Prof. Squirrel (talk | contribs) Reverted to revision 494783333 by Prof. Squirrel: Reduntant information added. (TW) |
Jasminetty (talk | contribs) |
||
Line 12: | Line 12: | ||
[[Internalized oppression]] has been the primary means in which people have been forced to perpetuate and acquiesce to their own oppression, operating at both the group and individual levels.<ref name=padilla>{{cite journal|last=Padilla|first=Laura M.|title="But You're Not a Dirty Mexican": Internalized Oppression, Latinos & Law|journal=Texas Hispanic Journal of Law & Policy|year=2001|volume=7|issue=1|page=58|months=September}}</ref> Non-Anglo-Saxon cultures believe the stereotypes to which they are ascribed and, instead of developing a consciousness of their own, absorb the discriminating beliefs imposed on them. Internalized oppression (i.e. racism) thus exists within a race or culture. On an individual level, half of the [[Latinos]] in the United States consider themselves white. People of color who also accept the notions of blanqueamiento aspire to "become" light and distance themselves from slavery.<ref name=padilla /> |
[[Internalized oppression]] has been the primary means in which people have been forced to perpetuate and acquiesce to their own oppression, operating at both the group and individual levels.<ref name=padilla>{{cite journal|last=Padilla|first=Laura M.|title="But You're Not a Dirty Mexican": Internalized Oppression, Latinos & Law|journal=Texas Hispanic Journal of Law & Policy|year=2001|volume=7|issue=1|page=58|months=September}}</ref> Non-Anglo-Saxon cultures believe the stereotypes to which they are ascribed and, instead of developing a consciousness of their own, absorb the discriminating beliefs imposed on them. Internalized oppression (i.e. racism) thus exists within a race or culture. On an individual level, half of the [[Latinos]] in the United States consider themselves white. People of color who also accept the notions of blanqueamiento aspire to "become" light and distance themselves from slavery.<ref name=padilla /> |
||
== |
==Blanqueamiento (whitening) racial classification== |
||
Research has found that the growth of the mixed-race population is in part due to large numbers of blacks "whitening" there racial classification by reporting themselves as mixed-race. The growth of the mixed-race population can also be in part credited to white people "darkening" there racial classification. |
|||
Research published by multiple peer-reviewed journals and academic books conclude that blacks, native americans and whites can be categorized by others or categorize themselves as mixed race. For example, the child of two Africans can be categorized by others as mulattoes (mixed race) even when it is known that the person in question is the black offspring of two black African immigrants. The incorrect classification of Black Africans as mulattoes (mixed race) is made possible due to the fact that stereotypes of Africans/blacks fail to take into into account the breadth of physical variation that is to be found among Africans. Professor Jefferson M. Fish adds- |
|||
Studies have found that, between 1950 and 1980, there has been a large trend in reclassification (blanqueamiento/whitening) from black to brown, along with a smaller one from white to brown (darkening). A similar but less pronounced pattern appeared between 1980 and 1990. Academics attribute this switch from black to mixed-race to high rates of black [[upward mobility]] during the 1970s, consistent with a "money whitens" hypothesis: the more wealthy they become, the more blacks tend to reporting themselves as mixed-race. |
|||
"One informant from northern Brazil explained to me that a certain person was a mulata (mixed race) and not a preta (Black) because she “doesn't have that really kinky hair and black skin that Africans have. The fascinating aspect of this report is that both my informant and I knew that the woman in question was the daughter of African immigrants to Brazil. Hence she was one of the few Brazilian citizens of whom it could be said with conviction that she was of 100% African ancestry. Not only was the racial tipo assigned without regard to ancestry, but the folk explanation of its origin was offered (by a college-educated informant) in disregard of evidence to the contrary. In this respect, neither Brazilian nor American stereotypes take into account the breadth of physical variation that is to be found among Africans (Alland, 1971)<ref>http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/principles-of-multicultural-counseling-and-therapy-9780805862041</ref> |
|||
Differences found in the responses of blacks in two surveys suggest that blacks tend to self-classify as mulattos (mixed-race), while very few blacks or mulattos self-classify as whites. Attempting to split people in three groups, namely blacks, mulattos and whites, might get seriously biased results due to an incorrect classification of blacks as mulattos.{{clarify|date=May 2012}}<!--These two sentences don't really make sense--><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://168.96.200.17/ar/libros/colombia/cidse/art5.pdf|last1=Flórez|first1=Carmen Elisa|last2=Medina|first2=Carlos|last3=Urrea Giraldo|first3=Fernando|title=Understanding the Cost of Social Exclusion Due to Race or Ethnic Background In Latin America and Caribbean Countries|publisher=Centro de Investigaciones y Documentación Socioeconómica, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Económicas, Universidad del Valle|year=2001|month=March|page=30}}</ref> Reclassification from white to brown (darkening) also demonstrates that some whites self-classify as mixed-race. Analyses of changes in census data show that people reclassify themselves from white to mixed-race more often than from mixed-race to white. Academics attribute this switch increasing poverty among white people, consistent with a "poverty darkens" hypothesis: whites will "darken" themselves by reporting to be mixed-race the more poorer they become.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schwartzman|first=L. F.|title=Does Money Whiten? Intergenerational Changes in Racial Classification in Brazil|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1 December 2007|volume=72|issue=6|pages=940–963|doi=10.1177/000312240707200605}}</ref> |
|||
The '''Latin American Studies Association''' (LASA) is the largest association for scholars of Latin American studies. A paper published by LASA found that "Lighter mulattoes (and even some who are not so light) describe themselves as whites. Blacks often identify themselves as mulatto, or mestico, or some other euphemism”<ref>http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/RodriguezGriselda.pdf</ref> |
|||
===One-drop rule=== |
|||
Under blanqueamiento's version of the [[one-drop rule]], "one drop" of white blood can be sufficient to make blacks, [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], or Latino mixed race. Blanqueamiento's version of the one drop rule is mostly applied in [[Latin American]] countries.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/worts23&div=8&id=&page=|journal=Women's Rights Law Reporter|volume=23|title=Latinas, Culture and Human Rights: A Model for Making Change, Saving Soul|year=2001|last=Hernandez-Truyol|first=Berta Esperanza|number=1|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Simmons|first=Kimberly Eison|title=Navigating the Racial Terrain: Blackness and Mixedness in the United States and the Dominican Republic|journal=Transforming Anthropology|date=1 October 2008|volume=16|issue=2|pages=95–111|doi=10.1111/j.1548-7466.2008.00019.x}}</ref> |
|||
The practice of blacks passing as mixed race has been doucmuneted in Africa. Research published by the South African Historical Journal concluded "The phenomenon of Africans (blacks) passing for Coloured (mixed race) was relatively common"<ref>http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582470609464935</ref> |
|||
In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could "pass" and be considered mestizos (mixed race). The same applied to Blacks and castas. Rather, the factor that distinguished the various social groups was their calidad; this concept of "quality" was related to an idea of blood as conferring status, but there were also other elements, such as occupation and marriage, that could have the effect of blanqueamiento (whitening) on people and influence their upward social mobility.<ref>http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book228721?siteId=sage-us&prodTypes=Reference+Books&q=Encyclopedia+of+Race%2C+Ethnicity+and+Society&fs=1</ref> |
|||
The practice of blacks, native americans and whites being classified as mixed race is called boundary crossing or passing. When the direction of boundary crossing is from black to mixed this is referred to as "whitening" or Blanqueamiento. It's important to note that whitening of a black person's racial classification does not refer to blacks changing their actual skin color, the skin colour of a black person who whitens stays the same and does not change. Whitening of a person's racial classification is a form of racial boundary-crossing or passing into a racial category that is whiter than the individual is in reality racially situated. An example of whitening a person's race classification would be a black person being categorized by others or categorizing themselves as mixed race. What is changing or whitening is not the skin color of black peoples but their racial classification. |
|||
Mixed-race categories are often used to whiten the racial classification of black individuals, that is to identify or be identified as whiter than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a black person identifying or being identified as mixed race. Mixed-race categories are also used to darken the racial classification of white individuals, that is to identify or be identified as darker than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a white person identifying or being identified as mixed race. |
|||
A black person seeking to whiten their race classification may also utilize “whitening” categories. <ref>http://en.scientificcommons.org/20913428</ref> Whitening categories are highly ambiguous and open ended color categories, the ambiguity of such categories can allow a black individual to avoid the stigmitized black category. The ambiguity of racial identity was, for many years, seen as an “escape hatch” allowing non-white mobility (Andrews 1992, 1993), whereas others noted the supremacy of class as “money whitened” (Guillebeau 1999). This ambiguity reflected not equality but a persistent social tendency to escape from blackness. |
|||
Research has found that the growth of the mixed-race population is in part due to large numbers of blacks "whitening" (blanqueamiento) there racial classification by reporting to be mixed race. The growth of the mixed-race population can also be in part credited to white people "darkening" their racial classification. Studies have found a large trend in reclassification (blanqueamiento/whitening) from black to brown in the 1950 to 1980 period, a much smaller one from white to brown (darkening), and a similar but less pronounced pattern between 1980 and 1990. Academics attribute this switch from black to mixed race to high rates of black upward mobility during the 1970s, consistent with a “money whitens” hypothesis, that is blacks will whiten themselves by reporting as brown (mixed race) the more wealthy they become. Differences found in the percentage of blacks between census results demonstrate that many blacks self classify as mixed race. Reclassifition from white to brown (darkening) also demonstrates that some whites self-classify as mixed race. The darkening of the racial classification of whites appears to be growing. Analyses of changes between censuses, show that people reclassify themselves from white to mixed race more often than from mixed race to white. Academics attribute this switch from white to brown to poverty among white people, consistent with a poverty darkens hypothesis, that is whites will darken themselves by reporting to be mixed race the more poorer they become.<ref>http://asr.sagepub.com/content/72/6/940.abstractrt</ref> |
|||
Another study confirmed a tendency for what is called blanqueamiento, that means that blacks tend to self-classify as whiter. In this case, differences found in the share of blacks between two surveys suggest that blacks tend to self-classify as mulattos (mixed race), while the differences found in the shares of blacks and mulattos pooled suggest that very few blacks or mulattos self-classify as whites. Attempting to split people in three groups, namely blacks, mulattos and whites, might get seriously biased results due to an incorrect classification of blacks as mulattos (Florez ''et al.'', 2001:30). |
|||
==References== |
==References== |
Revision as of 18:44, 21 June 2012
Blanqueamiento (Spanish for "whitening") is the ideology and the social practice of ethnic, cultural, and racial whitening.[1] This ideology values white Anglo-Saxon culture, associating it with superiority, wealth, and social, economic, and political power, while it devalues all nonwhite cultures. Physical and cultural whitening is the method by which non-white peoples incorporate themselves into mainstream white Anglo-Saxon culture in attempts to achieve upward mobility.
Cultural whitening
According to Aihwa Ong, cultural whitening is a process of “self-making and being made” into what is widely accepted by society. This desire for success and acceptance via blanqueamiento perpetuates racism and white supremacist ideals.[2] It forces people of nonwhite culture to negotiate between their own and accepted cultures and reinforces stereotypes of darker-skinned people.[citation needed]
According to Frank F. Montalvo and G. Edward Codina, blanqueamiento, together with official color-blind policies, have resulted in delicate forms of racism that maintain privilege. They argue that blanqueamiento is a practice in which whites push away those who have been historically denigrated, such as mestizos, mulattos, Africans, and indigenous peoples, and that it devalues other cultures by setting white culture as the the main one.[3] Blanqueamiento pushes other cultures to develop beliefs that their cultures are not enough to progress socially and socioeconomically.[citation needed]
Montalvo and Codina also connect blanqueamiento with skin color. Even though the meaning of blanqueamiento does not revolve around skin color, it makes other cultures “lighten” themselves, such as by marrying whiter people to integrate themselves better into society and to establish a social distance from slavery.
Internalized oppression
Internalized oppression has been the primary means in which people have been forced to perpetuate and acquiesce to their own oppression, operating at both the group and individual levels.[4] Non-Anglo-Saxon cultures believe the stereotypes to which they are ascribed and, instead of developing a consciousness of their own, absorb the discriminating beliefs imposed on them. Internalized oppression (i.e. racism) thus exists within a race or culture. On an individual level, half of the Latinos in the United States consider themselves white. People of color who also accept the notions of blanqueamiento aspire to "become" light and distance themselves from slavery.[4]
Blanqueamiento (whitening) racial classification
Research published by multiple peer-reviewed journals and academic books conclude that blacks, native americans and whites can be categorized by others or categorize themselves as mixed race. For example, the child of two Africans can be categorized by others as mulattoes (mixed race) even when it is known that the person in question is the black offspring of two black African immigrants. The incorrect classification of Black Africans as mulattoes (mixed race) is made possible due to the fact that stereotypes of Africans/blacks fail to take into into account the breadth of physical variation that is to be found among Africans. Professor Jefferson M. Fish adds-
"One informant from northern Brazil explained to me that a certain person was a mulata (mixed race) and not a preta (Black) because she “doesn't have that really kinky hair and black skin that Africans have. The fascinating aspect of this report is that both my informant and I knew that the woman in question was the daughter of African immigrants to Brazil. Hence she was one of the few Brazilian citizens of whom it could be said with conviction that she was of 100% African ancestry. Not only was the racial tipo assigned without regard to ancestry, but the folk explanation of its origin was offered (by a college-educated informant) in disregard of evidence to the contrary. In this respect, neither Brazilian nor American stereotypes take into account the breadth of physical variation that is to be found among Africans (Alland, 1971)[5]
The Latin American Studies Association (LASA) is the largest association for scholars of Latin American studies. A paper published by LASA found that "Lighter mulattoes (and even some who are not so light) describe themselves as whites. Blacks often identify themselves as mulatto, or mestico, or some other euphemism”[6]
The practice of blacks passing as mixed race has been doucmuneted in Africa. Research published by the South African Historical Journal concluded "The phenomenon of Africans (blacks) passing for Coloured (mixed race) was relatively common"[7]
In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could "pass" and be considered mestizos (mixed race). The same applied to Blacks and castas. Rather, the factor that distinguished the various social groups was their calidad; this concept of "quality" was related to an idea of blood as conferring status, but there were also other elements, such as occupation and marriage, that could have the effect of blanqueamiento (whitening) on people and influence their upward social mobility.[8]
The practice of blacks, native americans and whites being classified as mixed race is called boundary crossing or passing. When the direction of boundary crossing is from black to mixed this is referred to as "whitening" or Blanqueamiento. It's important to note that whitening of a black person's racial classification does not refer to blacks changing their actual skin color, the skin colour of a black person who whitens stays the same and does not change. Whitening of a person's racial classification is a form of racial boundary-crossing or passing into a racial category that is whiter than the individual is in reality racially situated. An example of whitening a person's race classification would be a black person being categorized by others or categorizing themselves as mixed race. What is changing or whitening is not the skin color of black peoples but their racial classification.
Mixed-race categories are often used to whiten the racial classification of black individuals, that is to identify or be identified as whiter than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a black person identifying or being identified as mixed race. Mixed-race categories are also used to darken the racial classification of white individuals, that is to identify or be identified as darker than how someone is in actuality racially positioned, such as a white person identifying or being identified as mixed race.
A black person seeking to whiten their race classification may also utilize “whitening” categories. [9] Whitening categories are highly ambiguous and open ended color categories, the ambiguity of such categories can allow a black individual to avoid the stigmitized black category. The ambiguity of racial identity was, for many years, seen as an “escape hatch” allowing non-white mobility (Andrews 1992, 1993), whereas others noted the supremacy of class as “money whitened” (Guillebeau 1999). This ambiguity reflected not equality but a persistent social tendency to escape from blackness.
Research has found that the growth of the mixed-race population is in part due to large numbers of blacks "whitening" (blanqueamiento) there racial classification by reporting to be mixed race. The growth of the mixed-race population can also be in part credited to white people "darkening" their racial classification. Studies have found a large trend in reclassification (blanqueamiento/whitening) from black to brown in the 1950 to 1980 period, a much smaller one from white to brown (darkening), and a similar but less pronounced pattern between 1980 and 1990. Academics attribute this switch from black to mixed race to high rates of black upward mobility during the 1970s, consistent with a “money whitens” hypothesis, that is blacks will whiten themselves by reporting as brown (mixed race) the more wealthy they become. Differences found in the percentage of blacks between census results demonstrate that many blacks self classify as mixed race. Reclassifition from white to brown (darkening) also demonstrates that some whites self-classify as mixed race. The darkening of the racial classification of whites appears to be growing. Analyses of changes between censuses, show that people reclassify themselves from white to mixed race more often than from mixed race to white. Academics attribute this switch from white to brown to poverty among white people, consistent with a poverty darkens hypothesis, that is whites will darken themselves by reporting to be mixed race the more poorer they become.[10]
Another study confirmed a tendency for what is called blanqueamiento, that means that blacks tend to self-classify as whiter. In this case, differences found in the share of blacks between two surveys suggest that blacks tend to self-classify as mulattos (mixed race), while the differences found in the shares of blacks and mulattos pooled suggest that very few blacks or mulattos self-classify as whites. Attempting to split people in three groups, namely blacks, mulattos and whites, might get seriously biased results due to an incorrect classification of blacks as mulattos (Florez et al., 2001:30).
References
- ^ "Tace and social division in Latin America". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ^ Ong, Aihwa; Dominguez, Virginia R.; Friedman, Jonathan; Schiller, Nina Glick; Stolcke, Verena; Wu, David Y. H.; Ying, Hu (1996). "Culture Citizenship as subject-making". Current Anthropology. 37 (5): 737–762.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Montalvo, Frank F. (1 September 2001). "Skin Color and Latinos in the United States". Ethnicities. 1 (3): 321–341. doi:10.1177/146879680100100303.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Padilla, Laura M. (2001). ""But You're Not a Dirty Mexican": Internalized Oppression, Latinos & Law". Texas Hispanic Journal of Law & Policy. 7 (1): 58.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|months=
ignored (help) - ^ http://www.routledgementalhealth.com/principles-of-multicultural-counseling-and-therapy-9780805862041
- ^ http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/RodriguezGriselda.pdf
- ^ http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582470609464935
- ^ http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book228721?siteId=sage-us&prodTypes=Reference+Books&q=Encyclopedia+of+Race%2C+Ethnicity+and+Society&fs=1
- ^ http://en.scientificcommons.org/20913428
- ^ http://asr.sagepub.com/content/72/6/940.abstractrt