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'''Chlorine dioxide''' is a [[chemical compound]] with the formula ClO<sub>2</sub> that exists as yellowish-green [[gas]] at any temperature above −59 °C, and as bright orange crystals when colder. It is an [[oxidizing agent]], able to transfer oxygen to a variety of substrates, while gaining one or more electrons via oxidation-reduction ([[redox]]). It does not [[Hydrolysis|hydrolyze]] when it enters water, and is usually handled as a dissolved gas in solution in water. Potential hazards with chlorine dioxide include health concerns, explosiveness and fire ignition. |
'''Chlorine dioxide''' is a [[chemical compound]] with the formula ClO<sub>2</sub> that exists as yellowish-green [[gas]] at any temperature above −59 °C, and as bright orange crystals when colder. It is an [[oxidizing agent]], able to transfer oxygen to a variety of substrates, while gaining one or more electrons via oxidation-reduction ([[redox]]). It does not [[Hydrolysis|hydrolyze]] when it enters water, and is usually handled as a dissolved gas in solution in water. Potential hazards with chlorine dioxide include health concerns, explosiveness and fire ignition. |
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Chlorine dioxide was discovered in 1811 and has been widely used for bleaching purposes in the paper industry, and for treatment of drinking water. More recent developments have extended its application into food processing |
Chlorine dioxide was discovered in 1811<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aieta|first=E. Marco|last2=Berg|first2=James D.|date=1986-06|title=A Review of Chlorine Dioxide in Drinking Water Treatment|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1986.tb05766.x|journal=Journal - American Water Works Association|volume=78|issue=6|pages=62–72|doi=10.1002/j.1551-8833.1986.tb05766.x|issn=0003-150X}}</ref> and has been widely used for bleaching purposes in the paper industry, and for treatment of drinking water. More recent developments have extended its application into food processing; disinfection of vehicles, healthcare facilities<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.performacide.com/item/hospitals-medical-clinics-doctors-office-waiting-rooms|title=Medical Grade Disinfectant used in Hospitals and Clinics|website=www.performacide.com|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref>, and other premises; mold eradication, air disinfection and odor control, treatment of swimming pools, dental applications<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rdhmag.com/patient-care/prosthodontics/article/16404274/matching-rinses-to-individuals|title=Matching rinses to individuals|last=Sellers|first=Kandra|last2=DiGangi|first2=Patti|date=2014-03-12|website=RDH magazine|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-21}}</ref>, and wound cleansing <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/magazine-archive1/februarymarch-2005/food-safety-insider-sanitation-solutions/10-reasons-why-you-should-be-using-chlorine-dioxide/|title=10 Reasons Why You Should Be Using Chlorine Dioxide|date=2012-12-03|website=Food Safety Magazine|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref>. |
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The compound has been fraudulently marketed as a cure for a wide range of diseases, including childhood autism.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/moms-go-undercover-fight-fake-autism-cures-private-facebook-groups-n1007871|title=Parents are poisoning their children with bleach to 'cure' autism. These moms are trying to stop it.|website=NBC News|language=en|access-date=2019-05-21}}</ref> Children who have been given [[Enema|enemas]] of chlorine dioxide as supposed cure for childhood autism have suffered life-threatening ailments and even died.<ref name=":0" /> The FDA has stated that chlorine dioxide has no health benefits and should not be ingested for any reason.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/drinking-bleach-will-not-cure-cancer-or-autism-fda-warns-n1041636|title=Drinking bleach will not cure cancer or autism, FDA warns|website=NBC News|language=en|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref><ref name="FDA 20192">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|title=FDA warns consumers about the dangerous and potentially life threatening side effects of Miracle Mineral Solution|last1=Food and Drug Administration|authorlink1=Food and Drug Administration|date=2019-08-12|website=fda.gov|language=English|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814102219/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|archivedate=2019-08-14|accessdate=2019-08-16}}</ref> |
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== Structure and bonding == |
== Structure and bonding == |
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[[File:ClO2.svg|170px|thumb|left|The two resonance structures]] |
[[File:ClO2.svg|170px|thumb|left|The two resonance structures]] |
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Chlorine dioxide is a neutral [[chemical compound|chlorine compound]]. It is very different from elemental chlorine, both in its chemical structure and in its behavior.<ref name="Vogt, H. 2010">{{Ullmann|last1=Vogt|first1=H.|last2=Balej|first2=J.|last3=Bennett|first3=J. E.|last4=Wintzer|first4=P.|last5=Sheikh|first5=S. A.|last6=Gallone|first6=P.|last7=Vasudevan|first7=S.|last8=Pelin|first8=K.|date=2010|title=Chlorine Oxides and Chlorine Oxygen Acids|DOI=10.1002/14356007.a06_483.pub2}}</ref> One of the most important qualities of chlorine dioxide is its high water solubility, especially in cold water. |
Chlorine dioxide is a neutral [[chemical compound|chlorine compound]]. It is very different from elemental [[chlorine]], both in its chemical structure and in its behavior.<ref name="Vogt, H. 2010">{{Ullmann|last1=Vogt|first1=H.|last2=Balej|first2=J.|last3=Bennett|first3=J. E.|last4=Wintzer|first4=P.|last5=Sheikh|first5=S. A.|last6=Gallone|first6=P.|last7=Vasudevan|first7=S.|last8=Pelin|first8=K.|date=2010|title=Chlorine Oxides and Chlorine Oxygen Acids|DOI=10.1002/14356007.a06_483.pub2}}</ref> One of the most important qualities of chlorine dioxide is its high water solubility, especially in cold water. Chlorine dioxide is approximately 10 times more soluble in water than chlorine.<ref name="Vogt, H. 2010" /> |
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The molecule ClO<sub>2</sub> has an odd number of [[valence electron]]s, and therefore, it is a [[Paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] [[radical (chemistry)|radical]]. Its electronic structure has long baffled chemists because none of the possible [[Lewis structure]]s is very satisfactory. In 1933, L. O. Brockway proposed a structure that involved a [[three-electron bond]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.19.3.303 |last=Brockway |first=L. O. |title=The Three-Electron Bond in Chlorine Dioxide |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=303–307 |date=March 1933 |pmid=16577512 |pmc=1085967 |bibcode = 1933PNAS...19..303B |url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/9165/1/BROpnas33b.pdf }}</ref> Chemist [[Linus Pauling]] further developed this idea and arrived at two [[resonance structure]]s involving a double bond on one side and a single bond plus three-electron bond on the other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=General chemistry |publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, NY |year=1988 |isbn=0-486-65622-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0 }}</ref> In Pauling's view the latter combination should represent a bond that is slightly ''weaker'' than the double bond. In [[molecular orbital theory]] this idea is commonplace if the third electron is placed in an anti-bonding orbital. Later work has confirmed that the [[HOMO|highest occupied molecular orbital]] is indeed an incompletely-filled antibonding orbital.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.ijms.2005.12.046 | title = Core-level excitation and fragmentation of chlorine dioxide | year = 2006 | last1 = Flesch | first1 = R. | last2 = Plenge | first2 = J. | last3 = Rühl | first3 = E. | journal = International Journal of Mass Spectrometry | volume = 249-250 | pages = 68–76|bibcode = 2006IJMSp.249...68F }}</ref> |
The molecule ClO<sub>2</sub> has an odd number of [[valence electron]]s, and therefore, it is a [[Paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] [[radical (chemistry)|radical]]. Its electronic structure has long baffled chemists because none of the possible [[Lewis structure]]s is very satisfactory. In 1933, L. O. Brockway proposed a structure that involved a [[three-electron bond]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.19.3.303 |last=Brockway |first=L. O. |title=The Three-Electron Bond in Chlorine Dioxide |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=303–307 |date=March 1933 |pmid=16577512 |pmc=1085967 |bibcode = 1933PNAS...19..303B |url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/9165/1/BROpnas33b.pdf }}</ref> Chemist [[Linus Pauling]] further developed this idea and arrived at two [[resonance structure]]s involving a double bond on one side and a single bond plus three-electron bond on the other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |title=General chemistry |publisher=Dover Publications |location=Mineola, NY |year=1988 |isbn=0-486-65622-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0 }}</ref> In Pauling's view the latter combination should represent a bond that is slightly ''weaker'' than the double bond. In [[molecular orbital theory]] this idea is commonplace if the third electron is placed in an anti-bonding orbital. Later work has confirmed that the [[HOMO|highest occupied molecular orbital]] is indeed an incompletely-filled antibonding orbital.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.ijms.2005.12.046 | title = Core-level excitation and fragmentation of chlorine dioxide | year = 2006 | last1 = Flesch | first1 = R. | last2 = Plenge | first2 = J. | last3 = Rühl | first3 = E. | journal = International Journal of Mass Spectrometry | volume = 249-250 | pages = 68–76|bibcode = 2006IJMSp.249...68F }}</ref> |
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Chlorine dioxide was shown to be effective in [[Bed bug (insect)|bedbug]] eradication.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 22476276 | doi=10.1086/665320 | volume=33 | issue=5 | title=Gaseous chlorine dioxide as an alternative for bedbug control | journal=Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology | pages=495–9 | last1 = Gibbs | first1 = S. G. | last2 = Lowe | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Smith | first3 = P. W. | last4 = Hewlett | first4 = A. L.| year=2012 | url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9c7f8b72f765d31a1c6bd37c8cdd4c8a0db19ba8 }}</ref> |
Chlorine dioxide was shown to be effective in [[Bed bug (insect)|bedbug]] eradication.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 22476276 | doi=10.1086/665320 | volume=33 | issue=5 | title=Gaseous chlorine dioxide as an alternative for bedbug control | journal=Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology | pages=495–9 | last1 = Gibbs | first1 = S. G. | last2 = Lowe | first2 = J. J. | last3 = Smith | first3 = P. W. | last4 = Hewlett | first4 = A. L.| year=2012 | url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/9c7f8b72f765d31a1c6bd37c8cdd4c8a0db19ba8 }}</ref> |
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=== |
=== Medical use controversy === |
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{{See also|Miracle Mineral Supplement}} |
{{See also|Miracle Mineral Supplement}} |
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Various chlorine dioxide-based products have been marketed for administration by drinking or by enema, with proponents making claims that the formulations will treat a broad range of diseases, including HIV, cancer, [[autism]], acne, hepatitis, and many more. The products have been marketed under various brands, the most widely known being [[Miracle Mineral Supplement]] (MMS) and CD Protocol. |
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Chlorine dioxide is fraudulently marketed as a magic cure for a range of diseases from brain cancer to AIDS. [[Enema#Bleach enemas|Enemas]] of chlorine dioxide are a supposed cure for childhood [[autism]], resulting in complaints to the FDA reporting life-threatening reactions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abc7news.com/news/group-of-socal-parents-secretly-try-to-cure-kids-with-autism-using-bleach/1578833/ |title=Group of SoCal parents secretly try to cure kids with autism using bleach |first=Lisa |last=Bartley |date=2016-10-29 |work=ABC 7 News |publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] |accessdate=2019-03-24 }}</ref> and even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/jul/13/fake-cures-autism-prove-deadly |title=The fake cures for autism that can prove deadly |first=Frances |last=Ryan |date=2016-07-13 |work=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]] |accessdate=2019-03-24 }}</ref> |
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Chlorine dioxide is relabelled to a variety of brand names including, but not limited to MMS, Miracle Mineral Solution and CD protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/kwxq3w/parents-are-giving-their-children-bleach-enemas-to-cure-them-of-autism-311|title=The Parents Who Give Their Children Bleach Enemas to 'Cure' Them of Autism|author=|date=2015-03-12|website=vice.com|accessdate=2018-04-05}}</ref> There is no scientific basis for chlorine dioxide's medical properties and FDA has warned against its usage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm220747.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203232945/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm220747.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-02-03|title=FDA Warns Consumers of Serious Harm from Drinking Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS)|date=2011-02-03|accessdate=2018-04-05}}</ref><ref name="FDA 2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|title=FDA warns consumers about the dangerous and potentially life threatening side effects of Miracle Mineral Solution|last1=Food and Drug Administration|authorlink1=Food and Drug Administration|date=2019-08-12|website=fda.gov|language=English|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814102219/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|archivedate=2019-08-14|accessdate=2019-08-16}}</ref> |
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Opponents have voiced serious concerns about health risks and consumer manipulation for financial gain, leading Facebook, Youtube and Amazon to remove as [[quackery]] several listings that had promoted product-related materials. Activists have also documented online posts of users discussing negative side effects and troubles when administering products to children, and submitted their findings to government entities.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Zadrozny|first=Brandy|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/moms-go-undercover-fight-fake-autism-cures-private-facebook-groups-n100787|title=Parents are poisoning their children with bleach to 'cure' autism. These moms are trying to stop it.|date=2019-05-21|work=NBC News|access-date=|url-status=live}}</ref>[1] |
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Press releases from the FDA in 2010 and 2019 stated the agency had received reports of product users “experiencing severe vomiting, severe diarrhea, life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration and acute liver failure.” They advised that “Miracle Mineral Solution and similar products are not FDA-approved., “ although several other products with chlorine dioxide or sodium chlorite ingredients do have FDA approval, including dental products, water treatment compounds, wound cleansers, and poultry meat processing and fruit and vegetable rinses<ref>[https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=3dca86865328d52914df69a27baa5a3f&mc=true&node=pt21.3.173&rgn=div5#se21.3.173_1300 Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 173, Secondary Direct Food Additives Permitted in Food for Human Consumption]. Current as of 2020-03-19.</ref>. |
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=== Other uses === |
=== Other uses === |
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Chlorine dioxide is used as an oxidant for phenol destruction in waste water streams and for odor control in the air scrubbers of animal byproduct (rendering) plants.<ref name="epa1999" />{{rp|4-34}} It is also available for use as a deodorant for cars and boats, in chlorine dioxide generating packages that are activated by water and left in the boat or car overnight. |
Chlorine dioxide is used as an oxidant for phenol destruction in waste water streams and for odor control in the air scrubbers of animal byproduct (rendering) plants.<ref name="epa1999" />{{rp|4-34}} It is also available for use as a deodorant for cars and boats, in chlorine dioxide generating packages that are activated by water and left in the boat or car overnight. |
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Chlorine dioxide is toxic, hence limits on exposure to it are needed to ensure its safe use. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] has set a maximum level of 0.8 mg/L for chlorine dioxide in drinking water.<ref>{{cite web|title=ATSDR: ToxFAQs™ for Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=581&tid=108}}</ref> The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA), an agency of the [[United States Department of Labor]], has set an 8-hour [[permissible exposure limit]] of 0.1 ppm in air (0.3 [[milligram|mg]]/[[cubic meter|m<sup>3</sup>]]) for people working with chlorine dioxide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Chlorine Dioxide |url=http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/chlorinedioxide/recognition.html |accessdate=2012-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204035804/http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/chlorinedioxide/recognition.html |archive-date=2012-12-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
Chlorine dioxide is toxic, hence limits on exposure to it are needed to ensure its safe use. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] has set a maximum level of 0.8 mg/L for chlorine dioxide in drinking water.<ref>{{cite web|title=ATSDR: ToxFAQs™ for Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=581&tid=108}}</ref> The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA), an agency of the [[United States Department of Labor]], has set an 8-hour [[permissible exposure limit]] of 0.1 ppm in air (0.3 [[milligram|mg]]/[[cubic meter|m<sup>3</sup>]]) for people working with chlorine dioxide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Chlorine Dioxide |url=http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/chlorinedioxide/recognition.html |accessdate=2012-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204035804/http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/chlorinedioxide/recognition.html |archive-date=2012-12-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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On July 30, 2010, and again on October 1, 2010, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) warned against the use of the product "[[Miracle Mineral Supplement]]", or "MMS", which when made up according to instructions produces chlorine dioxide. MMS has been marketed as a treatment for a variety of conditions, including HIV, cancer, [[autism]], and acne. The FDA warnings informed consumers that MMS can cause serious harm to health and stated that it has received numerous reports of nausea, diarrhea, severe vomiting, and life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112005302/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2010/ucm220747.htm|title=Press Announcements – FDA Warns Consumers of Serious Harm from Drinking Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS)|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20171101112353/https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm228052.htm|title='Miracle' Treatment Turns into Potent Bleach|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|date=2015-11-20}}</ref> This warning was repeated for a third time, on 12 August 2019, comparing ingesting MMS as "the same as drinking bleach," and urging consumers to not use them or "give these products to their children for any reason."<ref name="FDA 2019"/> |
On July 30, 2010, and again on October 1, 2010, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) warned against the use of the product "[[Miracle Mineral Supplement]]", or "MMS", which when made up according to instructions produces chlorine dioxide. MMS has been marketed as a treatment for a variety of conditions, including HIV, cancer, [[autism]], and acne. The FDA warnings informed consumers that MMS can cause serious harm to health and stated that it has received numerous reports of nausea, diarrhea, severe vomiting, and life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112005302/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2010/ucm220747.htm|title=Press Announcements – FDA Warns Consumers of Serious Harm from Drinking Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS)|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20171101112353/https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm228052.htm|title='Miracle' Treatment Turns into Potent Bleach|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|date=2015-11-20}}</ref> This warning was repeated for a third time, on 12 August 2019, comparing ingesting MMS as "the same as drinking bleach," and urging consumers to not use them or "give these products to their children for any reason."<ref name="FDA 2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|title=FDA warns consumers about the dangerous and potentially life threatening side effects of Miracle Mineral Solution|last1=Food and Drug Administration|authorlink1=Food and Drug Administration|date=2019-08-12|website=fda.gov|language=English|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814102219/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-consumers-about-dangerous-and-potentially-life-threating-side-effects-miracle-mineral|archivedate=2019-08-14|accessdate=2019-08-16}}</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
Revision as of 01:18, 22 March 2020
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Names | |||
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IUPAC name
Chlorine dioxide
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Other names
Chlorine(IV) oxide
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Identifiers | |||
3D model (JSmol)
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ChEBI | |||
ChemSpider | |||
ECHA InfoCard | 100.030.135 | ||
EC Number |
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1265 | |||
MeSH | Chlorine+dioxide | ||
PubChem CID
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RTECS number |
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UNII | |||
UN number | 9191 | ||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |||
ClO2 | |||
Molar mass | 67.45 g·mol−1 | ||
Appearance | Yellow to reddish gas | ||
Odor | Acrid | ||
Density | 2.757 g dm−3[1] | ||
Melting point | −59 °C (−74 °F; 214 K) | ||
Boiling point | 11 °C (52 °F; 284 K) | ||
8 g/L (at 20 °C) | |||
Solubility | soluble in alkaline and sulfuric acid solutions | ||
Vapor pressure | >1 atm[2] | ||
Henry's law
constant (kH) |
4.01×10−2 atm m3 mol−1 | ||
Acidity (pKa) | 3.0(5) | ||
Thermochemistry | |||
Std molar
entropy (S⦵298) |
257.22 J K−1 mol−1 | ||
Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfH⦵298) |
104.60 kJ/mol | ||
Hazards | |||
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH): | |||
Main hazards
|
Acute toxicity | ||
GHS labelling: | |||
Danger | |||
H271, H314, H330 | |||
P210, P220, P260, P264, P271, P280, P283, P284, P301, P304, P305, P306, P311, P330, P331, P338, P340, P351, P360, P371+P380+P375, P403+P233, P405, P501 | |||
NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | |||
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): | |||
LD50 (median dose)
|
292 mg/kg (oral, rat)[3] | ||
LCLo (lowest published)
|
260 ppm (rat, 2 hr)[3] | ||
NIOSH (US health exposure limits): | |||
PEL (Permissible)
|
TWA 0.1 ppm (0.3 mg/m3)[2] | ||
REL (Recommended)
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TWA 0.1 ppm (0.3 mg/m3) ST 0.3 ppm (0.9 mg/m3)[2] | ||
IDLH (Immediate danger)
|
5 ppm[2] | ||
Safety data sheet (SDS) | Safety Data Sheet Archive. | ||
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Chlorine dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula ClO2 that exists as yellowish-green gas at any temperature above −59 °C, and as bright orange crystals when colder. It is an oxidizing agent, able to transfer oxygen to a variety of substrates, while gaining one or more electrons via oxidation-reduction (redox). It does not hydrolyze when it enters water, and is usually handled as a dissolved gas in solution in water. Potential hazards with chlorine dioxide include health concerns, explosiveness and fire ignition.
Chlorine dioxide was discovered in 1811[4] and has been widely used for bleaching purposes in the paper industry, and for treatment of drinking water. More recent developments have extended its application into food processing; disinfection of vehicles, healthcare facilities[5], and other premises; mold eradication, air disinfection and odor control, treatment of swimming pools, dental applications[6], and wound cleansing [7].
Structure and bonding
Chlorine dioxide is a neutral chlorine compound. It is very different from elemental chlorine, both in its chemical structure and in its behavior.[8] One of the most important qualities of chlorine dioxide is its high water solubility, especially in cold water. Chlorine dioxide is approximately 10 times more soluble in water than chlorine.[8]
The molecule ClO2 has an odd number of valence electrons, and therefore, it is a paramagnetic radical. Its electronic structure has long baffled chemists because none of the possible Lewis structures is very satisfactory. In 1933, L. O. Brockway proposed a structure that involved a three-electron bond.[9] Chemist Linus Pauling further developed this idea and arrived at two resonance structures involving a double bond on one side and a single bond plus three-electron bond on the other.[10] In Pauling's view the latter combination should represent a bond that is slightly weaker than the double bond. In molecular orbital theory this idea is commonplace if the third electron is placed in an anti-bonding orbital. Later work has confirmed that the highest occupied molecular orbital is indeed an incompletely-filled antibonding orbital.[11]
Preparation
Chlorine dioxide is a compound that can decompose extremely violently when separated from diluting substances. As a result, preparation methods that involve producing solutions of it without going through a gas-phase stage are often preferred. Arranging handling in a safe manner is essential.
Oxidation of chlorite
In the laboratory, ClO2 can be prepared by oxidation of sodium chlorite with chlorine:[12]
- 2 NaClO2 + Cl2 → 2 ClO2 + 2 NaCl
Traditionally, chlorine dioxide for disinfection applications has been made from sodium chlorite or the sodium chlorite–hypochlorite method:
- 2 NaClO2 + 2 HCl + NaOCl → 2 ClO2 + 3 NaCl + H2O
or the sodium chlorite–hydrochloric acid method:
- 5 NaClO2 + 4 HCl → 5 NaCl + 4 ClO2 + 2 H2O
or the chlorite–sulfuric acid method:
- 4 ClO−
2 + 2 H2SO4 → 2 ClO2 + HClO3 + 2 SO2−
4 + H2O + HCl
All three sodium chlorite chemistries can produce chlorine dioxide with high chlorite conversion yield, but unlike the other processes the chlorite–sulfuric acid method produces completely chlorine-free chlorine dioxide, although it suffers from the requirement of 25% more chlorite to produce an equivalent amount of chlorine dioxide. Alternatively, hydrogen peroxide may be efficiently used in small-scale applications.[8]
Reduction of chlorate
In the laboratory, chlorine dioxide can also be prepared by reaction of potassium chlorate with oxalic acid:
- 2 KClO3 + 2 H2C2O4 → K2C2O4 + 2 ClO2 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
- 2 KClO3 + H2C2O4 + 2 H2SO4 → 2 KHSO4 + 2 ClO2 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Over 95% of the chlorine dioxide produced in the world today is made by reduction of sodium chlorate, for use in pulp bleaching. It is produced with high efficiency in a strong acid solution with a suitable reducing agent such as methanol, hydrogen peroxide, hydrochloric acid or sulfur dioxide.[8] Modern technologies are based on methanol or hydrogen peroxide, as these chemistries allow the best economy and do not co-produce elemental chlorine. The overall reaction can be written as:[13]
- chlorate + acid + reducing agent → chlorine dioxide + by-products
As a typical example, the reaction of sodium chlorate with hydrochloric acid in a single reactor is believed to proceed through the following pathway:
- ClO−
3 + Cl−
+ H+
→ ClO−
2 + HOCl - ClO−
3 + ClO−
2 + 2 H+
→ 2 ClO
2 + H
2O - HOCl + Cl−
+ H+
→ Cl
2 + H
2O
which gives the overall reaction
- 2 ClO−
3 + 2 Cl−
+ 4 H+
→ 2 ClO
2 + Cl
2 + 2 H
2O.
The commercially more important production route uses methanol as the reducing agent and sulfuric acid for the acidity. Two advantages of not using the chloride-based processes are that there is no formation of elemental chlorine, and that sodium sulfate, a valuable chemical for the pulp mill, is a side-product. These methanol-based processes provide high efficiency and can be made very safe.[8]
The variant process using chlorate, hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid has been increasingly used since 1999 for water treatment and other small-scale disinfection applications, since it produce a chlorine-free product at high efficiency.
Other processes
Very pure chlorine dioxide can also be produced by electrolysis of a chlorite solution:[14]
- 2 NaClO2 + 2 H2O → 2 ClO2 + 2 NaOH + H2
High-purity chlorine dioxide gas (7.7% in air or nitrogen) can be produced by the gas–solid method, which reacts dilute chlorine gas with solid sodium chlorite:[14]
- 2 NaClO2 + Cl2 → 2 ClO2 + 2 NaCl
Handling properties
At partial pressures above 10 kPa[8] (or gas-phase concentrations greater than 10% volume in air at STP), ClO2 may explosively decompose into chlorine and oxygen. The decomposition can be initiated by light, hot spots, chemical reaction, or pressure shock. Thus, chlorine dioxide gas is never handled in concentrated form, but is almost always handled as a dissolved gas in water in a concentration range of 0.5 to 10 grams per liter. Its solubility increases at lower temperatures, thus it is common to use chilled water (5 °C) when storing at concentrations above 3 grams per liter. In many countries, such as the United States, chlorine dioxide gas may not be transported at any concentration and is almost always produced at the application site using a chlorine dioxide generator.[8] In some countries,[which?] chlorine dioxide solutions below 3 grams per liter in concentration may be transported by land, however, they are relatively unstable and deteriorate quickly.
Uses
Chlorine dioxide is used for bleaching of wood pulp and for the disinfection (called chlorination) of municipal drinking water.[15][16]: 4–1 [17] As a disinfectant it is effective even at low concentrations because of its unique qualities.[8][18]
Bleaching
Chlorine dioxide is sometimes used for bleaching of wood pulp in combination with chlorine, but it is used alone in ECF (elemental chlorine-free) bleaching sequences. It is used at moderately acidic pH (3.5 to 6). The use of chlorine dioxide minimizes the amount of organochlorine compounds produced.[19] Chlorine dioxide (ECF technology) currently is the most important bleaching method worldwide. About 95% of all bleached kraft pulp is made using chlorine dioxide in ECF bleaching sequences.[20]
Chlorine dioxide has been used to bleach flour.[21]
Water chlorination
The Niagara Falls, New York, water treatment plant first used chlorine dioxide for drinking water treatment in 1944 for phenol destruction.[16]: 4–17 [17] Chlorine dioxide was introduced as a drinking water disinfectant on a large scale in 1956, when Brussels, Belgium, changed from chlorine to chlorine dioxide.[17] Its most common use in water treatment is as a pre-oxidant prior to chlorination of drinking water to destroy natural water impurities that would otherwise produce trihalomethanes on exposure to free chlorine.[22][23][24] Trihalomethanes are suspect carcinogenic disinfection by-products[25] associated with chlorination of naturally occurring organics in the raw water.[24] Chlorine dioxide is also superior to chlorine when operating above pH 7,[16]: 4–33 in the presence of ammonia and amines[citation needed] and for the control of biofilms in water distribution systems.[24] Chlorine dioxide is used in many industrial water treatment applications as a biocide including cooling towers, process water, and food processing.[26]
Chlorine dioxide is less corrosive than chlorine and superior for the control of Legionella bacteria.[17][27] Chlorine dioxide is superior to some other secondary water disinfection methods in that chlorine dioxide is an EPA-registered biocide, is not negatively impacted by pH, does not lose efficacy over time (the bacteria will not grow resistant to it), and is not negatively impacted by silica and phosphates, which are commonly used potable water corrosion inhibitors.
It is more effective as a disinfectant than chlorine in most circumstances against waterborne pathogenic agents such as viruses,[28] bacteria and protozoa – including the cysts of Giardia and the oocysts of Cryptosporidium.[16]: 4-20–4-21
The use of chlorine dioxide in water treatment leads to the formation of the by-product chlorite, which is currently limited to a maximum of 1 part per million in drinking water in the USA.[16]: 4–33 This EPA standard limits the use of chlorine dioxide in the USA to relatively high-quality water because this minimizes chlorite concentration, or water that is to be treated with iron-based coagulants (iron can reduce chlorite to chloride).[citation needed]
Chlorine dioxide has many applications as an oxidizer or disinfectant.[8] Chlorine dioxide can be used for air disinfection[29] and was the principal agent used in the decontamination of buildings in the United States after the 2001 anthrax attacks.[30] After the disaster of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Louisiana, and the surrounding Gulf Coast, chlorine dioxide has been used to eradicate dangerous mold from houses inundated by the flood water.[31]
Other disinfection uses
Chlorine dioxide may be used as a fumigant treatment to "sanitize" fruits such as blueberries, raspberries, and strawberries that develop molds and yeast.[32]
Chlorine dioxide may be used to disinfect poultry by spraying or immersing it after slaughtering.[33]
Chlorine dioxide may be used for the disinfection of endoscopes, such as under the trade name Tristel.[34] It is also available in a trio consisting of a preceding pre-clean with surfactant and a succeeding rinse with deionized water and a low-level antioxidant.[35]
Chlorine dioxide may be used for control of zebra and quagga mussels in water intakes.[16]: 4–34
Chlorine dioxide was shown to be effective in bedbug eradication.[36]
Medical use controversy
Various chlorine dioxide-based products have been marketed for administration by drinking or by enema, with proponents making claims that the formulations will treat a broad range of diseases, including HIV, cancer, autism, acne, hepatitis, and many more. The products have been marketed under various brands, the most widely known being Miracle Mineral Supplement (MMS) and CD Protocol.
Opponents have voiced serious concerns about health risks and consumer manipulation for financial gain, leading Facebook, Youtube and Amazon to remove as quackery several listings that had promoted product-related materials. Activists have also documented online posts of users discussing negative side effects and troubles when administering products to children, and submitted their findings to government entities.[37][1]
Press releases from the FDA in 2010 and 2019 stated the agency had received reports of product users “experiencing severe vomiting, severe diarrhea, life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration and acute liver failure.” They advised that “Miracle Mineral Solution and similar products are not FDA-approved., “ although several other products with chlorine dioxide or sodium chlorite ingredients do have FDA approval, including dental products, water treatment compounds, wound cleansers, and poultry meat processing and fruit and vegetable rinses[38].
Other uses
Chlorine dioxide is used as an oxidant for phenol destruction in waste water streams and for odor control in the air scrubbers of animal byproduct (rendering) plants.[16]: 4–34 It is also available for use as a deodorant for cars and boats, in chlorine dioxide generating packages that are activated by water and left in the boat or car overnight.
Safety issues in water and supplements
Chlorine dioxide is toxic, hence limits on exposure to it are needed to ensure its safe use. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a maximum level of 0.8 mg/L for chlorine dioxide in drinking water.[39] The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), an agency of the United States Department of Labor, has set an 8-hour permissible exposure limit of 0.1 ppm in air (0.3 mg/m3) for people working with chlorine dioxide.[40]
On July 30, 2010, and again on October 1, 2010, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warned against the use of the product "Miracle Mineral Supplement", or "MMS", which when made up according to instructions produces chlorine dioxide. MMS has been marketed as a treatment for a variety of conditions, including HIV, cancer, autism, and acne. The FDA warnings informed consumers that MMS can cause serious harm to health and stated that it has received numerous reports of nausea, diarrhea, severe vomiting, and life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration.[41][42] This warning was repeated for a third time, on 12 August 2019, comparing ingesting MMS as "the same as drinking bleach," and urging consumers to not use them or "give these products to their children for any reason."[43]
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External links
- Media related to Chlorine dioxide at Wikimedia Commons