- See: Cosmology (disambiguation).
The various authors of the Christian Bible provide sporadic glimpses of their insight regarding astronomy. These glimpses may be stitched together to form a Biblical impression of the physical universe. As demonstrated below, the meaning of Biblical scriptures are often debated due to translational ambiguities as well as metaphorical and allegorical interpretations; see Biblical literalism.
History
Biblical cosmology has roots in Hebrew cosmology, and is formed from Biblical texts originally written in languages other than English; see Bible. In early Europe, philosophies competing with the locally accepted denominations of Christianity were often dealt with brutally. At this time, proto-scientists were called "natural philosophers", and just like theological philosophers -- "natural philosophers" were expected to reconcile their beliefs with Biblical Scripture. However, reconciliation became increasingly difficult for the philosophers of time, particularly with the rise of Copernican ideas.
Historical figures and quotes
Nicolaus Copernicus
In his 1543 book entitled, "The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres", Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) outlined his mathematical exposition which revived the concept -- and more importantly "confirmed" -- that the Earth was not the center of the universe, but instead rotated around the Sun. When his colleagues finally convinced him to publish, this book swept aside the orthodox teachings of the time, and revolutionized medieval astronomy and physics in Europe. In the carefully worded "Dedication to Pope Paul III", Copernicus demonstrates political tact worthy of his respected position within the clergy while explaining the benefits his work might provide the clergy. The approach employed in this dedication provides some insight into why its associated, heliocentric exposition was initially tolerated by the most powerful members of the Catholic clergy. However, this tolerance faded, and the book was banned by the Catholic Church in 1616, "until corrected".[1] [2]
- "I CAN easily conceive, most Holy Father, that as soon as some people learn that in this book which I have written concerning the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, I ascribe certain motions to the Earth, they will cry out at once that I and my theory should be rejected... Therefore, when I considered this carefully, the contempt which I had to fear because of the novelty and apparent absurdity of my view, nearly induced me to abandon utterly the work I had begun... In order, however, that both the learned and the unlearned equally may see that I do not avoid anyone's judgment, I have preferred to dedicate these lucubrations of mine to Your Holiness rather than to any other, because, even in this remote corner of the world where I live, you are considered to be the most eminent man in dignity of rank and in love of all learning and even of mathematics, so that by your authority and judgment you can easily suppress the bites of slanderers... If perchance there shall be idle talkers, who, though they are ignorant of all mathematical sciences, nevertheless assume the right to pass judgment on these things, and if they should dare to criticise and attack this theory of mine because of some passage of Scripture which they have falsely distorted for their own purpose, I care not at all; I will even despise their judgment as foolish. For it is not unknown that Lactantius, otherwise a famous writer but a poor mathematician, speaks most childishly of the shape of the Earth when he makes fun of those who said that the Earth has the form of a sphere. It should not seem strange then to zealous students, if some such people shall ridicule us also... But what I may have accomplished herein I leave to the judgment of Your Holiness in particular, and to that of all other learned mathematicians"[3] --Nicolaus Copernicus
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (1483–1546) began the protestant reformations with his sincere attempts to interpret the exact meanings of Biblical scripture. Likewise, he made sincere attempts to grasp a Biblical understanding of astronomy.
- "Scripture simply says that the moon, the sun, and the stars were placed in the firmament of the heaven, below and above which heaven are the waters... It is likely that the stars are fastened to the firmament like globes of fire, to shed light at night... We Christians must be different from the philosophers in the way we think about the causes of things. And if some are beyond our comprehension like those before us concerning the waters above the heavens, we must believe them rather than wickedly deny them or presumptuously interpret them in conformity with our understanding."[4] --Martin Luther.
- "...the whole firmament moves swiftly around, every moment thousands of leagues, which, doubtless, is done by some angel. `Tis wonderful so great a vault should go about in so short a time."[5] --Martin Luther.
- "People gave ear to an upstart astrologer who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun and the moon. Whoever wishes to appear clever must devise some new system, which of all systems is of course the very best. This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth."[6] --Martin Luther.
Giordano Bruno
At a time when "approved" theories involved a fixed earth around which all celestial bodies in the universe circled, Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) suggested a radically-advanced extension of Copernican concepts.
- "This entire globe, this star, not being subject to death, and dissolution and annihilation being impossible anywhere in Nature, from time to time renews itself by changing and altering all its parts. There is no absolute up or down, as Aristotle taught; no absolute position in space; but the position of a body is relative to that of other bodies. Everywhere there is incessant relative change in position throughout the universe, and the observer is always at the centre of things."[7] --Giordano Bruno.
He is also regarded as a champion for free speech in general, as he argued for "Libertas philosophica" stating:
- "Truth does not change because it is, or is not, believed by a majority of the people."[8] --Giordano Bruno.
Upon refusing to fully retract his beliefs and hearing his sentence, Bruno said,
- "Perhaps your fear in passing judgment on me is greater than mine in receiving it."[9] --Giordano Bruno.
Bruno was gagged to protect onlookers from heretical ideas, and then burned alive at the Campo de' Fiori on 17 February 1600.[9] For Bruno, the stake proved itself a powerful pulpit.
Galileo
Galileo (1564-1642) contributed significantly to our understanding of matter, motion, friction, and acceleration by comparing experiments with pendulums, floating bodies, and inclined planes to astronomical observations. His pioneering observations through a telescope discovered mountains on Earth's moon, moons orbiting Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and spots on the Sun that rotated around an axis. These observations clashed with the "approved" concept that celestial bodies were perfect, supported heliocentrism, and destroyed the geocentric argument that the moon's orbit of the Earth was inconsistent with heliocentrism. Galileo's experiments were controlled; his observations were meticulously documented. Galileo's methods partially contributed to the formation of the scientific method on which rests a new branch of philosophy -- science.
- "I wish, my dear Kepler, that we could have a good laugh together at the extraordinary stupidity of the mob. What do you think of the foremost philosophers of this University? In spite of my oft-repeated efforts and invitations, they have refused, with the obstinacy of a glutted adder, to look at the planets or Moon or my telescope."[10] -- Galileo
- "The first proposition, that the sun is the centre and does not revolve about the earth, is foolish, absurd, false in theology, and heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy Scripture"; and "the second proposition, that the earth is not the centre but revolves about the sun, is absurd, false in philosophy, and, from a theological point of view at least, opposed to the true faith."[11] --Roman Inquisition (by unanimous decision)
- "the doctrine of the double motion of the earth about its axis and about the sun is false, and entirely contrary to Holy Scripture."[11] --Decree of Pope Paul, V
Galileo is not only remembered for his contributions to science; his fame was secured by his courageous heliocentric publication after official Church warnings to maintain silence on the subject. In this publication, Galileo extended Copernican ideas by showing evidence that stars were very distant and were sources of light themseleves rather than objects reflecting the Sun's light such as planets. However, Galileo stopped short of declaring the Sun was a star[12] -- one of the heretical ideas for which Bruno was burned alive. During his trial, Galileo took a more practical approach than Bruno, and recanted his heliocentric book to obtain leniency; the Inquisition sentenced him to an indefinite prison term, but later commuted the sentence, and kept him under house arrest until his death. His outside correspondence was limited, his heliocentric ideas were silenced, and his heliocentric book was banned until 1822. Considering this, it might seem surprising that the Church later allowed Galileo to resume other research with a talented assistant. In 1638, Galileo's scientifically important book, "Discourses on the Two New Sciences", was smuggled to Holland and published[13]; it did not mention Copernican ideas.
- "Take note, theologians, that in your desire to make matters of faith out of propositions relating to the fixity of sun and earth you run the risk of eventually having to condemn as heretics those who would declare the earth to stand still and the sun to change position--eventually, I say, at such a time as it might be physically or logically proved that the earth moves and the sun stands still."[14] --Galileo.
It might seem "prophetic" that today, there is a public relation battle to minimize blame and distance the Catholic church from Galileo's most ardent accusers,[15] [16] or that Biblical literalism is now being equated with heresy, even if only as publicity stunts.[17]
Charles Darwin
When Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published his thoughts on the "Origin of Species", he -- along with Alfred Wallace -- founded what would later become the modern theory of evolution. This theory implies that humans evolved from "lower" life forms, and therefore has implications upon spiritual cosmology. Many religious individuals (including many of Darwin's peers) rejected the theory on the basis that it could not be a valid re-interpretation of Genesis. While Darwin himself received little more than scorn and insults from opponents, his peers sometimes received more tangible punishments for expressing support for Darwin. Many lost their posts at universities for claiming support for evolution, evolution books have been banned from libraries, and its concepts have been banned from classrooms. Excommunication has even been used.[11] In political and popular arenas, the modern "theory of evolution" faces religious opposition to this day; see creationism. Apparently their tactics work; although nearly all modern biologists and chemists accept the current theory of evolution, forty-five percent of Americans believe that God created human beings pretty much in their present form about ten thousand years ago,[18] and, in 1999, the Kansas Board of Education removed evolution from the science curriculum.[19]
- "We must, however, acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities... still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."[20] --Charles Darwin.
- "...the God of evolution is not the Christian's God."[11] --Rev. Dr. Coles
- "...utterly inconsistent with the Scriptures"[11] --Rev. Dr. Hodge
- "All the ills from which America suffers can be traced to the teaching of evolution".[21] -- William Jennings Bryan
- "...a God who has nothing to do with the rationality of creation, but is effective only in the inner world of piety, is also no longer God; he becomes devoid of reality and ultimately meaningless".[22] --Pope Benedict XVI
- "From the Enlightenment on, science, at least in part, has applied itself to seeking an explanation of the world in which God would be unnecessary. And if this were so, he would also become unnecessary in our lives".[23] --Pope Benedict XVI
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein's (1879 - 1955) theories on Relativity contributed heavily to the Big Bang theory which altered modern astronomy.
- "Laws alone can not secure freedom of expression; in order that every man present his views without penalty there must be spirit of tolerance in the entire population." --Albert Einstein
- "Unthinking respect for authority is the greatest enemy of truth." --Albert Einstein [1]
Biblical scriptures invalidating modern scientific astronomy
Presented below is an incomplete list of Biblical scriptures which have been used to explain phenomena in the field of astronomy. Such scriptures have been used in the past as justification to persecute heretics such as Galileo Galilei and Giordano Bruno. Many of these scriptures are used by modern Biblical literalists to sincerely explain astronomical phenomena. The "Association for Biblical Astronomy" and the "Flat Earth Society" both reject as "theory" the concept of a nearly spherical Earth. These rejections continue despite those who argue that this scientific "theory" should now be simply considered an observation. However, a true believer can value Biblical dogma over personal observations. This type of philosophy, called religion, holds that divinely inspired dogma is unerring, while our senses can be deceived. This can be analogous to the manner in which a scientist can suspend interpretation of observations (such as at an illusionist's performance) until observing such phenomena in a controlled environment; see experiment. With religion, referring back to divinely inspired dogma such as the Bible can substitute for experimentation to achieve proper interpretation of natural observations.
Astrology is Biblically validated
- Genesis 1:14 according to historical enlightenment found in the Book of Genesis
- Job 38:31-33 according to God in his dialog with Job
- Luke 21:25-26 according to the preachings of Jesus
- Matthew 2:1-10 according to the method by which the "wise men" found the birthplace of Jesus.
- Daniel 6:27-28 according to the public decree of King Darius
- Jeremiah 10:1-2 according to God's word in Jeremiah's prophesy
Celestial bodies are sentient beings
- Job 38:4-7 according to God in his dialog with Job
- Revelation 9:1-2 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
Which can be subjected to torture if disobedient
- Isaiah 14:11-15 according to Isaiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 24:3-6 according to Isaiah's prophesy
- 1 Enoch 18:13-16 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 21:1-3 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 87 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Creation of the universe in six days
- Genesis 1 according to historical enlightenment found in the Book of Genesis
Earth:
Can be moved through great violence
- Jeremiah 49:21 according to God's word in Jeremiah's prophesy
- Jeremiah 50:46 according to God's word in Jeremiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 24:18-20 according to Isaiah's prophesy
- Job 9:6 according to Job in his dialog with Bildad
- Psalm 18:7 according to David's praise of God
Cannot be moved
- 1 Chron 16:30 according to David's praise of God
- Psalm 93:1 according to Biblical praise of God
- Psalm 96:10 according to Biblical praise of God
- Psalm 104:5 according to Biblical praise of God
Hangs upon nothing
Has corners
- Job 38:12-13 according to God in his dialog with Job
Has four corners
- Revelation 7:1 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
- Revelation 20:7-8 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
- Isaiah 11:12 according to Isaiah's prophesy
Is circular
- Isaiah 40:22 according to Isaiah's prophesy
Is flat
- Matthew 4:8 according to historical enlightenment found in the Gospel of Matthew
- Daniel 4:11 according to Nebuchadnezzar's divine dream
And has a bottomless pit
- Revelation 9:1-11 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
- Revelation 11:7 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
- Revelation 20:1-3 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
Is supported by pillars
- Job 9:6 according to Job in his dialog with Bildad
- 1 Sam 2:8 according to Hannah_(Bible)'s praise of God
- Psalm 75:3 according to Asaph's praise of God
Shall fall, and not rise again
- Isaiah 24:18-20 according to Isaiah's prophesy
Shall pass away (& Heaven too)
- Luke 21:33 according to the preachings of Jesus
Shall remain forever
- Ecclesiastes 1:4 according to the preachings of the "son of David" (King Solomon?)
Year has precisely 364 days
- 1 Enoch 73:13 according to Uriel as reported by Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Heaven (firmament) is a roof which:
Can be bent
- 2 Samuel 22:10 according to David's praise of God
Can be opened
- Ezekiel 1:1 according to Ezekiel's witness
- [Psalm 78:23-25] according to Asaph in Psalms
- [Mark 1:9-10] according to a historical account of Jesus' baptism
- [Matthew 3:13-16] according to a historical account of Jesus' baptism
- [John 1:47-51] according to Jesus in the Gospel of John
Has a foundation or pillars
- Amos 9:5-6 according to the prophesy of Amos
- Job 26:11 according to Job in his dialog with Bildad
- 2 Samuel 22:8 according to David's praise of God
- 1 Enoch 18:1-8 according to Enoch's prophesy (which specifies firmament)
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Is a hardened dome
Is like a tent of curtain
- Isaiah 40:22 according to Isaiah's prophesy
- Psalm 104:2 according to Biblical praise of God
Separates water above the firmament from Earth
- Genesis 1:6-8 according to historical enlightenment found in the Book of Genesis
Will be rolled up like a scroll
- Revelation 6:13-14 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
Misc. observations regarding time or planetary physics
Sundial moves in reverse
- 2 Kings 20:8-11 according to Isaiah's account of God's miracle
- Isaiah 38:4-8 according to Isaiah's account of God's miracle
Stars:
Are set in the firmament
- Genesis 1:14-18 according to historical enlightenment found in the Book of Genesis
Can be cast to Earth without engulfing the Earth
- Revelation 6:13 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
- Revelation 12:3-4 according to Jesus as reported in John's prophesy
Can be sealed away
- Job 9:7 according to Job in his dialog with Bildad
- 1 Enoch 70:5 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Can come out of men
- Numbers 24:17-19 according to Balaam's prophesy
Move around the Earth
- Job 38:32-33 according to God in his dialog with Job
- Isaiah 40:26 according to God's word in Isaiah's prophesy
- 1 Enoch 32:2-4 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 35:1-2 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 68:29-30 according to Uriel as reported by Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 71:2-4 according to Uriel
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Will be tortured for misbehavior; See wandering stars
- Jude 1:13 according to historical enlightenment provided by Jude
- 1 Enoch 18:13-16 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Sun and Moon:
Are of equal dimensions
- 1 Enoch 71:47 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Are set in the firmament
- Genesis 1:14-18 according to historical enlightenment found in the Book of Genesis
Are stowed away after setting
- Job 38:18-20 according to God in his dialog with Job
- 1 Enoch 41:4-5 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- Psalm 19:1-6 according to David's praise of God
Move around the Earth
- Psalm 19:1-6 according to David's praise of God
- Josh 10:12-13 according to God's commandment in the book of Joshua
- Ecclesiastes 1:5 according to the preachings of the "son of David" (King Solomon?)
- 1 Enoch 18:1-8 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
- 1 Enoch 71-73 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Preside over all creation, and over all the stars
- 1 Enoch 71:1 according to Enoch's prophesy
- Many religious denominations no longer accept the Book of Enoch as a canonical book of the Bible.
Biblical Scriptures supporting modern scientific cosmology
Big Bang Theory
- Job 9:8 according to Job in his dialog with Bildad
- Psalm 104:1-2 according to Biblical praise of God
- Zechariah 12:1 according to God in Zechariah's prophesy
- Isaiah 42:5 according to God in Isaiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 40:22 according to Isaiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 44:24 according to God in Isaiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 45:12 according to God in Isaiah's prophesy
- Isaiah 53:13 according to God in Isaiah's prophesy
- Jeremiah 10:12 according to God's word in Jeremiah's prophesy
- Jeremiah 51:15 according to God's word in Jeremiah's prophesy
Sky, sun, moon and stars
The sky, the abode of the stars, is described as a "raqiya'" (rakia, Hebrew for a plate); that is, a rigid, broad, solid plate possessing a certain thickness. The translation familiar to most English speakers is "firmament." According to Genesis 1:14, this raqiya' was set in the midst of the waters, and it divided the waters above from those beneath. According to some readings, God made it of matter already existing at the time of Creation; that is, God did not "create" it at that time. The raqiya' representing the sky in Ezek. 1:22 resembled ice; therefore it is quite possible that the author of Genesis, like Ezekiel, regarded the sky as being composed of solidified water or ice. Such a sky, being transparent, would permit the stars, which are located above its vault, to be seen through it.
Other scholars believe that the sky (which is a plural noun in Hebrew) was made up of an expanse between the waters, and another above. Scholars differ on the definition of "raqiya'" (pronounced “raqiyya”): some say that it refers to a hard plate, others to an empty space or one filled with atmosphere.
Stars as the Hosts of Heaven
Several Biblical passages refer to “hosts” around God and in the heights above. This phrase is commonly taken to refer to angels or other creatures, but an alternate interpretation takes it to mean the stars. Under this interpretation, the stars were supposed to be living creatures. If the difficult passage (Judges 5:20) may be regarded as other than a poetical figure, the stars "walk on the way"; they "come out" in the morning, and "go in" at night. By a miracle, sun and moon are made to stand suddenly still (Joshua 10:12). They fight from their courses like warriors on the march (Judges ib.); the poet perhaps thinks of falling stars. In later times the stars are spoken of as "the hosts of heaven." This conception is paralleled among the Assyrians, contemporaries of the Hebrews, who likewise conceive of the stars as soldiers serving the god of heaven, Anu, and probably also the somewhat similar god Ninib, whose abode was the planet Saturn.
The stars stand in God's presence, to the right and the left of God's throne (I Kings 22:19; II Chronicles 18:18); they serve Him (Neh. 9:6; Ps. 103:21), and praise Him (Ps. 103:21, 148:2). Like the kings of earth, they may be consigned by God's judgment to the nether world (Isa. 24:21 et seq.); and God will in future execute judgment among them as among the nations of earth (Isa. 34:4 et seq.). Reverence is offered to the stars as living creatures (Jer. 8:2).
At the head of this starry host stands a "captain of the army" (Josh. 5:14; Dan. 8:11); according to the passage in the Book of Daniel, he was the star highest in altitude as well. By this designation the planet Saturn was probably intended, the farthest removed from earth and therefore the highest in the heavens, and which was held by the Assyrians to be the "bellwether" of the flock. This starry army belongs to God; hence the frequent expression "God of hosts" indicates that God is the actual leader of the heavenly array.
Zechariah 4:1–10 recounts a vision of a menorah (ancient Hebrew lampstand) with places for seven lamps. (A menorah with seven lamps was a decoration in the Tabernacle from the time of Moses, and later in the Temple in Jerusalem.) Taking this interpretation to its extreme, this passage can be viewed as calling the seven planets the "seven eyes of God", just as the planet Saturn was the eye of Anu, lord of heaven among the Babylonians. It would appear, therefore, that they were no longer considered independent beings, and of course the other stars likewise. However, this vision is a visual parable, not necessarily a physical object, and it does not mention stars: therefore the interpretation that it refers to the seven planets is not obvious from the text (Compare Revelation 1:20)
Spiritual Cosmology
Origin
The Bible says we are made by God in his own image. Modern evolution theorizes that all species evolved from simple life forms.
Worship
The Bible condemns the worship of celestial bodies. The Bible says we have everlasting souls which will either rejoice in heave or burn in hell for all eternity. We have received God's word in the form of the Bible which provides a set of laws to obey
- God: [Mark 12:28-31] according to Jesus in the Gospel of Mark
Modern movements in Biblical cosmology
"Association for Biblical Astronomy" attempts to alter scientific thought to adequately reflect Biblical truths with special focus on astronomy.
"Young Earth Creationists (YEC)" attempts to alter scientific thought to adequately reflect Biblical truths with special focus on creationism (spiritual cosmology).
After its experiences during the Copernican revolution, The Catholic Church has slowly shifted towards tolerance and even acceptance of physical cosmology as proposed by scientists. A Roman Catholic Priest in the employ of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Georges Lemaître was, in fact, instrumental in the development of the Big Bang theory of the universe. The Catholic Church and many other mainline Christian denominations accept modern scientific cosmology as compatible with allegorical interpretations of the Bible. The Conservative and Reform traditions within Judaism also accept modern cosmology as compatible with their reading of scripture.
In contrast, some modern-day Young Earth creationists have tried to create Creationist cosmologies that they claim are compatible with a plain reading of the Creation according to Genesis in order to explain observations that appear to refer to a universe that is older than they would prefer. There are also a limited number of radical creationists who believe that strict modern geocentrism or even a flat earth are the only acceptable cosmological arrangements in concord with the bible, though their numbers are vanishingly small and their arguments are rejected by the majority of creationists. Supporters of mainstream science dismiss all these cosmologies as pseudoscience.
References
- ^ Pablo Alvarez. http://www.lib.rochester.edu/index.cfm?PAGE=3338
- ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IV. Robert Appleton Company. as reproduced at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04352b.htm
- ^ Nicolaus Copernicus. "The Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies" 1543. as reproduced at http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/history/virtual/reading/core4-04r01.htm
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Luther's Works". Vol. 1. Lectures on Genesis. ed. Janoslaw Pelikan, Concordia Pub. House. 1958. pp. 30, 42, 43.
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Table Talk". 1566. Translated by: Hazlitt, W. Typed by: Sewell, K. as reproduced at http://www.reformed.org/documents/Table_talk/table_talk_8.html
- ^ Luther, Martin. "Table Talk". 1566.
- ^ Bruno, Giordano. "On Cause, Principle, and Unity". 1584.>
- ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Quotations/Bruno_Giordano.html
- ^ a b O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F. "Giordano Bruno". 2002. as produced at http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bruno_Giordano.html
- ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Quotations/Galileo.html
- ^ a b c d e White, Andrew W. "A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom". 1896. (Now public domain within the USA & reproduced at these locations text file, html1, html2, and html3.)
- ^ Sleep, Norman. "What you will See for Yourself Planetary Habitability: A Modern Fortnight of the First New Science of the Renaissance" 2005. as produced at http://pangea.stanford.edu/courses/gp025/webbook/02_vastness.html
- ^ O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F. "Galileo Galilei". 2002. as produced at http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html
- ^ Galileo, 1632, in Janelle Rohr, editor, Science & Religion--Opposing Viewpoints (Greenhaven Press, 1988), p. 21.
- ^ http://catholicanalysis.blogspot.com/2003/08/galileo-scientific-martyr-or.html
- ^ http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html
- ^ Dr. Kevin Lewis. "On the Heresy of Literalism". 2005. as reproduced at http://people.cas.sc.edu/lewiske/heresy.html
- ^ Newport, Frank. "Gallup Poll: Third of Americans Say Evidence Has Supported Darwin's Evolution Theory". 2004. as reproduced at http://www.galluppoll.com/content/default.aspx?ci=14107
- ^ http://www.cnn.com/US/9908/12/kansas.evolution.flap/
- ^ Darwin, Charles. "Descent of Man". 1871. as reproduced at http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2300
- ^ http://en.thinkexist.com/quotations/evolution/2.html
- ^ Pope Benedict XVI. "In the Beginning". 1990. p.85 as reproduced at http://bevets.com/equotesp3.htm
- ^ Pope Benedict XVI. "Mass in Regensburg September 12, 2006". 2006. as reproduced at http://bevets.com/equotesp3.htm
- P O Kristeller, Eight Philosophers of the Italian Renaissance (1964).
See also
- Cosmogony
- Cosmological argument
- Creation (theology)
- Creation according to Genesis
- Allegorical interpretations of Genesis
- Creationism
- Creationist cosmologies
- Creator god
- Dating Creation
- Day-Age Creationism
- Deism
- Gap Creationism
- Hindu cosmology
- Modern geocentrism
- Old Earth Creationism
- Origin belief
- Theism
- Timeline of the Universe
- Ultimate fate of the Universe
- Young Earth Creationism