m →Modern: typo |
Incorrect article. This should be discussed in Reform Judaism, it is not a crticism of Judaism per se, but an internal disagreement between branches of the religion |
||
Line 207: | Line 207: | ||
Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of [[Orthodox Judaism]] for not properly following [[Halakha]] (Jewish religious law).<ref>[[Avi Shafran]], [http://web.archive.org/web/20060106063953/http://www.momentmag.com/archive/feb01/feat2.html "The Conservative Lie"], ''[[Moment (magazine)|Moment]]'', February 2001.</ref> It is also criticized by some leaders of [[Reform Judaism]] for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as [[Interfaith marriage in Judaism|intermarriage]], [[Patrilineality|patrilineal descent]], and the ordination of lesbians and gay men—all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.<ref name="Berkofsky">Joe Berkofsky, [http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/21714/edition_id/441/format/html/displaystory.html "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals"], ''[[j.]]'', March 5, 2004.</ref> (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the ''"celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."''<ref>[[Laurie Goodstein]], |
Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of [[Orthodox Judaism]] for not properly following [[Halakha]] (Jewish religious law).<ref>[[Avi Shafran]], [http://web.archive.org/web/20060106063953/http://www.momentmag.com/archive/feb01/feat2.html "The Conservative Lie"], ''[[Moment (magazine)|Moment]]'', February 2001.</ref> It is also criticized by some leaders of [[Reform Judaism]] for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as [[Interfaith marriage in Judaism|intermarriage]], [[Patrilineality|patrilineal descent]], and the ordination of lesbians and gay men—all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.<ref name="Berkofsky">Joe Berkofsky, [http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/21714/edition_id/441/format/html/displaystory.html "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals"], ''[[j.]]'', March 5, 2004.</ref> (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the ''"celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."''<ref>[[Laurie Goodstein]], |
||
[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/07/us/07jews.html?ex=1323147600&en=d9af0c2c2de39221&ei=5088&partner ''Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions''], [[The New York Times]], 2006.</ref>) |
[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/07/us/07jews.html?ex=1323147600&en=d9af0c2c2de39221&ei=5088&partner ''Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions''], [[The New York Times]], 2006.</ref>) |
||
==Criticism of traditional Judaism by reform movement== |
|||
{{seealso|Reform movement in Judaism|Jewish schisms|Jewish Enlightenment|Reform Judaism (North America)}} |
|||
The [[Reform movement in Judaism|reform movement]] grew out of disatisfaction with several aspects of [[Orthodox Judaism|traditional Judaism]] or [[Rabbinic Judaism]], and these dissatisfactions were documented in polemics and other writings during the 19th and early 20th century.<ref> |
|||
*"The polemics between Orthodox, as the traditionalists came to be called, and the Reformers were fierce. The Orthodox treated Reform as rank heresy, as no more than a religion of convenience which, if followed, would lead Jews altogether out of Judaism. The Reformers retorted that, on the contrary, the danger to Jewish survivial was occasioned by the Orthodox who, through their obsurantism, failed to see that the new challenges facing Judaism had to be faced consciously in the present as Judaism had faced, albeit unconsciously, similar challenges in the past." - Jacobs, Louis (1995), ''The Jewish religion: a companion'', Oxford University Press, p. 4. |
|||
*"A number of noteworthy features distinguish this [Reform movement] from preceding cultures [traditional Judaism], features which are directed with polemical trenchancy against these predecessors.... A ferment of revolt against the established order of Jewish tradition ..." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' Cambridge University Press, p. 167. |
|||
*"[The reform movement] divided the Rabbinic world into adversary camps which fought each other with extraordinary zeal by means of endless mutual bans and anathemas, acrimonious polemics, and bitter abuse...." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' Cambridge University Press, p. 172. |
|||
*"The 'Judaism' that so antagonized the [Reform movement] was not of the Biblical variety ... but Talmudism, Rabbinism, Kabbalah, and Hassidism... In the beginning, a wide chasm separated the Orthodox and Liberals." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 177. |
|||
*"There is at present a rent in Judaism which affects its very life, and which no covering, however glittering, can repair. The evil which threatens to corrode gradually all the healthy bone and marrow must be completely eradicated, and this can be done only if, in the name and in the interest of the religion, we remove from the sphere of our religious life all that is corrupt and untenable, and solemnly absolve ourselves from all obligations toward it in the future; thus we may achieve the liberation of Judaism for ourselves and for our children, so as to prevent the estrangement from Judaism. " - Philipson, David (1907) ''The Reform Movement in Judaism'', (quoting David Einhorn), Macmillian (reprinted by University of California, 2007), p. 481. |
|||
</ref> The criticisms of traditional Judaism included: criticisms asserting that the Torah's laws are not strictly binding;<ref> |
|||
*"Abraham Geiger ... stressed the belief in progress: the Bible and Talmud represent an early, primitive stage in a revelation that is still continuing. Many traditional ceremonies (such as circumcision) are distressing to modern sensibility or incompatible with modern life... Geiger become increasingly convinced of the need to 'dethrone the Talmud'... " - De Lange, Nicholas (2000),''An introduction to Judaism'', Cambridge University Press, p. 73 |
|||
*"According to [Mordecai] Kaplan, the Jewish heritage, including the belief in God, must be reinterpreted so that it will be consistent with the intellectual outlook of the twentieth century. The Torah, which is Jewish civilization in practice, must be given a new functional interpretation." - Scult, Mel (1993) ''Judaism faces the twentieth century: a biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan'', Wayne State University Press, p. 341. |
|||
* "Liberation from the yoke of exile was connate with the notion of liberation from the yoke of Torah and Jewish communal unity. Hence the call for ... separation between church and state, and authority for minimal organized religion." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 173. |
|||
*"Many perfered the 'religion of the heart', private worship, or the 'natural truths', ethics based on reason over the observance of practical precepts and community laws." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 174. |
|||
*"Israel drew within herself, shunned the world, and lived apart. In her seclusion her religion became her all. The interpretation of the Law and the constuction put upon the commandments tended toward the upholding of the letter rather than the spirit. ... Reform was born to protect the spirit of the Law, to place the spirit above the letter, to make the latter subservieint to the former.... The abolition of those forms and ceremonies that were not conducive to proper living, or that had, by reason of altered environment, become meaningless, was of the highest importance to the spiritual welfare of Israel." - Stern, Myer (1895), ''The rise and progress of reform Judaism: '', Harvard University, p. 5. |
|||
</ref> criticisms asserting that many ceremonies and rituals are not necessary;<ref> |
|||
*"Reform Judaism rejected the concept of Divine revelation, and ... the law is considered instructional and inspirational but not binding, ... and by eliminating many ritual practices..." - Dosick, Wayne D. (1995), ''Living Judaism: the complete guide to Jewish belief, tradition, and practice'', HarperCollins, p. 62. |
|||
*"Reform Judaism first took hold in Germany in the early nineteenth century. This tradition asserts that many of the ritualistic practices and dogmas of the past are outmoded..... Reform Jews assumed a prerogative to choose which Biblical laws were worthy of their allegiance and which were not.... Orthodox Jews adhere to a literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible and continue to observe all the traditional Jewish laws... Conservative Jews ... were ... less likely than the Orthodox to accept the infallibilty of sacred texts asserting that 'the divine origin of Jewish law ... [was subject] to human development and application'". - Berger, Ronald J. (2002), ''Fathoming the Holocaust: a social problems approach'', Aldine Transaction, p. 179-180. |
|||
*"We hold that all such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet, priestly purity, and dress originated in ages and under the influence of ideas entirely foreign to our present mental and spiritual state. They fail to impress the modern Jew with a spirit of priestly holiness; their observance in our days is apt rather to obstruct than to further modern spiritual elevation." - [[Pittsburgh Platform]], section 4. |
|||
*"...in the view of rabbinical Judaism every command of the written law in the Pentateuch (Torah sh'bikthab), and of the oral law (Torah sh'b'al peh), as codified in the Shulchan Aruk, is equally binding. The ceremonial law has equal potency with the religious and moral commands. Reform Judaism, on the other hand, claims that a distinction must be made between the universal precepts of religion and morality and the enactments arising from the circumstances and conditions of special times and places. Customs and ceremonies must change with the varying needs of different generations. Successive ages have their individual requirements for the satisfaction of the religious nature. No ceremonial law can be eternally binding. " - Philipson, David (1907) ''The Reform Movement in Judaism'', Macmillian (reprinted by University of California, 2007), p. 5-6. |
|||
</ref> criticisms asserting that Rabbincal leadership is too authoritarian;<ref> |
|||
*"A ferment of revolt against the established order of Jewish tradition had existed ever since the expulsion from Spain.... The move toward worldliness, toward abolition of the Rabbinic stranglehold, became even stronger after [[Sabbatai Zvi]] failed to vanquish Satan with his esoteric wisdom." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 168 |
|||
*".. the immense authoritarian power of the orthodox Rabbis and Hasidic Zadikkim in the traditionalist communities ... As a result, there was open conflict between the rebellious youth .. and the religious establishment.... This was the context in which a virulent 'anti-clericalism' developed among progressive Jewish intellectuals, leaving countless evidence in the shape of polemical articles, autobiographical works, and imaginative literature." - Lowy, Michael (1992), ''Redemption and utopia: Jewish libertarian thought in Central Europe : a study in elective affinity'', Stanford University Press, p. 45. |
|||
*"[Reform Judaism was] originally founded as a response by Jewish laity to the percieved authoritarian rigidity of traditional or Orthodox Judaism and its rabbis." - Palmer-Fernández, Gabriel (2004), ''The encyclopedia of religion and war'', Routledge, p. 253. |
|||
*"The 'Judaism' that so antagonized the Emancipation [reform] culture was ... Talmudism and Rabbinism.... Both [ [[Isaak Markus Jost]] and [[Heinrich Graetz]] ] condemned the Rabbinic rule and reviled Kabbalah and Hassidism." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 177. |
|||
*" Rabbis were no longer entitled to their traditional rold as judges and definitive interpreters of Halachah [in reform communites], but functioned merely as preachers, teachers, and dayanim in ritual matters..." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 172. |
|||
*"Mosaism and rabbinic Judaism were appropriate for earlier ages, [Kohler] argued. But the age of man's maturity called for freedom from the letter, from blind authority, 'from all restriction which curb the minds and encroach upon the hearts'. The contemporary Jew had 'outgrown the guiding strings ... of infancy'; he was ready to walk on his own. What he required was not law, but a 'living Judaism', both enlightened and pious, appealling to reason and emotion." - Meyer, Michael A. (1995) ''Response to modernity: a history of the Reform Movement in Judaism'', Wayne State University Press, p. 267. |
|||
*"There is a fatal split among Jews, first, because religious tenets and institutions have been kept forcibly on a level of a vanished era, and not permeated with the divine breath of refreshing life, while life itself hurried forward stormily; and secondly, because the religious leaders, lacking all knowledge of the world and of men, dreamed of other times and conditions, and held themselves aloof from the life of the new generation - hence resulted a superficial rationalism, inimical to all positive and historical faith, side by side with a rigid, unreasoning formalism". - Philipson, David (1907) ''The Reform Movement in Judaism'', Macmillian (reprinted by University of California, 2007), (quoting Abraham Kohn, rabbi of Hohemems in Tirol); p. 93-95. |
|||
</ref> criticisms asserting that there was too much superstition;<ref> |
|||
*"The Emancipation culture [i.e. reform movement] reverberates with caustic polemics against Rabbis and Kabbalists immersed in a world of visions, miracles, and idle superstition." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 174. |
|||
*"The belief in Messianic redemption through miracles is shunted beyond the bounds of expectation, and is even derided [by the Reform movement]...." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 169. |
|||
</ref> criticisms asserting that traditional Judaism leads to isolation from other communities;<ref> |
|||
*"Emancipation implied the breakdown of the Jews' millennial social and cultural isolation ... It was said for the first time in European history the Jews could participate in non-Jewish culture without the stigma of apostacy". {{cite book |
|||
|title=The Jew in the modern world: a documentary history |
|||
|first=Paul R. |last=Mendes-Flohr |
|||
|publisher= Oxford University Press US, |
|||
|year=1995 |
|||
|ISBN= 019507453X, |
|||
|page=155 |
|||
}} |
|||
*"Sociologically, the way of life of halakhic Judaism vouchsafed Jewry to an unambiguously distinct ... identity - an identity that was the source of a profound discomfort to those Jews who sought cultural, social, and political integration in the Gentile community in which they lived." - ''The Jew in the modern world: a documentary history'' Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (Ed.), p. 156 |
|||
*" Judaism, many felt, was trapped in a dark impasse, while 'Europe' was a spacious and luminous world." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 174 |
|||
* "A ferment of revolt against the established order of Jewish tradition had existed ever since the expulsion from Spain. Former [[Marrano]]s, in particular, were eager to achieve integration in their host countries; .... [D]riven by the despair of oppression, these movements wished to tear down the barriers separating Israel from other nations." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 168 |
|||
</ref> and criticisms asserting that traditional Judaism over-emphasized the exile.<ref> |
|||
*" We recognize, in the modern era of universal culture of heart and intellect, the approaching of the realization of Israels great Messianic hope for the establishment of the kingdom of truth, justice, and peace among all men. We consider ourselves no longer a nation, but a religious community, and therefore expect neither a return to Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the sons of Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws concerning the Jewish state." - [[Pittsburgh Platform]] |
|||
*"A ferment of revolt against the established order of Jewish tradition had existed ever since the expulsion from Spain. Former [[Marrano]]s, in particular, were eager to achieve integration in their host countries; the desire to negate the exile prompted a corollary desire to wipe out the entire exilic tradition...." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 168. |
|||
* "[Reformers wanted to] end the exile and the mentality associated with exile" - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 168 |
|||
* "Liberation from the yoke of exile was connate with the notion of liberation from the yoke of Torah and Jewish communal unity. Hence the call for ... separation between church and state, and authority for minimal organized religion." - Shmueli, Efraim (1990) ''Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought'' - Cambridge University Press, p. 173 |
|||
</ref> |
|||
==Violence== |
==Violence== |
Revision as of 23:38, 11 April 2010
Part of a series on |
Judaism |
---|
Criticism of Judaism includes criticisms that address Judaism's religious texts, religious laws, religious practices, and the consequences of those laws and practices. Some early criticism originated in inter-faith polemics between Christianity and Judaism. Several important disputations in the middle ages gave rise to widely publicized criticisms, as well as some antisemitic canards. Some modern criticisms reflect the inter-branch schisms that distinguish the various modern formulations of Judaism, such as Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Some criticisms - such as criticisms of policies that discriminate against women - are aimed primarily at the more traditional branches of Judaism.
Rejection of concept of a personal God
Critics, such as Baruch Spinoza, criticize Judaism because its theology and religious texts describe a personal God which is interested in human affairs and has relationships with human beings.[1] Spinoza instead believed God exists only philosophically and that God is abstract and impersonal. This criticism of Judaism is also made by some pantheists and nontheists who object to all theistic religions.[2]
Rejection of concept of Chosen People
Many people, such as Baruch Spinoza,[3] Moses Mendelssohn,[4] and Mordecai Kaplan,[5] have criticized Judaism because its religious texts describe Jews as the Chosen People.[6] Many secular and Christian critics, in particular, have made this criticism because of implied favoritism or superiority.[7] However, most modern branches of the Jewish faith interpret "chosen people" to mean that Jews have special role to "preserve God's revelations"[8] and to "affirm our common humanity",[9] such as reflected in the policy statement of Reform Judaism that the role of chosen people means that Jews have a special responsibility to "cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth."[10]
Criticisms from Chrisitanity
- See also Christian-Jewish disputations
Christian authorities have criticized Judaism, particularly during formal debates called disputations, such as the Disputation of Barcelona in 1263 and the Disputation of Tortosa in 1413.
Hostility towards early Christians
- See also: Persecution of Christians in Judea
Judaism has been criticized because it is alleged that Jews, particularly during the first few centuries CE, persecuted Christians.[11]
Rejection of Jesus as messiah
Judaism has been criticized by claims that it is not righteous because it does not recognize Jesus as the messiah.[12] Paul made this criticism in the New Testament (Rom 9:30–11:26).
Insults directed at Jesus
Judaism has been criticized because the Talmud, the Tosefta, and the Toldoth Yeshu are claimed to refer to Jesus in an insulting manner, such as: stating that Jesus is condemned to hell and boiled in excrement;[13] stating that he was executed for sorcery; stating that his mother Mary was a whore or adulterer; and identifying Jesus by the the Hebrew name Yeshu[14] which, it is alleged, is not a short form of the name Yeshua, but rather an acrostic signifying "may his name and memory be blotted out".[15] However, many scholars of Judaism maintain that the person identified as Yeshu in the Talmud is not the Jesus of the Gospels.[16] In addition, the general trend in Judaism over the past two thousand years has been to treat Jesus with increasing sympathy.[17]
Criticism from Islam
A prominent place in the Qur'anic polemic against the Jews is given to the conception of the religion of Abraham. The Qur'an presents Muslims as neither Jews nor Christians but followers of Abraham who was in a physical sense the father of the Jews and the Arabs and lived before the revelation of Torah. In order to show that the religion practiced by the Jews is not the pure religion of Abraham, the Qur'an mentions the incident of worshiping of the calf, argues that Jews do not believe in part of the revelation given to them, and that their taking of usury shows their worldliness and disobedience of God. Furthermore, the Quran claim they attribute to God what he has not revealed. According to the Qur'an, the Jews exalted Ezra as the "son of God." (See the Quranic statements about perceived Jewish exaltation). This however, has no historical basis, is not mentioned in any Jewish text or oral tradition, and is not practiced by modern Jews (nor is there evidence to show that it ever was practiced).22 June The character of Ezra became important in the works of the later Andalusian Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm who explicitly accused Ezra of being a liar and a heretic who falsified and added interpolations into the Biblical text. In his polemic against Judaism, Ibn Hazm provided a polemical list of what he considered "chronological and geographical inaccuracies and contradictions; theological impossibilities (anthropomorphic expressions, stories of fornication and whoredom, and the attributing of sins to prophets), as well as lack of reliable transmission (tawatur) of the text".[18][19]
Kosher slaughter
Kosher slaughter as a practice has attracted widespread criticism from animal welfare groups who claim that the absence of any form of anesthesia or stunning prior to the severance of the animal’s jugular vein entails prolonged and unnecessary pain. The British Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), an independent body which advises the British Government in matters of animal welfare, has demanded that kosher slaughter no longer be exempted under relevant legislation, demanding that animals be subjected to stunning before slaughter. FAWC Chairwoman, Dr Judy MacArthur (herself a farmer and qualified veterinarian) has defended the organisation’s stance, criticising her detractors by claiming that "(kosher slaughter involves) a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous." [20] This claim is contrary to those made by supporters of kosher slaughter, who claim that the extreme blood loss caused in the process results in a rapid loss of consciousness and therefore an absence of pain.[21]
Criticism specific to Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law).[22] It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of lesbians and gay men—all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.[23] (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the "celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."[24])
Violence
Ancient
Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts allegedly endorse or glorify violence, including violence against innocent peoples. The battle of Jericho (Joshua 6:1–27),[25] the story of Amalekites (1 Sam 15:1–6),[26] the story of the Midianites (Numbers 31:1–18),[27] and the Purim festival[28] are cited as sources of violent attitudes that are allegedly endorsed by Judaism and its religious texts.[29] However, modern religious authorities repudiate the sort of warfare described in the Torah, or claim that the events were exaggerated or metaphorical.[citation needed]
Modern
Judaism has been assoicated with violence and terrorism in modern times, including orgianizations and individuals such as Gush Emunim Underground (formed by members of Gush Emunim),[30] Brit HaKanaim, the Jewish Defense League founded in 1969 by Rabbi Meir Kahane,[31] Kach and Kahane Chai,[32] Yaakov Teitel, [33] and Baruch Goldstein, perpetrator of the Cave of the Patriarchs Massacre.[34]
Land ownership conflicts in Middle East
Critics claim that religious Zionism's precepts have led to land ownership conflicts and expulsion of peoples in the Middle East.[35] Specifically, some critics cite the Hebrew Bible's notion of a "Promised Land" (ha-Aretz ha-Muvtachat) - which promises to the Jews the "Land of Israel" (Eretz Israel) - as a factor in the settlement of the Middle East,[36] as described by one analyst: "Zionism aspires to restore the Biblical promised boundaries. It is a new manifestation of the ancient aspiration for the Land of Israel promised in the Bible."[37] Critics also claim that verses from the Hebrew Bible are used to provide justifcation and motivation for confiscation and expulsion, citing specificially Numbers 33:50–55:[38]
Historical accuracy of religious texts
Judaism's historical foundations - particularly some of the narratives of the Torah - are claimed to be historically inaccurate, including the events surrounding the Exodus, the narrative of Noah's Ark, the account of the earth's creation, the tradition that the Torah was written by Moses, and the events surrounding the battle of Jericho.[39] However, some branches of Judaism do not interpret these narratives literally, and many Jews consider those narratives to be metaphorical or allegorical.
Discrimination against non-Jews
Judaism has been criticized because its religious laws contain several provisions that discriminate against non-Jews, such as the rule that there is no need to return lost property belonging to non-Jews, and the asymmetry in compensation rules following ox-goring incidents.[40] Some of Judaism's precepts have been criticized because they could be interpreted to mean that Jews should not violate the Sabbath in order to save non-Jews that are dying.[41] Some critics point to the fact that the Talmud includes the maxim "[non-Jews] are neither to be lifted out of a well nor hauled down into it."[42] Critics also cite the writings of Maimonides (1137-1204), an important Rabbinical commentator, who wrote "as for gentiles [non-Jews], the basic Talmudic principle is that their lives must not be saved, although it is also forbidden to murder them outright."[43]
However, religious authorities point out that those religious dicta must be interpreted within the context that they were created, and that non-Jews in that context were idolaters.[44] In addition, arguments against such discrimination were posited by leading rabbis starting in the middle ages, and the rules are no longer enforced.[45] All rabbinic authorities agree that the Sabbath should be violated to save any human life, including non-Jews.[46][47]
Women
Divorce and agunah
Judaism, particularly the Orthodox formulation, has been criticized because its religious laws can sometimes result in women being trapped in abusive relationships, and for tolerating the status of agunah.[48] Many criticisms focus on the fact that women may be trapped in a marriage, because divorce cannot be granted without the husband's consent, and some husbands refuse to grant the consent.[49] However, the Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism formulations permit women to obtain divorces without the consent of husbands.
Inequality
Judaism has been criticized because some of its religious laws and religious texts are alleged to treat women with a status inferior to men, including exclusion from some rituals and ceremonies,[50] being rabbis or holding certain other positions of authority,[51] which sometimes leads women to feel helpless, powerless, and like outsiders.[52] Some critics blame Judaism and its religious texts for being the source of widespread patriarchal attitudes in the modern world.[53] Author Naomi Gaetz addresses the fact that some feminists blame the Judaism for being the source of many sexist beliefs, and quotes Tikva Frymer-Kensky "Israel was neither the creator of patriarchy, nor the worst perpetrator in the ancient world.…Nevertheless, we make a profound statement when we acknowledge that the Bible is patriarchal. We are brought to the realization that the Bible contains a fundamental moral flaw: it does not treat all humans as equals."[54] Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism generally provide women with privileges comparable to men.[citation needed]
Niddah (menstruation laws)
Judaism has been criticized because the religious rules governing menstruation (generally known as niddah) are claimed to cause some women to view their bodies as damaged, and to cause some women to feel oppressed.[55] Tova Hartman wrote "The rules that govern religious women's bodies are often criticized as oppressive methods of domination".[56] However, one commentator noted that "Rabbinic commentary did not unilaterally focus on the menstruating woman as pariah. For every statement stressing defilement, danger, and impurity, exists a counter-statement emphasizing respect toward women, the holiness of sexual intimacy, and the incidental benefits of sexual regulation and restraint."[57]
Homosexuality
Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts condemn homosexual activity, and because some formulations, such as Orthodox Judaism, prohibit homosexual activity.[58] However, Reform Judaism accepts gay and lesbian members and rabbis. Orthodox Judaism does not exclude homosexuals, but requires that they not engage in homosexual sexual activities.
Brit milah (covenant of circumcision)
Judaism has been criticized for encouraging or requiring brit milah, a circumcision ritual performed on young boys, because the ritual is alleged to be painful, cruel, tantamount to genital mutilation, and without the boy's consent.[59] An anti-circumcision movement is active in some branches of Judaism.[60][61] However, many view circumcision as an important religious ritual, involving only minor pain.
See also
References
- Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE.
- Lustick, Ian (1988). For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. ISBN 0876090366.
- Scult, Mel (1993). Judaism faces the twentieth century: a biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814322808.
- Shmueli, Ephraim (1990). Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373816.
Notes
- ^ Nadler, Steven (2001). Spinoza: a life. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–136, 145–146, 274–281. ISBN 0521002931.
- ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 37. ISBN 0618680004.
- ^ Eliezer Schwied (2007) "Does the Idea of Jewish Election Have Any Meaning after the Holocaust?". In Wrestling with God: Jewish theological responses during and after the Holocaust, Steven T. Katz, Shlomo Biderman (Eds.); Oxford University Press, p 233.
- ^ Gürkan, S. Leyla (2008). The Jews as a Chosen People: Tradition and Transformation. Taylor & Francis. pp. 49–55. ISBN 0415466075.
- ^
- ^ Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. ISBN 0684852659.
- ^ Wistrich, Robert S. Demonizing the other: antisemitism, racism & xenophobia. Taylor & Francis, 1999. p. 6. ISBN 9057024977.
- ^ Wilhoit, Francis M. (1979). The quest for equality in freedom. Transaction Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 0878552405.
- ^ Goodheart, Eugene. Confessions of a secular Jew: a memoir. Transaction Publishers
year= 2004. pp. xv–xvi, 83. ISBN 0765805995.
{{cite book}}
: Missing pipe in:|publisher=
(help); line feed character in|publisher=
at position 23 (help) - ^
"The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism, Columbus, [[Ohio]], 1937".
{{cite web}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^
- Hare, Wayne D. (2005). The Theme of Jewish Persecution of Christians in the Gospel According to St Matthew. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052102045X.
- Judith M. Lieu (1998), "Accusations of Jewish persecution in early Christian sources", in Tolerance and intolerance in early Judaism and Christianity, Graham Stanton, Guy G. Stroumsa (Eds), Cambridge University Press, pp. 279-295.
- ^
- Dosick, Wayne D. (1995). Living Judaism: the complete guide to Jewish belief, tradition, and practice. HarperCollins. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0060621796,.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - Neusner, Jacob (2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. p. 63. ISBN 0226576531.
- Dosick, Wayne D. (1995). Living Judaism: the complete guide to Jewish belief, tradition, and practice. HarperCollins. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0060621796,.
- ^ Boiled in excrement:
- Jewish history and Jewish memory: essays in honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi by Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, UPNE, 1998, page 33.
- The Jew in the medieval book: English antisemitisms, 1350-1500 by Anthony Paul Bale, Cambridge University Press, 2006, page 33.
- Why the Jews Rejected Jesus: The Turning Point in Western History by David Klinghoffer, Random House, Inc., 2006, page 154 (identifies source of criticism as King Louis IX).
- Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer, Princeton University Press, 2007, p 13, 85, 88-89, 90-92, 113, 174.
- From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture by Matthew B. Hoffman, Stanford University Press, 2007, page 4 (specifying Talmud verses: Sanhedrin 107b and Gittin 56b-57a)
- Tolerance and intolerance in early Judaism and Christianity by Graham Stanton, Guy G. Stroumsa, Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 247 (also includes a discussion of the censorship that removed references to Jesus - see footnote #34 on page 256; includes the assertion that "Balaam" is one of the names used instead of Jesus/Yeshua).
- Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians, by Israel Jacob Yuval, University of California Press, 2008, page 132.
- Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence by Robert E. Van Voorst, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, page 110 (also discusses use of name Balaam in lieu of Jesus/Yeshua).
- Church, State, and Jew in the Middle Ages by Robert Chazan,Behrman House, Inc, 1979, page 227-230 (transcript of 1240 Paris disputation).
- A history of the Jews by Paul Johnson, HarperCollins, 1988, page 217 (identifies critic as Nicholas Donin).
- Rabbi Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesillas and his book Ezer ha-emunah, by Yehuda Shamir, BRILL, 1975, page 31-32 (identifies Pope Gregory IX as a critic).
- ^ Seidman, Naomi (2006). Faithful renderings: Jewish-Christian difference and the politics of translation. University of Chicago Press. p. 139. ISBN 0226745066,.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^
- David Berger, 1998, "On the Uses of History in Medieval Jewish Polemic Against Christianity", in Jewish history and Jewish memory Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed.), UPNE, pp. 32-33
- Bale, Anthony Paul (2006). The Jew in the medieval book: English antisemitisms, 1350-1500. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN 0521863546.
- Schäfer, Peter (2007). Jesus in the Talmud. Princeton University Press. pp. 85–92, 98–100. ISBN 0691129266.
- Hoffman, Matthew B. (2007). From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture. Stanford University Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 0804753717.
- ^ David Berger, 1998, "On the Uses of History in Medieval Jewish Polemic Against Christianity", in Jewish history and Jewish memory Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed.), UPNE, p. 33
- ^ Hoffman, Matthew B. (2007). From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804753717.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Uzayr
- ^ Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Tahrif, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ Avi Shafran, "The Conservative Lie", Moment, February 2001.
- ^ Joe Berkofsky, "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals", j., March 5, 2004.
- ^ Laurie Goodstein, Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions, The New York Times, 2006.
- ^ Carl. S. Ehrlich (1999) "Joshua, Judaism, and Genocide", in Jewish Studies at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, Judit Targarona Borrás, Ángel Sáenz-Badillos (Eds). 1999, Brill. p 117-124.
- ^ A. G. Hunter "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination", in Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post biblical vocabularies of violence, Jonneke Bekkenkamp, Yvonne Sherwood (Eds.). 2003, Continuum Internatio Publishing Group, pp 92-108
- ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 245. ISBN 0618680004.
- ^ Horowitz, Elliott S. (2006). Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3, 107–146, 187–212, 213–247. ISBN 0691124914.
- ^
- Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 081563109X.
- Lustick, Ian (1988). For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. pp. 131–132. ISBN 0876090366.
- Armstrong, Karen (2007). The Bible: a biography. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 211–216. ISBN 0871139693.
- ^ Lustick For The Land and The Lord: The Evolution of Gush Emunim, by Ian S. Lustick
- ^
- Anti-Defamation League on JDL<
- Bohn, Michael K. (2004). The Achille Lauro Hijacking: Lessons in the Politics and Prejudice of Terrorism. Brassey's Inc. p. 67. ISBN 1574887793.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation - Congressional Testimony
- ^
- U.S. Dept. of State, Country Reports on Terrorism 2004. April 2005
- U.S. Appeals Court Affirms Designation of Kahane Chai, Kach as Terrorist Groups Washington Report on Middle East Affairs
- Kach, Kahane Chai (Israel, extremists) Council for Foreign Relations, 20 March 2008
- ^
- http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1125254.html U.S.-born Jewish terrorist suspected of series of attacks over past 12 years. By Amos Harel and Chaim Levinson. Accessed: 3 November 2009. *http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1256799061280&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Jewish terrorist arrested for alleged series of hate crimes. By YAAKOV KATZ. Accessed: 3 November 2009.
- ^
- Horowitz, Elliott S. (2006). Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence. Princeton University Press. p. 6-11. ISBN 0691124914.
- ""The Making of a Murderous Fanatic", Time magazine, March 7, 1994".
- Rayner, John D. (1997). An understanding of Judaism. p. 57. ISBN 1571819711.
- ^
- Hirst, David (2003). The gun and the olive branch: the roots of violence in the Middle East By. Nation Books. p. 418-419. ISBN 1560254831.
- Chomsky, Noam (1996). World orders, old and new. Columbia University Press. p. 264:. ISBN 0231101570,.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - "FrontPage magazine interview with Christopher Hitchens". December 11, 2003.
- Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. p. 93. ISBN 0745316158.
- "Essay by James M. Martin from "Atheist Nexus"".
- Quigley, John B. (1990). Palestine and Israel: a challenge to justice. Duke University Press. p. 176-177. ISBN 0822310236.
- Chomsky, Noam (1999). Fateful triangle: the United States, Israel, and the Palestinians (2nd Ed, revised). South End Press. p. 153-154. ISBN 0896086011.
- Saleh Abdel Jawad (2007) "Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War" in Israel and the Palestinian refugees, Eyal Benvenistî, Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi (Eds.), Springer, p. 78.
- Yishai, Yael (1987). Land or peace: whither Israel?. Hoover Press. p. 112-125. ISBN 0817985212.
- Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: in search of a just peace. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 1588262251.
- Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 081563109X.
- Geaves, Ron (2004). Islam and the West post 9/11. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 31. ISBN 0754650057.
- ^ Masalha, Nur (2007). The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel. Zed Books. p. 194. ISBN 1842777610.
- ^ Harkabi, Yehoshafat (1974). Arab attitudes to Israel. John Wiley and Sons. p. 75. ISBN 0470352035.
- ^
- Kassim, Anis F. (2000). The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1998-1999, Volume 10. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 9041113045.
- Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. p. 251-252. ISBN 0745316158. citing the book by Raphael Israeli, Palestinians Between Israel and Jordan', Prager, 1991, pages 158-159, 171, 182.
- ^
- Schimmel, Solomon (2008). The tenacity of unreasonable beliefs: fundamentalism and the fear of truth. Oxford University Press US. p. 39,56,61,240. ISBN 0195188268.
- Mendes-Flohr, Paul (2009). 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought. Jewish Publication Society. p. 681. ISBN 0827608926,.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - John Van Seters (2004) "Historicity of Moses", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. pp 194-207.
- Thomas M. Bolin (2004) "Warfare and the Hebrew Bible", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. p. 45.
- David Novak (1993) "The Election of Israel: Outline of a Philosphical analysis", in A People apart: chosenness and ritual in Jewish philosophical thought Daniel H. Frank (Ed.) SUNY Press, 1993; p. 22
- ^
- Fraade, Steven D. (1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity",. NYU Press. pp. 145–165. ISBN 0814779905.
- David Novak (1979) "Noahide Law: A Foundation for Jewish Philosophy (Elimination of the double standard)" in Tradition in the public square: a David Novak reader, (2008) Randi Rashkover (Ed.). p. 132-136, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
- Shmueli, Ephraim (1990). Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521373816.
- ^ Efraim Shmueli, "Seven Jewish Cultures". Cambridge University Press, 1980. p. 123, 261
- ^ Babylonian Talmud, in Tractate Avodah Zarah 26b, as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228. See also Avodah Zarah 26a.
- ^ Maimonides, in his "Mishneh Torah", as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228
- ^ Tomson, Peter J. (1990). Paul and the Jewish law: halakha in the Letters of the Apostle to the Gentiles. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. pp. 151–163. ISBN 9023224906.
- ^ Schwarz, Sidney (2008). Judaism and Justice: The Jewish Passion to Repair the World. Jewish Lights Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 1580233538.
- ^ 8 saved during "Shabbat from hell" (January 17, 2010) in Israel 21c Innovation News Service Retrieved 2010–01–18
- ^ ZAKA rescuemission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat' Religious rescue team holds Shabbat prayer with members of international missions in Port au-Prince. Retrieved 2010–01–22
- ^ Goldschneider, Calvin (2002). Israel's changing society: population, ethnicity, and development. Westview Press. p. 179.
- ^ Plaskow, Judith (2005). The coming of Lilith. Beacon Press. pp. 147–148.
- The author writes "The existence of agunah is a crime against women, a disgrace to the Jewish community, and a violation of human rights that demands immediate remedy. It is also a symptom of the systemic exclusion of women from power and authority in traditional Judaism. .. women's powerlessness is further magnified by a larger religious system that is also entirely under male control.... In cases where a woman's husband refuses her a 'get', she can find herself in a nightmare realm, bargaining away her means of survival and occasionally even custody of her children. .. the persistent exploitation of the inequalities of Jewish divorce law is also a more deliberate attempt to curtail women's power in a time of social change... elements within the Orthodox community are using the fundamental inequity of Jewish law to ensure women's powerlessness and to reinforce the status quo."
- ^ Haviva Ner-David (2009) "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future,p 313. Jewish Lights Publishing.
- ^
- ^
- Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE.
- Haviva Ner-David (2009). "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future, pp 312-333. Jewish Lights Publishing.
- Katharina von Kellenbach (2001). "Overcoming the teaching of contempt". In Athalya Brenner (Ed.), A feminist companion to reading the Bible: approaches, methods and strategies, pp 190-202. Taylor & Francis.
- ^ Vidal, Gore (2009). Selected Essays of Gore Vidal. Random House, Inc. p. 410. ISBN 0307388689.
- ^ Graetz, Naomi (2005). Unlocking the garden: a feminist Jewish look at the Bible, midrash and God. Gorgias Press. p. 15. ISBN 1593330588.
- Quoting from Frymer-Kensky, Tikva (2006). Studies in Bible and feminist criticism. Jewish Publication Society. p. 161.
- ^
- Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, pp.201-222. UPNE. This chapter documents research by Jewish scientists in the early 20th century who tried to prove that menstruating women harmed people and objects they came in contact with.
- Kaye, Evelyn (1987). The hole in the sheet: a modern woman looks at Orthodox and Hasidic Judaism. L. Stuart. p. 147.
- This book quotes Rabbi Laura Geller: "Menstrual taboos are responsible for real damage to Jewish women's views of themselves and their bodies. I have met many women who learned nothing about the Torah except that they could not touch the Torah because they menstruate. . . . Their sense of themselves as 'inferior' Jews has already permeated their relationship to tradition and their own bodies."
- ^ Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE. p. 84.
- ^ Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, p. 204. UPNE.
- ^
- Greenberg, Steven (2005). Wrestling with God and men: homosexuality in the Jewish tradition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 3–40. ISBN 0299190943.
- Raphael, Marc Lee (2005). Judaism in America. Columbia University Press. pp. 121–123.
{{cite book}}
: Text "isbn 0231120613" ignored (help) - Denise L. Eger (2001), "Embracing Lesbians and Gay Men", in Contemporary debates in American reform Judaism: conflicting visions, Dana Evan Kaplan (Ed.), Routledge, p. 180-192
- ^
- Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why aren't Jewish women circumcised?: gender and covenant in Judaism. University of California Press. pp. 207–224. ISBN 0520212509.
- Glick, Leonard B. (2005). Marked in your flesh: circumcision from ancient Judea to modern America. Oxford University Press. pp. 115–148. ISBN 019517674X.
- Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003). The covenant of circumcision: new perspectives on an ancient Jewish rite. UPNE. pp. 157–160. ISBN 1584653078.
- See also Tabory and Erez, "Circumscribed Circumcision", pages 161-167, in this book.
- Silverman, Eric Kline (2006). From Abraham to America: a history of Jewish circumcision. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 177–212. ISBN 0742516695.
- ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). "Jewish "intactivists" in U.S. stop circumcising". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
- ^ Goldman, PhD, Ron (2006). "Providers of Brit Shalom". Jews Against Circumcision. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
External links
- Hofesh organization - The largest Jewish secular web site.