Testing? |
| title = Doping Disaster for Finnish Ski Team: a Turning Point for Drug Testing? |
||
| work = News & Comment / Sports Medicine |
| work = News & Comment / Sports Medicine |
||
Line 381: | Line 651: | ||
| date = 2001 |
| date = 2001 |
||
| url = http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0101/ss.htm |
| url = http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0101/ss.htm |
||
| access-date = 9 November 2014 }}</ref> |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-11-09 }}</ref> At the [[Sochi Winter Olympic Games]], Austrian cross-country skier [[Johannes Duerr]] was ejected from competition after testing positive for the blood booster EPO.<ref> |
|||
{{cite web |
|||
At the [[Sochi Winter Olympic Games]], Austrian cross-country skier [[Johannes Dürr]] was ejected from competition after testing positive for the blood booster EPO.<ref> |
|||
| last = Associated Press |
|||
{{cite news |
|||
| first = |
|||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title = Austrian cross-country skier kicked out of Olympics for doping |
| title = Austrian cross-country skier kicked out of Olympics for doping |
||
| |
| series = Sports |
||
| |
| work = Fox News |
||
| date = |
| date = 23 February 2014 |
||
| url = http://www.foxnews.com/sports/2014/02/23/austrian-cross-country-skier-kicked-out-olympics-for-doping/ |
|||
| |
| access-date = 9 November 2014 }}</ref> In 2007, The International Olympic Committee banned biathletes, [[Wolfgang Perner]] and [[Wolfgang Rottmann]], and the cross-country skiers, Martin Tauber, Jürgen Pinter, Johannes Eder, Roland Diethart and Christian Hoffmann, from all future Olympic competition.<ref> |
||
{{cite |
{{cite news |
||
| last = Kelso |
| last = Kelso |
||
| first = Paul |
| first = Paul |
||
| authorlink = |
|||
| title =Six Austrian Nordic skiers banned for life by IOC for blood-doping |
| title =Six Austrian Nordic skiers banned for life by IOC for blood-doping |
||
| work = |
| work = The Guardian |
||
| publisher = The Guardian |
|||
| date = 25 April 2007 |
| date = 25 April 2007 |
||
| url = https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2007/apr/26/sport.sport |
|||
| access-date = 9 November 2014 }}</ref> An Italian court found Tauber and Pinter not guilty in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.langrenn.com/seks-acsterrikere-frikjent-tre-dacmt-etter-ol-doping.5072180-1743.html|title=Seks østerrikere frikjent, tre dømt etter OL-doping|last=Staff|date=6 July 2012|website=www.langrenn.com|publisher=langrenn.com|language=no|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref> |
|||
| accessdate = 2014-11-09 }}</ref> |
|||
Skiers, who have tested positive for EPO or other performance-enhancing drugs, include (date of sanction): |
Skiers, who have tested positive for EPO or other performance-enhancing drugs, include (date of sanction): |
||
Line 407: | Line 674: | ||
{{col-break}} |
{{col-break}} |
||
'''Austria''' |
'''Austria''' |
||
*[[ |
*[[Dominik Baldauf]] (2019) |
||
*Roland Diethart (2007) |
|||
*[[Johannes Dürr]] (2009, 2014) |
|||
*[[Johannes Eder]] (2007) |
*[[Johannes Eder]] (2007) |
||
*[[Max Hauke]] (2019) |
|||
*[[Christian Hoffmann]] (2011) |
*[[Christian Hoffmann]] (2011) |
||
*[[ |
*[[Harald Wurm]] (2015) |
||
'''Estonia''' |
|||
*[[Wolfgang Rottmann]] (2006) |
|||
*[[Karel Tammjärv]] (2020) |
|||
*[[Andreas Veerpalu]] (2020) |
|||
{{col-break}} |
|||
'''Finland''' |
'''Finland''' |
||
*[[Janne Immonen]] (2001) |
*[[Janne Immonen]] (2001) |
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*[[Jari Isometsä]] (2001) |
*[[Jari Isometsä]] (2001) |
||
*[[Aki Karvonen]] (1985) |
|||
*[[Harri Kirvesniemi]] (2001) |
*[[Harri Kirvesniemi]] (2001) |
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*[[Arto Koivisto]] (1981) |
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*[[Juha Lallukka]] (2011) |
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*[[Eero Mäntyranta]] (1972) |
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*[[Mika Myllylä]] (2001) |
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*[[Milla Saari]] (2001) |
*[[Milla Saari]] (2001) |
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*[[Virpi Sarasvuo]] (2001) |
*[[Virpi Sarasvuo]] (2001) |
||
*[[Tero Similä]] (2014) |
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*[[Pertti Teurajärvi]] (1982) |
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*[[Kaisa Varis]] (2003) |
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{{col-break}} |
{{col-break}} |
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'''Germany''' |
'''Germany''' |
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'''Kazakhstan''' |
'''Kazakhstan''' |
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*[[Yevgeniy Koshevoy]] (2011) |
*[[Yevgeniy Koshevoy]] (2011) |
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*[[Alexey Poltoranin]] (2020) |
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'''Norway''' |
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*[[Therese Johaug]] (2016) |
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*[[Martin Johnsrud Sundby]] (2016) |
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'''Poland''' |
'''Poland''' |
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*[[Kornelia Kubińska]] (2010) |
*[[Kornelia Kubińska]] (2010) |
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{{col-break}} |
{{col-break}} |
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'''Russia''' |
'''Russia''' |
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*[[ |
*[[Natalya Baranova-Masalkina]] (2002) |
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*[[Yuliya Chepalova]] (2009) |
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*[[Olga Danilova]] (2002) |
*[[Olga Danilova]] (2002) |
||
*[[Yevgeny Dementyev]] (2009) |
*[[Yevgeny Dementyev]] (2009) |
||
*[[Ekaterina Iourieva]] (2014) |
|||
*[[Irina Khazova]] (2007) |
*[[Irina Khazova]] (2007) |
||
*[[Larisa Lazutina]] (2002) |
*[[Larisa Lazutina]] (2002) |
||
*[[Natalya Matveyeva]] (2009) |
*[[Natalya Matveyeva]] (2009) |
||
*[[Olga Medvedtseva]] (2006) |
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*[[Sergey Shiryayev]] (2007) |
*[[Sergey Shiryayev]] (2007) |
||
*[[ |
*[[Alyona Sidko]] (2009) |
||
*[[Lyubov Yegorova]] (1997 |
*[[Lyubov Yegorova (cross-country skier)|Lyubov Yegorova]] (1997) |
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'''Soviet Union''' |
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{{col-break}} |
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*[[Galina Kulakova]] (1976) |
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'''Spain''' |
'''Spain''' |
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*[[Johann Mühlegg]] ( |
*[[Johann Mühlegg]] (2002) |
||
'''Ukraine''' |
'''Ukraine''' |
||
*[[Oksana Khvostenko]] (2011) |
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*[[Marina Lisogor]] (2014) |
*[[Marina Lisogor]] (2014) |
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'''United States''' |
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*[[Kerry Lynch]] (1987) |
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{{col-end}} |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons}} |
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{{Commons category|Cross-country skiing}} |
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7DfgfEGYeO8 Video depicting classic technique.] |
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVRRs9L3eYw Video depicting skate-skiing technique.] |
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uyH-lzIkeXI Video depicting V1 skate-skiing.] |
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9pjzh_65-I4 Video dpeicting V2 skate-skiing.] |
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8s9zdYo23XU Video depicting V2 alternate skate-skiing.] |
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{{Skiing}} |
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{{Winter Olympic sports}} |
{{Winter Olympic sports}} |
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{{Racing}} |
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{{Nordic skiing World Championships}} |
{{Nordic skiing World Championships}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT: |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cross-Country Skiing (Sport)}} |
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[[Category:Cross-country skiing]] |
[[Category:Cross-country skiing|*]] |
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[[Category:Ski marathons]] |
[[Category:Ski marathons]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Winter Olympic sports]] |
Revision as of 03:20, 13 January 2022
Highest governing body | FIS |
---|---|
Nicknames | Cross-country, XC skiing |
Characteristics | |
Mixed-sex | Separate events for men and women |
Type | Outdoor winter sport |
Equipment | Skis, poles, boots, bindings |
Presence | |
Olympic | 1924 (men), 1952 (women) |
Paralympic | 1976 |
Competitive cross-country skiing encompasses a variety of race formats and course lengths. Rules of cross-country skiing are sanctioned by the International Ski Federation and by various national organizations. International competitions include the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships, the FIS Cross-Country World Cup, and at the Winter Olympic Games. Such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic (in-track) and freestyle events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. It also encompasses cross-country ski marathon events, sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation, and cross-country ski orienteering events, sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation. Related forms of competition are biathlon, where competitors race on cross-country skis and stop to shoot at targets with rifles, and paralympic cross-country skiing that allows athletes with disabilities to compete at cross-country skiing with adaptive equipment.
Norwegian army units were skiing for sport (and prizes) in the 18th century. Starting in the latter part of the 20th century, technique evolved from the striding in-track classic technique to include skate-skiing, which occurs on courses that have been groomed with wide lanes for those using the technique. At the same time, equipment evolved from skis and poles that were made of wood and other natural materials to comprising such man-made materials as fiberglass, carbon fiber, and polyethylene plastics.[1]
Athletes train to achieve endurance, strength, speed, skill and flexibility at different levels of intensity. Off-season training often occurs on dry land, sometimes on roller skis. The organization of cross-country ski competitions aims to make those events accessible both to spectators and television audiences. As with other sports that require endurance, strength and speed, some athletes have chosen to use banned performance-enhancing drugs.
History
In 1767 Danish-Norwegian general, Carl Schack Rantzau, codified four classes of military skiing contests and established prizes for each:[2][3]
- Shooting at prescribed targets at 40–50 paces while skiing downhill at "top speed" (precursor to biathlon).
- "Hurling" themselves while racing downhill among trees "without falling or breaking skis" (precursor to slalom).
- Downhill racing on large slopes without "riding or resting on their stick" or falling (precursor to downhill racing).
- "Long racing" with full military kit and a gun on the shoulder over ca. 2.5 km of "flat ground" within 15 minutes (precursor to modern cross-country skiing).
An early record of a public ski competition was for an 1843 event in Tromsø. The announcement called the event a "wagering race on skis".[4] A distinct alpine technique emerged around 1900 from how skiing was practiced up until then when Mathias Zdarsky advocated the "Lilienfelder Ski Method" as an alternative to the Norwegian technique.[3] In Norwegian, langrenn refers to "competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in pre-set tracks in the shortest possible time". Alpine skiing competitions (known as hill races) existed in Norway during the 18th and 19th centuries, but were discontinued when the main ski festival in Oslo focused on long races (competitive cross-country skiing) and ski jumping (now known as the Nordic disciplines). The alpine disciplines reemerged in Central Europe around 1920. Ski touring competitions (Norwegian: turrenn) are long-distance cross-country competitions open to the public, competition is usually within age categories.[5]
In the 1800s racers used a single, wooden pole, which was longer and stronger than modern poles, and could be used for braking downhill, as well. In Norway, racing with two poles ("Finland style") met with resistance, starting in the 1880s, when some race rules forbade them; objections included issues of aesthetics—how they made skiers "[waddle] like geese". As the use of pairs of pole became the norm, materials favored lightness and strength, starting with bamboo, which gave way to fiberglass, used at the 1968 Winter Olympics, aluminum, used at the 1972 Winter Olympics, and ultimately carbon fiber, introduced in 1975.[6]
Skate skiing
Skate skiing was introduced to competition in the 20th Century. At the first German ski championship, held at the Feldberg in the Black Forest in 1900, the Norwegian Bjarne Nilssen won the 23 km cross-country race and was observed using a skating motion while skiing—a technique unknown to the spectators.[7] Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof, one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross-country skiing.[4] This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces. Finnish skier Pauli Siitonen developed a variant of the style for marathon or other endurance events in the 1970s by leaving one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski (one-sided skating);[8] this became known as the "marathon skate".[9] American skier Bill Koch further developed the marathon skate technique in the late 1970s.[5][10] Skate skiing became widespread during the 1980s after Koch's success with it in the 1982 Cross-country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the technique.[8] Norwegian skier, Ove Aunli, started using the technique in 1984, when he found it to be much faster than classic style.[11] Skating is most effective on wide, smooth, groomed trails, using fiberglass skis that glide well; it also benefits a stronger athlete—which, according to Olav Bø, are the reasons that the technique made a breakthrough in the early 1980s.[4] Athletes widely adopted skating to both sides by the time of the 1985 world championship and it was formally adopted by the FIS in 1986[5]—despite initial opposition from Norway, the Soviet Union and Finland—while preserving events using only classic technique.[11]
Events
Winter Olympic Games
The Winter Olympic Games are a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France and included Nordic skiing (which includes cross-country skiing) among the five principal disciplines. Cross-country events have evolved in the Winter Olympics since 1924, as seen in the following timeline:[12]
- 1924 Winter Olympics: Cross-country skiing debuts.
- 1952 Winter Olympics.: Women's Nordic skiing debuts
- 1956 Winter Olympics: men's 30 km and the women's 3 × 5 km relay added.
- 1964 Winter Olympics: Women's 5 km added.
- 1976 Winter Paralympics: Paralympic cross-country skiing added.
- 1980 Winter Olympics: Women's 20 km added.
- 2002 Winter Olympics: Appearance of sprint and mass start events in Salt Lake City.
FIS events
The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women. From 1924 to 1939, the World Championships were held annually, including years with Winter Olympic Games. After World War II, the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982. Since 1985, the World Championships have been held in odd-numbered years.[13]
FIS events include:[13]
- The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships (also including ski jumping and nordic combined events)
- FIS Cross-Country World Cup: each year medalists are announced who have the highest total scores at the end of the World Cup season
- The Tour de Ski: modeled on the Tour de France of cycling, it is held annually during late December and early January in the Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, as part of the FIS Cross-Country World Cup (since 2006)
Event | Dates for Men | Dates for Women |
---|---|---|
Individual sprint | 2001–Present | 2001–Present |
Team sprint | 2005–Present | 2005–Present |
5 km | N/A | 1962–1999 |
10 km | 1991–1999 | 1954–Present |
15 km | 1954–Present | 1989–2003 |
17–18 km | 1925–1950 | N/A |
20 km | N/A | 1978–1987 |
30 km | 1926–2003 | 1989–Present |
50 km | 1925–Present | N/A |
4 × 10 km relay | 1933–Present | N/A |
3 × 5 km relay | N/A | 1954–1970 |
4 × 5 km relay | N/A | 1974–Present |
Combined/double pursuit/Skiathlon | 1993–Present | 1993–Present |
Ski marathon
A ski marathon is a long-distance, usually point-to-point race, of more than 40 kilometers; some are held concurrent with shorter races and participation is usually open to the public. In Norwegian, such a race is called turrenn ("ski touring race").[5] Major events have more than 10,000 participants where mass starts often have a modified starting order by groupings of participants—who have been judged to be of similar ability, beginning with the elite skiers group and ending with a group of the least experienced skiers.[14] Skiers can use either classic or skate-skiing techniques, depending on the rules of the race. Awards are usually based on overall placement, placement by sex of athlete, and by age category.[14] There are two major series in this category, the Ski Classics and the Worldloppet.
Ski Classics series
Ski Classics is a commercially sponsored international long-distance cross-country skiing cup competition, held in Europe. It originated in January 2011.[15] As of the winter of 2015–6, the tour consisted of eight long-distance events, preceded by a prologue of 15 km and La Sgambeda of 24 km:[16]
Event | Classic | Freestyle | Location |
---|---|---|---|
Jizerská Padesátka | 50 / 25 km | 30 km | Bedřichov, Czech Republic |
Marcialonga | 70 / 45 km | Moena – Cavalese, Italy | |
König Ludwig Lauf | 50 / 23 km | 50 / 23 km | Oberammergau, Germany |
Vasaloppet | 90 / 45 / 30 km | Sälen – Mora, Sweden | |
Engadin Skimarathon | 42 / 21 / 17 km | Maloja – S-chanf, Switzerland | |
La Diagonala | 65 km | 65 km | Engadin – St. Moritz, Switzerland |
Birkebeinerrennet | 54 km | Rena – Lillehammer, Norway | |
Årefjällsloppet | 65 km | Vålådalen – Åre, Sweden |
Worldloppet series
The Worldloppet Ski Federation recognizes twenty ski marathons including those in the Ski Classics series (except La Diagonala and Årefjällslopet). They recognize those athletes who complete Worldloppet races in 10 different countries, at least one of which has to be on another continent, to qualify as a "Worldloppet Master". The organization, sanctioned by FIS, seeks to attract elite racers to its events with the FIS Worldloppet Cup and aims thereby to "increase media and spectator interest in long distance racing".[17] Notable races, other than the Ski Classics series include:[18]
Event | Classic | Freestyle | Location |
---|---|---|---|
Kangaroo Hoppet | 42 / 21 km | Falls Creek, Victoria, Australia | |
Dolomitenlauf | 42 / 21 km | 60 km | Obertilliach / Lienz, Austria |
Transjurassienne | 50 / 25 km | 76 / 54 km | Les Rousses / Lamoura – Mouthe, France |
Sapporo International Ski Marathon | 50 / 25 km | Sapporo, Japan | |
Tartu Maraton | 63 / 31 km | 63 / 31 km | Otepää – Elva, Estonia |
Gatineau Loppet | 53 / 29 km | 53 / 29 km | Gatineau, Quebec, Canada |
American Birkebeiner | 54 / 23 km | 50 / 23 km | Cable – Hayward, Wisconsin, United States |
Finlandia Hiihto | 62 / 32 km | 50 km | Lahti, Finland |
Demino Ski Marathon | 25 km | 50 km | Rybinsk, Russia |
Bieg Piastów | 50 /26 km | 30 km | Szklarska Poręba, Poland |
Fossavatn Ski Marathon | 50 km | Ísafjörður, Iceland | |
Vasaloppet China | 50 km | Changchun, China | |
Merino Muster | 42 / 21 km | Wanaka, New Zealand | |
Ushuaia Loppet | 42 km | Ushuaia, Argentina |
Ski orienteering
Ski orienteering is an orienteering discipline recognized by the International Orienteering Federation.[19] The World Ski Orienteering Championships is organized every odd year and includes sprint, middle and long distance competitions, and a Relay for both men and women. The World Cup is organized every even year.[19] Junior World Ski Orienteering Championships and World Masters Ski Orienteering Championships are organized annually.[19]
Biathlon
Biathlon combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target, which varies according to the competition rules; in any given competition one of the following penalties would apply:[20]
- Skiing around a 150-metre (490 ft) penalty loop, which, depending on conditions, takes 20–30 seconds for elite athletes to complete.
- Adding one minute to the skier's total time.
- Use of an extra cartridge (placed at the shooting range) to hit the target; only three such extras are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each target left standing.
Paralympic
Paralympic cross-country skiing is an adaptation of cross-country skiing for athletes with disabilities. Paralympic cross-country skiing is one of two Nordic skiing disciplines in the Winter Paralympic Games; the other is biathlon. Competition is governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). Paralympic cross-country skiing includes standing events, sitting events (for wheelchair users), and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee. These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs, have amputations, are blind, or have any other physical disability, to continue their sport. The classifications are for:[21]
- Standing skiers with arm impairments, leg impairments or with both arm and leg impairments.
- Sit-Skiers, all with leg impairments, but with varying degrees of torso control.
- Skiers with visual impairment including blindness, low visual acuity, and limited field of vision.
Technique and equipment
Cross-country ski competitors employ one of two techniques, according to the event: classic and skating (in freestyle races, where all techniques are allowed).[5] Skiathlon combines the two techniques in one race.[22]
Skis are lighter, narrower and designed to be faster than those used in recreational cross-country skiing and made of composite materials.[1] For classic events, typical ski lengths are between 195 and 210 centimetres, while ski lengths for skating are 170 to 200 cm.[12] Skis for skating are also more rigid than skis for classical.[5] Skis are waxed for speed and, in the case of classic skis, traction when striding forward. Racing ski boots are also lighter than recreational ones and are attached at the toe only to bindings that are specialized for classic or skate skiing.
Racing ski poles are usually made from carbon fiber and feature smaller, lighter baskets than recreational poles. Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing.[23]
Classic
In classic cross-country skiing the skis remain parallel, as the skier strides straight ahead. The undersides of the skis have a grip section in the middle treated with a special ski wax that provides friction when the foot is still, yet glides when the foot is in motion, while the rest of the ski bottom has a glide wax. Classic events occur on courses with tracks set by a grooming machine at precise intervals and with carefully planned curvature. Both poles may be used simultaneously ("double-poling") or with alternating foot and arm extended (as with running or walking) with the pole pushing on the side opposite of the extended, sliding ski. In classic skiing the alternating technique is used for the "diagonal stride"—the predominant classic sub-technique.[24] In diagonal-stride legs move like in ordinary walking, but with longer and more powerful steps. Diagonal is useful on level ground and on gentle uphill slopes. Uphill steps are shorter and more frequent. With double-poling both poles are used simultaneously for thrust, which may be augmented with striding. Double-poling is useful on level ground and on gentle downhill slopes. On steep uphills fishbone technique can be used.[5]
Skating
While skate skiing, the skier provides propulsion on a firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle, in a manner similar to ice skating. Skis are waxed with a glide wax over their entire length, making them faster than classic skis. Freestyle events take place on smooth, wide, specially groomed courses. With the skating technique double-poling is usually employed with alternating skating strides or with every skate stride. The following table puts these poling sequences into order according to the speed achieved as a progression of "gears". In the lowest gear (rarely used in racing), one is poling on the side of the sliding ski, similar to diagonal stride. In the highest gear, the athlete skates without poles.[24] There are equivalent terms in other languages; for example in Norwegian, skating is likened to paddling or dancing, depending on the tempo.[5]
"Gear" | Term used in the US[25] | Term used in Canada[26] |
---|---|---|
1st | Diagonal V: single pole on stationary side | Diagonal skate |
2nd | V1: Double pole on same side | Offset skate |
3rd | V2: Double pole on alternate sides | 1-skate |
4th | V2 alternate (open field skate) | 2-skate |
5th | Skate without poles | Free-skate |
The primary turns used for racing, are the parallel turn, which is used while descending and can provide braking, and the step turn, which is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats.[27] The wedge turn (or "snowplow turn"),[27] is sometimes used for braking and turning.
Skier development and training
Countries with cross-country ski teams usually have a strategy for developing promising athletes and programs to encourage participation in the sport, starting at a young age. One example is Cross-Country Ski Canada's "Long-Term Athlete Development" program.[26] The program encompasses youth development, training, introduction to competition and improvement of promising athletes with an emphasis on "stamina (endurance), strength, speed, skill and suppleness (flexibility)". It covers age groups from toddlers to mature adults, who are able to enjoy and participate in the sport.[26] Similarly, the USSA has an outline of "Cross Country Athlete Competencies" that has four phases beginning at 12 years old and under and addressing the 21 and older phase at the top. The program encompasses six "domains:"[25]
- Technical skills specific to cross-country ski racing.
- Physiological and motor skills addressing physical fitness, strength, power, and endurance.
- Psychological and sociological skills, emphasizing sound relationships and the mental skills required for competition.
- Training and competition performance, addressing goal-directed training to achieve favorable competition results.
- Equipment selection, use, and maintenance of the athlete's skis, boots, bindings, wax, clothing, and poles necessary to success.
- Education that eventually allows the athlete to become his or her own coach.
Ski training for the athlete depends on whether the desired specialty emphasizes endurance (marathon) or intensity (mid-distance events). The "intensity" theory of ski training uses stress to break down muscles and recovery to build them up stronger than before. In this theory, there are five levels of intensity for training:[28][29]
- Aerobic: Low-intensity, aerobic training (at 60–70% of an athlete's maximum intensity) should consume most of the training hours for endurance athletes.[28]
- Strength: Strength training improves flexibility and joint motion to minimize injury and to improve overall strength, not addressed by sport-specific training.[28]
- Lactate Threshold: This level builds an efficient base speed by training the body to convert blood lactate into energy, rather than creating a sensation of tired muscles.[29]
- VO2 max: This level uses interval training to build the athlete's VO2 max—volume of oxygen that the lungs pass into the musculature via the cardiovascular system.[29]
- Speed: This level of training addresses the athlete's ability to sprint and is neuromuscular, essentially training the muscles to move quickly.[29]
Athletes train for each level on a seasonal schedule designed for the targeted events: marathon or mid-distance.[29] Additional aspects of training address aerobic (low-intensity) exercise—especially for endurance—and strength to improve joint flexibility and to minimize the risk of injury.[29] Cross-country ski training occurs throughout the year, including on dry land where athletes engage in roller skiing and ski striding to maintain ski-specific muscle fitness.[30]
Race management
In its "Organizing committee handbook", the FIS covers aspects of race management, including the layout of the competition venue, organization of the events (including scheduling, officiating, and awards), and addressing ancillary factors, such as the role of the media.[31] National handbooks, such as the "USSA Cross-Country Technical Handbook"[32] and the "Cross Country Canada officials manual",[33] provide further guidance, sometimes specific to their venues.
An important aspect of race preparation is grooming the course to provide a surface for skate-skiing and setting tracks for classic events. This takes into account snow physics, methods for packing snow and surface shaping, and the equipment used for these functions. Also key is the layout of grooming and track setting in the stadium with various formats for starts, finishes and intermediate functions for relays and pursuits.[33]
Design of racing venues
In its "Cross-country homologation manual", the FIS recognizes that fans of the sport wish to follow it on television. With this in mind, the manual addresses how to design the race course and the stadium in a manner that not only enhances the experience of spectators, but of viewers, as well—not just to show the athletes in action, but to show the ways in which fans enjoy the action. The manual includes considerations of:[34]
- Course design criteria
- Requirements for different race formats
- Course layouts
- Courses for skiers with disabilities
- Stadium layout
- Waxing rooms with ski test areas
- Warm up course
A course is expected to test the skier's technical and physical abilities, to be laid out in a manner that takes advantage of the natural terrain, and to provide smooth transitions among uphills, downhills and "undulating" terrain—distributed approximately evenly among the three. The manual advocates that courses present a variety of uphills, varying in lengths and gradients between 6% and 12%, which are arrayed efficiently within the venue. It cites two types of stadium, the horseshoe (preferred for television) and the "ski in, ski out" layout. It emphasizes the importance of accommodating television coverage at the start, finish, and exchange zones for equipment or relays. In addition, television coverage requires a variety of facilities to support the activities of the press.[34]
Climate change is causing venues, accustomed to natural snow, to rely increasingly on man-made snow to provide the grooming surface on the race course. Such snow tends to be denser and icier than natural snow, which increases the speed of skiers, especially on downhills. With the increase of speed and a harder surface, comes the increased risk of injuries from falls. The FIS claims to be compiling data on the comparative frequency and severity of falls, but wasn't sharing the information, as of January 2022.[35]
Doping
As with other sports, some competitors in cross-country skiing have chosen to enhance their performance through doping.[36] Anti-doping tests at the 2001 World Nordic skiing championships in Lahti, Finland revealed that Jari Isometsä, Janne Immonen and two other skiers from Finland's gold-medal relay team, Mika Myllylä and Harri Kirvesniemi, and two female skiers tested positive for hydroxyethyl starch (HES), a blood plasma expander usually used to cover up the use of erythropoietin (EPO). EPO boosts the oxygen-carrying capability of hemoglobin. In addition, the team head coach left needles and drip bags at a public location near the Helsinki airport.[37]
At the Sochi Winter Olympic Games, Austrian cross-country skier Johannes Dürr was ejected from competition after testing positive for the blood booster EPO.[38] In 2007, The International Olympic Committee banned biathletes, Wolfgang Perner and Wolfgang Rottmann, and the cross-country skiers, Martin Tauber, Jürgen Pinter, Johannes Eder, Roland Diethart and Christian Hoffmann, from all future Olympic competition.[39] An Italian court found Tauber and Pinter not guilty in 2012.[40]
Skiers, who have tested positive for EPO or other performance-enhancing drugs, include (date of sanction):
References
- ^ a b Kuzmin, Leonid (2006). Investigation of the most essential factors influencing ski glide (PDF) (Licentiate). Luleå University of Technology. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
- ^ Huntford, Roland (November 2008). Two Planks and a Passion: The Dramatic History of Skiing. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 436. ISBN 978-1-84725-236-4.
- ^ a b Bergsland, Einar (1946): På ski. Oslo: Aschehoug.
- ^ a b c Bø, Olav: Skiing throughout history, translated by W. Edson Richmond. Oslo: Samlaget, 1993.
- ^ a b c d e f g h
Rolf Bryhn; Knut Are Tvedt, eds. (1990). Kunnskapsforlagets idrettsleksikon (Encyclopedia of Sports). Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget. p. 455. ISBN 82-573-0408-5.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ Brugge, Mette (20 December 2015). "Skistavens historie: Hjelpemiddel og bråkmaker". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Oslo. p. 14. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
- ^ Vaage, Jacob: Norske ski erobrer verden. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1952.
- ^ a b Field, Patrick; Corradini, Angelo (2007), Paal, Epp; Corradini, Angelo (eds.), "Wordloppet Anniversary Book—30 years of skiing around the world (Skating, Siitonen and Koch)" (PDF), Anniversary Book, World Loppet Ski Foundation, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2015, retrieved 1 April 2016
- ^
Editor (2010). "Marathon Skate". Cross Country Ski Tips and Information. XCSki.com. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ Robbins, Paul (11 January 1983). "Skier Bill Koch the winter after his cross-country championship". The Christian Science Monitor. Boston. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
- ^ a b Bengtsson, Bengt Erik. "Cross-country skating: How it started". Skiing History Magazine. International Skiing History Association. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
- ^ a b "Cross Country Skiing Equipment and History". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
- ^ a b c Editors, "FIS History", About FIS, International Ski Federation, archived from the original on 7 August 2014, retrieved 23 October 2014
{{citation}}
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has generic name (help) - ^ a b Directors (2015). "WL Rules and Regulations—Everything you need to know". Worldloppet Ski Federation. Archived from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
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