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== Production == |
== Production == |
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Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. |
Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. Dry processing requires the meat to to be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight or [[kiln]]s to create [[copra]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Grimwood | first = BE | coauthors = Ashman F; Dendy DAV; Jarman CG; Little ECS; Timmins WH | year = 1975 | title = Coconut Palm Products – Their processing in developing countries | location = Rome | publishers = FAO | pages = [http://books.google.ca/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49–56] | isbn = 9789251008539 }}</ref> The copra is pressed or dissolved with [[solvent]]s, producing the coconut oil and a high [[protein]], high [[dietary fiber|fiber]] mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to [[ruminant]]s; there is no process to extract the protein from the mash. The preparation and storage of copra often occurs in unhygienic conditions which results in a poor quality oil that requires refining before consumption. A considerable portion of the oil extracted from copra is lost due to spoilage, consumption by insects and rodents, and during the extraction process. All "wet" process involves raw coconut rather than dried copra, using the protein in the coconut to create an [[emulsion]] of the oil and water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. Originally this was done through lengthy boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical; modern techniques uses [[centrifuge]]s and various pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, [[enzyme]]s, [[electrolysis]], shock waves, or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10-15% lower yield, even compared to the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also requires an expensive investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.<ref>Grimwood et al., 1975, p. [http://books.google.ca/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA193#v=onepage&q&f=false 193-210].</ref> |
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Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil making process and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extracted product. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.<ref>Grimwood et al., 1975, p. [http://books.google.ca/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false 29].</ref> Conventional coconut oil uses [[hexane]] to extract up to 10% more oil than just using [[mill (grinding)|rotary mills]] and [[expeller pressing|expellers]]. The oil is then refined to remove certain [[Fatty acid#Free fatty acids|free fatty acids]], in order to reduce susceptibility [[rancidification]]. Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to {{convert|130|-|150|C|F}} and adding [[salt]] or [[citric acid]].<ref name = Kurian>{{cite book | isbn = 8189422529 | title = Commercial Crops Technology: Vol.08. Horticulture Science Series | last = Kurian | first = | coauthors = Peter KV | publisher = New India Publishing | year = 2007 | pages = [http://books.google.com/books?id=2VFYqwA-Mn4C&pg=PA202#v=onepage&q&f=false 202-6] }}</ref> Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut meat, milk or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves removing the shell and washing, then either wet-milling or drying the residue and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10-12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from [[coconut milk]] involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36-48 hours, the oil removed and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.<ref name = Kurian/> |
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Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil making process and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extracted product. Any coconut oil made from a non-copra style of extraction can be called virgin organic coconut oil but only the centrifuge process can make raw oil. When done properly it doesn't need to be heated or fermented to remove moisture.<ref>{{cite book | isbn = 0870550926 | last = Woodruff | first = JG | title = Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products: Major feed and food crops in agriculture and food series | publisher = AVI Publishing Company | year = 1970 }}</ref> Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.<ref>Grimwood et al., 1975, p. [http://books.google.ca/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false 29].</ref> |
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A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately {{convert|8640|kg|lb}} yields around {{convert|170|kg|lb}} of copra from which around {{convert|70|l|impgal}} of coconut oil can be extracted.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bourke | first = RM | coauthors = Harwood T | year = 2009 | title = Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea | publisher = [[Australian National University]]| pages = [http://books.google.com/books?id=p92MsquxOEwC&pg=PA327#v=onepage&q&f=false 327n2] | isbn = 9781921536601}}</ref> |
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===RBD=== |
===RBD=== |
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==== Fractionation ==== |
==== Fractionation ==== |
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Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12 carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets. |
Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12 carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets. |
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The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | title = Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date = 2009-12-22 | accessdate = 2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[World Health Organization]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241546727.pdf | format = pdf |publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=2011-04-06 }}</ref> [[International College of Nutrition]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002 |journal=J Cardiovasc Risk |date=1996 Dec|volume=3|issue=6|pages=489–94 |title=Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition |author=Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM |pmid=9100083}}</ref> the United States [[Department of Health and Human Services]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|publisher=Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=17 March 2011}}</ref> [[American Dietetic Association]],<ref name=ADA>{{cite web |title=American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat |url=http://www.eatright.org/Media/content.aspx?id=1590&terms=coconut+oil |publisher= [[American Dietetic Association]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[American Heart Association]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Oils |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Tropical-Oils_UCM_306031_Article.jsp |publisher=[[American Heart Association]] | accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> British [[National Health Service]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Lower your cholesterol |url=http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/healthyhearts/pages/cholesterol.aspx|publisher=[[National Health Service]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> and [[Dietitians of Canada]]<ref name=ADA/> recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. |
The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fda.gov/Food/LabelingNutrition/ConsumerInformation/ucm192658.htm | title = Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat | publisher = [[Food and Drug Administration]] | date = 2009-12-22 | accessdate = 2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[World Health Organization]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241546727.pdf | format = pdf |publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=2011-04-06 }}</ref> [[International College of Nutrition]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002 |journal=J Cardiovasc Risk |date=1996 Dec|volume=3|issue=6|pages=489–94 |title=Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition |author=Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM |pmid=9100083}}</ref> the United States [[Department of Health and Human Services]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|publisher=Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=17 March 2011}}</ref> [[American Dietetic Association]],<ref name=ADA>{{cite web |title=American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat |url=http://www.eatright.org/Media/content.aspx?id=1590&terms=coconut+oil |publisher= [[American Dietetic Association]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> [[American Heart Association]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Oils |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/FatsAndOils/Fats101/Tropical-Oils_UCM_306031_Article.jsp |publisher=[[American Heart Association]] | accessdate=2011-03-16}}</ref> British [[National Health Service]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Lower your cholesterol |url=http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/healthyhearts/pages/cholesterol.aspx|publisher=[[National Health Service]] |accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref> and [[Dietitians of Canada]]<ref name=ADA/> recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. |
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Coconut oil contains a large proportion of [[lauric acid]], a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of [[high-density lipoprotein]] cholesterol<ref name=Mensink /> that is also found in significant amounts in [[breast milk]] and [[sebaceous gland]] secretions.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS |title=Coconut fats |journal=Ceylon Med J |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=47–51 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=17180807 |doi= |url=}}</ref> This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.<ref name=Mensink>{{cite journal |author=Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB |title=Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1146–55 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12716665 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full.pdf+html | format = pdf}}</ref> Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated vegetable oil]] when solid fats are required.<ref name=Tarrago>{{cite journal |last1=Tarrago-Trani |first1=MT |last2=Phillips |first2=KM |last3=Lemar |first3=LE |last4=Holden |first4=JM |title=New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content. |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=867–80 |year=2006 |pmid=16720128 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010 | url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Articles/JADA106_867-880.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref> In addition virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of [[medium-chain triglycerides]],<ref>{{cite pmid | 3519928 }}</ref> which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.<ref name=Tarrago/><ref name=Marina>{{cite journal | last = Marina | first = AM | coauthors = Che Man YB; Amin I | year = 2009 | title = Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume = 20 | issue = 10 | pages = 481–487 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003}}</ref> Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated]] coconut oil, which creates [[trans fat]]s, and not virgin coconut oil which has a different health risk profile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kintanar |first=QL |year=1988 |title=Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature | journal = Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology ([[Philippines]])|volume=10 |pages=371–414 }}</ref> |
Coconut oil contains a large proportion of [[lauric acid]], a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of [[high-density lipoprotein]] cholesterol<ref name=Mensink /> that is also found in significant amounts in [[breast milk]] and [[sebaceous gland]] secretions.<ref name = Amarasiri>{{cite journal |author=Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS |title=Coconut fats |journal=Ceylon Med J |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=47–51 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=17180807 |doi= |url=}}</ref> This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.<ref name=Mensink>{{cite journal |author=Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB |title=Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1146–55 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12716665 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/content/77/5/1146.full.pdf+html | format = pdf}}</ref> Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated vegetable oil]] when solid fats are required.<ref name=Tarrago>{{cite journal |last1=Tarrago-Trani |first1=MT |last2=Phillips |first2=KM |last3=Lemar |first3=LE |last4=Holden |first4=JM |title=New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content. |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=867–80 |year=2006 |pmid=16720128 |doi=10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010 | url = http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Articles/JADA106_867-880.pdf | format = pdf}}</ref> In addition virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of [[medium-chain triglycerides]],<ref>{{cite pmid | 3519928 }}</ref> which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.<ref name=Tarrago/><ref name=Marina>{{cite journal | last = Marina | first = AM | coauthors = Che Man YB; Amin I | year = 2009 | title = Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil | journal = Trends in Food Science & Technology | volume = 20 | issue = 10 | pages = 481–487 | doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003}}</ref> Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used [[hydrogenation|partially hydrogenated]] coconut oil, which creates [[trans fat]]s, and not virgin coconut oil which has a different health risk profile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kintanar |first=QL |year=1988 |title=Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature | journal = Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology ([[Philippines]])|volume=10 |pages=371–414 }}</ref> |
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A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent [[tungiasis]]-causing sand fleas from invading the body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feldmeier |first1=H |title=Tungiasis and cutaneous larva migrans: unpleasant travel souvenirs. |journal=Medizinische Monatsschrift fur Pharmazeuten |volume=32 |issue=12 |pages=440–4 |year=2009 |pmid=20088345 }}</ref> |
A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent [[tungiasis]]-causing sand fleas from invading the body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feldmeier |first1=H |title=Tungiasis and cutaneous larva migrans: unpleasant travel souvenirs. |journal=Medizinische Monatsschrift fur Pharmazeuten |volume=32 |issue=12 |pages=440–4 |year=2009 |pmid=20088345 }}</ref> |
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==Uses== |
==Uses== |
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===In food=== |
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{{Nutritional value |
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| name = Coconut oil |
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| caption =Fractionated coconut oil |
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| serving_size =100g |
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| kJ = 3607 |
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| fat = 100 |
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| satfat = 86.5 |
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| monofat = 5.8 |
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| polyfat = 1.8 |
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| vitE_mg = 0.09 |
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| vitK_ug = 0.5 |
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| iron_mg = 0.04 |
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| source_usda = 1}} |
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Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying and is a common flavor in many South Asian curries. In recent years virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It was described in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article as having a "haunting, nutty, vanilla flavor" that also has a touch of sweetness that works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news | last = Clark | first = M | date = 2011-03-01 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/02/dining/02Appe.html | title = Once a Villain, Coconut Oil Charms the Health Food World | work = [[The New York Times]] | accessdate = 2011-03-02 }}</ref> Coconut oil is used by movie theatre chains to pop [[popcorn]], adding a large amount of [[saturated fat]] in the process.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cspinet.org/new/200911182.html | title = Two Thumbs Down’ for Movie Theater Popcorn | date = 2009-11-18 | accessdate = 2011-04-24 | publisher = [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] }}</ref> Coconut oil contains a large proportion of [[lauric acid]], which is converted to [[Glyceryl laurate|monolaurin]] in the body, a fat found otherwise only in [[human breast milk]].<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Belle Monappa Hegde | last =Hegde | first = BM | year = 2006 | url = http://medind.nic.in/jac/t06/i1/jact06i1p16.pdf | title = View Point: Coconut Oil – Ideal Fat next only to Mother's Milk (Scanning Coconut's Horoscope) | journal = JIACM | volume = 7 | pages = 16-19|format = pdf}}</ref> It is also often used in [[infant formula]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Pillitteri, Adele |title=Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2009 |pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=apeLf0mPx1QC&pg=PA1681#v=onepage&q&f=false 1680-1] |isbn=1-58255-999-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through [[hydrogenation]] in baked and [[confectionery]] goods.<ref name = Tarrago/> |
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⚫ | [[Hydrogenated]] or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in [[non-dairy creamer]]s, and snack foods including popcorn. Hydrogenated coconut oil is also sold in Australia under the brand-name [[Copha]] and is the main ingredient in Australian snacks such as [[Chocolate crackles]] and White Christmas. |
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===Culinary arts=== |
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Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying. In communities where coconut oil is widely used in cooking, the unrefined oil is frequently the one most commonly used. |
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⚫ | The [[smoke point]] of coconut oil is {{convert|138|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite book | last = Saxon | first = F | title = Tolley's Industrial and Commercial Gas Installation Practice | pages = [http://books.google.com/books?id=rWbCh5B8c1AC&pg=PA286#v=onepage&q&f=false 286] | publisher = Newnes | isbn = 0750669470 | year = 2006 }}</ref> |
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In recent years virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It has been described as having a "haunting, nutty, vanilla flavor" that also has a touch of sweetness that works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.<ref name=NYT>Clark, Melissa. (March 1, 2011). [http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/02/dining/02Appe.html Once a Villain, Coconut Oil Charms the Health Food World]. ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved March 2, 2011.</ref> Coconut oil is commonly used to flavor many South Asian curries. |
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The caloric content of coconut oil is very nearly the same as that of other dietary fats, being reduced only slightly by the presence of medium chain triglycerides which constitute less than half of the total fat content. A value of 8.3 kcal/g has been quoted for dietary medium-chain triglycerides.<ref>Bach, André C. and Vigen K Babayan. (November 1982). [http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/36/5/950.pdf Medium-chain triglycerides: an update]. ''The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'' '''36''': 950–962.</ref> |
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⚫ | [[Hydrogenated]] or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in [[non-dairy creamer]]s, and snack foods including popcorn. |
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===Industry=== |
===Industry=== |
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====Engine feedstock==== |
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{{See also|Vegetable oil used as fuel}} |
{{See also|Vegetable oil used as fuel}} |
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Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for [[biodiesel]] to be used as a [[diesel engine]] fuel. In this manner it can be applied to power [[generators]] and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of {{convert|500|C}} (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is only possible in temperate climates as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil needs to meet the Weihenstephan standard<ref>[http://vegburner.co.uk/oils.htm Weihenstephan vegetable oil fuel standard (German Rapeseed Fuel Standard)]</ref> for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel otherwise moderate to severe damage from [[carbonisation]] and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine. |
Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for [[biodiesel]] to be used as a [[diesel engine]] fuel. In this manner it can be applied to power [[generators]] and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of {{convert|500|C}} (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is only possible in temperate climates as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil needs to meet the Weihenstephan standard<ref>[http://vegburner.co.uk/oils.htm Weihenstephan vegetable oil fuel standard (German Rapeseed Fuel Standard)]</ref> for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel otherwise moderate to severe damage from [[carbonisation]] and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine. |
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The [[Philippines]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Samoa]], and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.<ref>[http://www.onecountry.org/e151/e15101as_Deamer_profile.htm In Vanuatu, A Proving Ground for Coconut Oil As An Alternative Fuel]</ref> Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.<ref>[http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/7280 Coconut fuel - PRI's The World]</ref> Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific.<ref>[http://www.sopac.org/tiki/tiki-download_file.php?fileId=150 Coconut Oil for Power Generation by EPC in Samoa - Jan Cloin]</ref><ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Coconut oil powers island's cars |date=2007-05-08 | publisher= | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6634221.stm | work =BBC | pages = | accessdate = | language = }}</ref> |
The [[Philippines]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Samoa]], and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.<ref>[http://www.onecountry.org/e151/e15101as_Deamer_profile.htm In Vanuatu, A Proving Ground for Coconut Oil As An Alternative Fuel]</ref> Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.<ref>[http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/7280 Coconut fuel - PRI's The World]</ref> Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific.<ref>[http://www.sopac.org/tiki/tiki-download_file.php?fileId=150 Coconut Oil for Power Generation by EPC in Samoa - Jan Cloin]</ref><ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Coconut oil powers island's cars |date=2007-05-08 | publisher= | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6634221.stm | work =BBC | pages = | accessdate = | language = }}</ref> |
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In the 1990s [[Bougainville Province|Bougainville]] conflict, islanders cut off from supplies due to a blockade used it to fuel their vehicles.<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1192286025577999101 The Coconut Revolution]: a documentary film</ref> |
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====Engine lubricant==== |
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⚫ | Coconut oil has been tested for use as an [[Motor oil|engine lubricant]] |
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⚫ | Coconut oil has been tested for use as an [[Motor oil|engine lubricant]]<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/dav/2008/01/17/bus/davao.based.firm.sees.expansion.of.bio.tech.oil.market.html | title = Davao-based firm sees expansion of bio-tech oil market | date = 2008-01-17 | accessdate = 2008-07-14 | last = Romares-Sevilla | first = J | publisher = [[Sun.Star Superbalita Davao]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080121082827/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/dav/2008/01/17/bus/davao.based.firm.sees.expansion.of.bio.tech.oil.market.html |archivedate = 2008-01-21}}</ref> and a [[transformer oil]].<ref>{{citation | last = Abeysundar | last = DC | coauthors = Weerakoon C; Lucas JR; Gunatunga KAI; Obadagee KC | title = Coconut Oil As An Alternative To Transformer Oil | url = http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/Coconut_oil_eru_2001.pdf | format = pdf | year = 2001 | publisher = ERU Symposium }}</ref> |
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====Transformer oil==== |
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Transformer oil acts as an insulating and cooling medium in transformers. The insulating oil fills up pores in fibrous insulation and also the gaps between the coil conductors and the spacing between the siding and the tank, and thus increases the dielectric strength of the insulation. A transformer in operation generates heat in the winding, and that heat is transferred to the oil via conduction. Heated oil then flows to the radiators by [[convection]]. Oil supplied from the radiators, being cooler, cools the winding. There are several important properties such as dielectric strength, flash point, viscosity, specific gravity and pour point and all of them have to be considered when qualifying an oil for use in transformers. Normally [[mineral oil]] is used, but coconut oil has been shown to possess all the properties needed to function as an environmentally friendly and economic replacement to mineral oil for this purpose.<ref>[http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/Coconut_oil_eru_2001.pdf Coconut Oil As An Alternative To Transformer Oil]</ref> |
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Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as [[herbicide]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Efficacy of several organic herbicides and glyphosate formulations under simulated rainfall | format = pdf | url = http://www.nzpps.org/journal/58/nzpp_581570.pdf | last = James | first = TK | coauthors = Rahman A | year = 2005 | journal = New Zealand Plant Protection | volume = 58 | pages = 157-163 }}</ref> |
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====Herbicide==== |
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Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as [[herbicide]]s, for a more environmentally friendly way of combating weeds. It is also considered unproblematic for people who have sensitivity to synthetic herbicides.<ref>[http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/council/services/footpaths/weeds.asp Roads and footpaths - weed control] (from the [[Auckland City Council]] website. Accessed 2010-01-21.)</ref> |
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===Personal uses=== |
===Personal uses=== |
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⚫ | |||
====Cosmetics and skin treatments==== |
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Coconut oil |
Coconut oil can be used as a skin [[moisturizer]], helping with [[Xerosis cutis|dry skin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Agero AL, Verallo-Rowell VM |title=A randomized double-blind controlled trial comparing extra virgin coconut oil with mineral oil as a moisturizer for mild to moderate xerosis |journal=Dermatitis |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=109–16 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15724344 }}</ref> and reduces protein loss when used in hair.<ref>{{cite pmid | 12715094 }}</ref> |
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Though it can be used as a [[sexual lubricant]], it will weaken latex [[condoms]].<ref>{{ cite book | isbn = 0729538710 | title = Women's Health in General Practice | publisher = [[Elsevier]] Australia | year = 2010 | last = Mazza | first = D | pages = [http://books.google.ca/books?id=ySKrdeR18g4C&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false 69] }}</ref> |
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====Sexual lubrication==== |
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There are widespread reports of the use of coconut oil as a [[sexual lubricant]].<ref>[http://www.peoplespharmacy.com/2008/06/09/coconut-oil-for-2/ Coconut Oil For Personal Lubrication]</ref> Like other oil-based intimate lubricants, coconut oil should not be used with latex [[condoms]]. |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
Revision as of 21:16, 24 April 2011
Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconut harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat stable so is suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures like frying. Because of its stability it is slow to oxidize and thus resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content.[1] Numerous governmental agencies and medical organizations recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to the high saturated fat content.
Production
Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. Dry processing requires the meat to to be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight or kilns to create copra.[2] The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high protein, high fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract the protein from the mash. The preparation and storage of copra often occurs in unhygienic conditions which results in a poor quality oil that requires refining before consumption. A considerable portion of the oil extracted from copra is lost due to spoilage, consumption by insects and rodents, and during the extraction process. All "wet" process involves raw coconut rather than dried copra, using the protein in the coconut to create an emulsion of the oil and water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. Originally this was done through lengthy boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical; modern techniques uses centrifuges and various pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10-15% lower yield, even compared to the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also requires an expensive investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.[3]
Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil making process and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extracted product. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.[4] Conventional coconut oil uses hexane to extract up to 10% more oil than just using rotary mills and expellers. The oil is then refined to remove certain free fatty acids, in order to reduce susceptibility rancidification. Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to 130–150 °C (266–302 °F) and adding salt or citric acid.[5] Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut meat, milk or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves removing the shell and washing, then either wet-milling or drying the residue and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10-12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36-48 hours, the oil removed and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.[5]
A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 8,640 kilograms (19,050 lb) yields around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.[6]
RBD
RBD stands for "refined, bleached, and deodorized." RBD oil is usually made from copra (dried coconut kernel).
The dried copra is placed in a powerful hydraulic press with added heat and the oil is extracted. This yields up practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut.[7]
This "crude" coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.
Another method for extraction of a "high quality" coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases and proteases on diluted coconut paste.[8]
Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.
Hydrogenation
RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 76 °F (24 °C), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 97–104 °F (36–40 °C).
In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In this process some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.
Fractionation
Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12 carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets.
Figures
The United States Department of Agriculture has published historical production figures for coconut oil for years beginning October 1 and ending September 30. Coconut oil makes up around 2.5% of world vegetable oil production. Over the last few years coconut oil production is estimated to have been as follows:[9]
World Coconut Oil Production - Year | 2005–06 | 2006–07 | 2007–08 | 2008–09 | 2009–10 | 2010–11 |
Production, Million Metric Tons | 5.91 | 5.42 | 5.79 | 5.62 | 6.60 | 6.24 |
Standards
The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 17 members produce about 90% of the coconut sold commercially,[10] has published its Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil.[11] The Philippines has established a Department of Science and Technology (DOST) governmental standard.[12]
Health
The United States Food and Drug Administration,[13] World Health Organization,[14] International College of Nutrition,[15] the United States Department of Health and Human Services,[16] American Dietetic Association,[17] American Heart Association,[18] British National Health Service,[19] and Dietitians of Canada[17] recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat.
Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol[20] that is also found in significant amounts in breast milk and sebaceous gland secretions.[21] This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.[20] Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to partially hydrogenated vegetable oil when solid fats are required.[22] In addition virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of medium-chain triglycerides,[23] which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.[22][24] Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used partially hydrogenated coconut oil, which creates trans fats, and not virgin coconut oil which has a different health risk profile.[25]
A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent tungiasis-causing sand fleas from invading the body.[26]
Uses
In food
Nutritional value per 100g | |
---|---|
Energy | 3,607 kJ (862 kcal) |
100 | |
Saturated | 86.5 |
Monounsaturated | 5.8 |
Polyunsaturated | 1.8 |
Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
Vitamin E | 1% 0.09 mg |
Vitamin K | 0% 0.5 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Iron | 0% 0.04 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[27] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[28] |
Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying and is a common flavor in many South Asian curries. In recent years virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It was described in a New York Times article as having a "haunting, nutty, vanilla flavor" that also has a touch of sweetness that works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.[29] Coconut oil is used by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn, adding a large amount of saturated fat in the process.[30] Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, which is converted to monolaurin in the body, a fat found otherwise only in human breast milk.[31] It is also often used in infant formula.[32] Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods.[22]
Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers, and snack foods including popcorn. Hydrogenated coconut oil is also sold in Australia under the brand-name Copha and is the main ingredient in Australian snacks such as Chocolate crackles and White Christmas.
The smoke point of coconut oil is 138 °C (280 °F).[33]
Industry
Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to be used as a diesel engine fuel. In this manner it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is only possible in temperate climates as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil needs to meet the Weihenstephan standard[34] for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel otherwise moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine.
The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.[35] Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.[36] Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific.[37][38]
Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant[39] and a transformer oil.[40]
Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides.[41]
Personal uses
Coconut oil can be used as a skin moisturizer, helping with dry skin[42] and reduces protein loss when used in hair.[43]
Though it can be used as a sexual lubricant, it will weaken latex condoms.[44]
See also
References
- ^ Fife, Bruce (2005). Coconut Cures. Piccadilly Books, Ltd. pp. 184–185. ISBN 978-0-941599-60-3.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Grimwood, BE (1975). Coconut Palm Products – Their processing in developing countries. Rome. pp. 49–56. ISBN 9789251008539.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|publishers=
ignored (|publisher=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Grimwood et al., 1975, p. 193-210.
- ^ Grimwood et al., 1975, p. 29.
- ^ a b Kurian (2007). Commercial Crops Technology: Vol.08. Horticulture Science Series. New India Publishing. pp. 202-6. ISBN 8189422529.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Bourke, RM (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. Australian National University. pp. 327n2. ISBN 9781921536601.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Foale, M. (2003). "The Coconut Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities of the Tree of Life" (pdf). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 115–116.
- ^ McGlone OC, Canales A, Carter JV (1986). "Coconut oil extraction by a new enzymatic process". J Food Sci. 51: 695–7. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13914.x.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Table 19: World: Palm Oil, Coconut Oil, and Fish Meal Supply and Distribution" (pdf). United States Department of Agriculture. 2011-04-08. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
- ^ Asian and Pacific Coconut Community
- ^ APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, Jakarta, Indonesia
- ^ Joint Statement on Philippine National Standard for Virgin Coconut Oil as food
- ^ "Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat". Food and Drug Administration. 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes" (pdf). World Health Organization. Retrieved 2011-04-06.
- ^ Singh RB, Mori H, Chen J, Mendis S, Moshiri M, Zhu S, Kim SH, Sy RG, Faruqui AM (1996 Dec). "Recommendations for the prevention of coronary artery disease in Asians: a scientific statement of the International College of Nutrition". J Cardiovasc Risk. 3 (6): 489–94. doi:10.1097/00043798-199612000-00002. PMID 9100083.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" (PDF). Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ a b "American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Tropical Oils". American Heart Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Lower your cholesterol". National Health Service. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ a b Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB (2003). "Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials" (pdf). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77 (5): 1146–55. PMID 12716665.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Amarasiri WA, Dissanayake AS (2006). "Coconut fats". Ceylon Med J. 51 (2): 47–51. PMID 17180807.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b c Tarrago-Trani, MT; Phillips, KM; Lemar, LE; Holden, JM (2006). "New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content" (pdf). Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 106 (6): 867–80. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010. PMID 16720128.
- ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 3519928 , please use {{cite journal}} with
|pmid= 3519928
instead. - ^ Marina, AM (2009). "Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 20 (10): 481–487. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Kintanar, QL (1988). "Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature". Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology (Philippines). 10: 371–414.
- ^ Feldmeier, H (2009). "Tungiasis and cutaneous larva migrans: unpleasant travel souvenirs". Medizinische Monatsschrift fur Pharmazeuten. 32 (12): 440–4. PMID 20088345.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
- ^ Clark, M (2011-03-01). "Once a Villain, Coconut Oil Charms the Health Food World". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
- ^ "Two Thumbs Down' for Movie Theater Popcorn". Center for Science in the Public Interest. 2009-11-18. Retrieved 2011-04-24.
- ^ Hegde, BM (2006). "View Point: Coconut Oil – Ideal Fat next only to Mother's Milk (Scanning Coconut's Horoscope)" (pdf). JIACM. 7: 16–19.
- ^ Pillitteri, Adele (2009). Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1680-1. ISBN 1-58255-999-6.
- ^ Saxon, F (2006). Tolley's Industrial and Commercial Gas Installation Practice. Newnes. pp. 286. ISBN 0750669470.
- ^ Weihenstephan vegetable oil fuel standard (German Rapeseed Fuel Standard)
- ^ In Vanuatu, A Proving Ground for Coconut Oil As An Alternative Fuel
- ^ Coconut fuel - PRI's The World
- ^ Coconut Oil for Power Generation by EPC in Samoa - Jan Cloin
- ^ "Coconut oil powers island's cars". BBC. 2007-05-08.
{{cite news}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Romares-Sevilla, J (2008-01-17). "Davao-based firm sees expansion of bio-tech oil market". Sun.Star Superbalita Davao. Archived from the original on 2008-01-21. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
- ^ DC (2001), Coconut Oil As An Alternative To Transformer Oil (pdf), ERU Symposium
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ James, TK (2005). "Efficacy of several organic herbicides and glyphosate formulations under simulated rainfall" (pdf). New Zealand Plant Protection. 58: 157–163.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Agero AL, Verallo-Rowell VM (2004). "A randomized double-blind controlled trial comparing extra virgin coconut oil with mineral oil as a moisturizer for mild to moderate xerosis". Dermatitis. 15 (3): 109–16. PMID 15724344.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 12715094 , please use {{cite journal}} with
|pmid= 12715094
instead. - ^ Mazza, D (2010). Women's Health in General Practice. Elsevier Australia. pp. 69. ISBN 0729538710.
Further reading
- Coconut revival – new possibilities for the ‘tree of life’. Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum, 22–24 November 2005 (PDF). Cairns, Australia: ACIAR Proceedings. 2006. ISBN 1 86320 515 2.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|editors=
ignored (|editor=
suggested) (help) - Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Springer. ISBN 9780442001124.