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{{For2|botanical usage|[[Berry (botany)]]|other uses|[[Berry (disambiguation)]]}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2015}} |
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[[File:Ribes rubrum2005-07-17.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Redcurrants]], a type of "true" berry.]] |
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{|style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float:right; text-align: center;" |
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|<gallery mode="packed-hover" widths="100px" heights="100px"> |
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File:Berberis thunbergii berries.jpg|[[Berberis thunbergii|Japanese barberries]] |
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File:Norwegian blueberry.jpg|[[Bilberry]] |
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File:Ribes rubrum2005-07-17.JPG|[[Red currant]]s |
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File:Lonicera coerulea a3.jpg|[[Lonicera caerulea|Honeysuckle]] |
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File:Stachelbeere (Ribes uva-crispa).jpg|[[Gooseberries]] |
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File:Rubus chamaemorus close-up.JPG|[[Rubus chamaemorus|Cloudberry]] |
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File:Vaccinium corymbosum a2.jpg|[[Vaccinium corymbosum|Highbush blueberries]] |
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File:Black Butte blackberry.jpg|[[Blackberries]] |
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</gallery> |
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|} |
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<!-- Definition --> |
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In everyday language, a '''berry''' is a small, pulpy and often edible fruit. Berries are usually juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many seeds may be present.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> Common examples are [[strawberries]], [[raspberries]], [[blueberries]]; and [[Ribes rubrum|red-]] and [[blackcurrant]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/inter?dest=/dictionary/berry |title=Berry |work=Merriam-Webster }}</ref> In Britain '''soft fruit''' is a [[horticultural]] term for such fruits.<ref>{{cite web |title=soft fruit |work=Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition |publisher=HarperCollins |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/soft%20fruit?s=ts |accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Soft Fruit List: 2014–15 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/gardens/pdf/wisley/Soft-Fruit-List-2014-2015-final |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811080039/https://www.rhs.org.uk/gardens/pdf/wisley/Soft-Fruit-List-2014-2015-final |archivedate=11 August 2015 |accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Berry|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Berry|website=The Free Dictionary|accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref> |
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<!-- Botany --> |
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The botanical definition of a '''berry''' is a fleshy [[fruit]] produced from a single flower and containing one [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]]. [[Grape]]s and [[eggplant]]s are two common examples. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible [[pericarp]]. They may have one or more [[carpels]]. The seeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy exceptions, such as [[Capsicum|peppers]], that have air rather than pulp around their seeds. |
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In scientific terminology, a [[berry (botany)|botanical berry]] is a [[fruit]] produced from the [[Ovary (botany)|ovary]] of a single flower in which the outer layer of the ovary wall develops into an edible fleshy portion (botanically the [[pericarp]]). The definition includes many fruits that are not commonly known as berries, such as [[grape]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[cucumber]]s, [[eggplant]]s (aubergines) and [[banana]]s. Fruits excluded by the botanical definition include strawberries and raspberries. A plant bearing berries is said to be ''bacciferous'' or ''baccate''. |
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<!-- Edibility --> |
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A plant that bears berries is said to be '''bacciferous''' or '''baccate''' (a plant that resembles a berry, whether it actually is a berry or not, can also be called "baccate"). |
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Many berries are edible, and some are commercially important, but others such as the fruits of the [[potato]], the [[Atropa belladonna|deadly nightshade]] and [[Phytolacca americana|pokeweed]] are [[poison]]ous to humans. Others, such as the [[morus alba|white]], [[morus rubra|red mullberry]], and [[Sambucus|elderberry]] are poisonous when unripe, but are edible in their ripe form.<ref>{{cite web|title=ELDERBERRY (SAMBUCUS SPECIES)|url=http://novascotia.ca/museum/poison/?section=species&id=117|website=The Poison Plant Patch|publisher=Novia Scotia Museum|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> |
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<!-- Society, culture and history --> |
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In everyday English, "berry" is a term for any small edible fruit. Berries are usually juicy, round, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many seeds may be present. |
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Berries are eaten worldwide and often used in [[jam]]s, [[Fruit preserves|preserve]]s, [[cake]]s or [[pie]]s. The berry industry varies from country to country as do types of berries cultivated or growing in the wild. Many berries such as raspberries and strawberries have been bred for thousands of years and are distinct from their wild counterparts, while some berries such as [[lingonberries]] and [[cloudberries]] grow almost exclusively in the wild. |
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{{TOC hidden}} |
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== History == |
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Many berries, such as the [[tomato]], are edible, but others in the same family, such as the fruits of the potato (''[[Solanum tuberosum]]'') and the deadly nightshade (''[[Atropa belladonna]]'') are [[poison]]ous to humans. |
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== |
=== Biological === |
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[[File:Tyttebær.jpg|thumb|Ripe lingonberries]] |
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In [[botany|botanical]] language, a berry is a simple fruit having [[seed]]s and pulp produced from a single [[ovary (plants)|ovary]]; the ovary can be [[inferior ovary|inferior]] or [[superior ovary|superior]]. |
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=== Human === |
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Examples of botanical berries include: |
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Berries have been valuable as a food source since before the start of agriculture to humans, and remain among the primary food sources of other primates. They were a seasonal staple for early hunter-gatherers for thousands of years, and wild berry gathering remains a popular activity in Europe and North America today. In time, humans learned to store berries so that they may be used in the winter, and they may be made into [[fruit preserves]], and among [[Native Americans]], mixed with meat and fats as [[pemmican]].<ref name=cambridge>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Food, Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&pg=PA1732#v=onepage&q&f=false |pages=1731–1732 | editor= Kenneth F. Kiple |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0521402156 }}</ref> |
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{{colbegin|colwidth=30em}} |
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* [[Avocado]] (''Persea americana'') a one-seeded berry |
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* [[Banana]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html |title=Banana from ''Fruits of Warm Climates'' by Julia Morton |publisher=Hort.purdue.edu |accessdate=2009-04-16| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090415160027/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html| archivedate=2009-04-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm|author=Armstrong, Wayne P.|title=Identification Of Major Fruit Types|publisher=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History|accessdate=2013-08-17}}</ref> |
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* [[Berberis|Barberry]] (''Berberis''; [[Berberidaceae]]) |
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* [[Bearberry]] (''Arctostaphylos'' spp.) |
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* [[Bilberry]] |
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* [[Blueberry]] |
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* [[Coffea|Coffee]] berries |
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* [[Cranberry]] |
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* [[Crowberry]] (''Empetrum'' spp.) |
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* [[Ribes|Currant]] (''Ribes'' spp.; [[Grossulariaceae]]), red, black, and white types |
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* [[Aubergine]]/[[Eggplant]] |
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* [[Sambucus|Elderberry]] (''Sambucus niger''; [[Adoxaceae]]) |
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* [[Gooseberry]] (''Ribes'' spp.; [[Grossulariaceae]]) |
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* [[Indian gooseberry]] ''(Phyllanthus emblica)'' |
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* ''[[Garcinia gummi-gutta]]'', ''[[Garcinia mangostana]]'', and ''[[Garcinia indica]]'' (Vrikshamla) |
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* [[Goji]] berries (Wolfberry) |
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* [[Grape]], ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'' |
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* [[Honeysuckle]]: the berries of ''some'' species are edible and are called [[Lonicera caerulea|honeyberries]], but others are poisonous (''Lonicera'' spp.; [[Caprifoliaceae]]) |
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* Lingonberry/Cowberry (''[[Vaccinium vitis-idaea]]'') |
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* [[Persimmon]] |
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* [[Podophyllum peltatum|Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum'' spp.; [[Berberidaceae]]) |
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* [[Oregon-grape]] (''Mahonia aquifolium''; [[Berberidaceae]]) |
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* [[Pumpkin]] |
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* [[Arbutus unedo|Strawberry tree]] (''Arbutus unedo''), not to be confused with the [[strawberry]] (''Fragaria'') |
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* [[Tomato]] and other species of the family [[Solanaceae]] |
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* [[Watermelon]] |
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{{colend}} |
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Berries also began to be cultivated in Europe and other countries. Some species of blackberries and raspberries of the genus ''[[Rubus]]'' have been cultivated since the 17th century, while smooth-skinned blueberries and cranberries of the genus ''[[Vaccinium]]'' have been cultivated in the United States for over a century.<ref name=cambridge /> In Japan, between 10th and 18th century, the term "ichibigo" (which later became "ichigo") referred to many berry crops. The most widely cultivated berry of modern times, however, is the strawberry which is produced globally at twice the amount of all other berry crops combined.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.amjbot.org/content/101/10/1686.full |title=Fragaria: A genus with deep historical roots and ripe for evolutionary and ecological insights|authors=Aaron Liston, Richard Cronn and Tia-Lynn Ashman |journal=American Journal of Botany |year=2014 |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=1686–99|doi= 10.3732/ajb.1400140 |pmid=25326614 }}</ref> Strawberry was mentioned by ancient Romans who thought it had medicinal properties,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NTKoIy2TcYC&pg=PA213#v=onepage&q&f=false |title= 75 Remarkable Fruits for Your Garden|author= Jack Staub |page=213 |publisher= Gibbs Smith |date= 2008 |asin=B001PGX05K }}</ref> but it was then not a staple of agriculture.<ref name="wild crop"/> [[Wood strawberry]] began to be grown in garden in France in the 1300s, musky-flavored strawberry (''F. moschata'') in late 1500s in European gardens, and later [[Virginia strawberry]] in Europe and United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/strawberryhistory.html |title=History of the Strawberry|author=Vern Grubinger |publisher=University of Vermont }}</ref> The most commonly consumed strawberry, the [[garden strawberry]], is an accidental hybrid of Virginia strawberry and a Chilean variety ''[[Fragaria chiloensis]]'' first noted by a French gardener around the mid 18th century after ''F. moschata'' and ''F. virginiana'' were planted in between rows of ''F. chiloensis''. [[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne]] began to study the [[breeding of strawberries]],<ref>{{cite book |url=http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |title=The strawberry; history, breeding, and physiology |year=1966 |publisher=New York Holt Rinehart and Winston|author=George M. Darrow |pages=38–43}}</ref> and hundreds of cultivars have since been produced through the breeding of strawberries.<ref name="wild crop">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAJ_mUrdpWMC&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Temperate Fruits|editor= Chittaranjan Kole |pages=22–23 |publisher=Springer|year= 2011 |asin= B008CN2MQC }}</ref> |
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=== Modified berries === |
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The fruit of [[citrus]], such as the [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[kumquat]] and [[lemon]], is a berry with a thick rind and a very juicy interior that is given the special name [[hesperidium]]. |
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=== Etymology === |
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Berries which develop from an inferior ovary are sometimes termed [[Glossary of botanical terms|epigynous]] berries or false berries, as opposed to true berries which develop from a superior ovary. In epigynous berries, the berry includes tissue derived from parts of the flower besides the ovary. The floral tube, formed from the basal part of the sepals, petals and stamens can become fleshy at maturity and is united with the ovary to form the fruit. Common fruits that are sometimes classified as epigynous berries include bananas, coffee, members of the genus ''Vaccinium'' (e.g., cranberries and blueberries), and members of the family [[Cucurbitaceae]] (e.g., [[cucumber]]s, [[melon]]s and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupta, P.K.|title=Genetics Classical To Modern|publisher=Rastogi Publications|isbn=978-81-7133-896-2|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=uIfSEdff6YgC|year=2007}}</ref> |
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A form of the word "berry" is found in all the [[Germanic languages]]; for example, [[Old English]] ''berie'' compares with [[Old Saxon]] and [[Old High German]] ''beri'', and [[Old Norse]] ''ber''. These forms point to the [[Old German]] ''*bazjo-m'', which has been traced to the Old German ''*bazo-z'' (which also leads to the English word ''bare'', as in "a bare fruit"). In Old English, the word was mainly applied to grapes, but has since grown to its current definition. The oldest known use of the word ''berry'' in English was in [[Ælfric of Eynsham]]'s version of the [[Book of Deuteronomy]] written {{circa|1000}}, specifically {{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|23:24|KJV}}.<ref>{{OED|berry}}</ref> |
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== Botanical definition == |
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Another specialized term is also used for ''[[Cucurbitaceae]]'' fruits, which are modified to have a hard outer rind, and are given the special name [[Glossary of botanical terms|pepo]]. While pepos are most common in the ''Cucurbitaceae'', the fruits of ''[[Passiflora]]'' and ''[[Carica]]'' are sometimes also considered pepos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbotanical.com/fruit_types.htm |title=A Systematic Treatment of Fruit Types |publisher=Worldbotanical.com |date= |accessdate=2013-08-26}}</ref> |
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{{more refs|section|date=August 2015}} |
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{{main|Berry (botany)}} |
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In [[botany|botanical]] terminology, a berry is a simple fruit with [[seed]]s and pulp produced from the [[ovary (plants)|ovary]] of a single flower. It is fleshy throughout, except for the seeds. It does not have a special "line of weakness" along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe (i.e. it is [[Dehiscence (botany)|indehiscent]]).<ref>{{cite web |first1=Robert W. |last1=Kiger |first2=Duncan M. |last2=Porter |date=2001 |title=Find term 'berry' |website=Categorical Glossary for the Flora of North America Project |url=http://fmhibd.library.cmu.edu/HIBD-DB/FNA/findrecords.php |accessdate=2015-08-14 |lastauthoramp=yes }}</ref> A berry may develop from an ovary with one or more [[gynoecium|carpels]] (the female reproductive structures of a flower). The seeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy examples such as [[Capsicum|peppers]], with air rather than pulp around their seeds. The differences between the everyday and botanical uses of "berry" result in three categories: those fruits which are berries under both definitions; those fruits which are botanical berries but not commonly known as berries; and those parts of plants commonly known as berries which are not botanical berries, and may not even be fruits. |
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== Fruits not botanical berries == |
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[[File:Berries (USDA ARS).jpg|250px|thumb|right|Several types of common "berries" are shown, only one of which (the [[blueberry]]) is a berry by botanical definition. [[Blackberry|Blackberries]] are [[aggregate fruit]] composed of many [[drupes|drupelets]], and [[Strawberry|strawberries]] are aggregate [[accessory fruit]].]] |
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Many fruits commonly referred to as berries are not actual berries by the scientific definition, but fall into one of the following categories: |
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{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center |
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=== Drupes === |
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|align=center |
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[[Drupe]]s are fleshy fruits produced from a (usually) single-seeded ovary with a hard stony layer (called the [[endocarp]]) surrounding the seed. Familiar examples include the stonefruits of ''[[Prunus]]'' species ([[peach]]es, [[plum]]s and [[Cherry|cherries]]), [[olive]]s, [[coconut]] and [[bayberry]]. Other drupe-like fruits with a single seed that lack the stony endocarp include [[sea-buckthorn]] (''Hippophae rhamnoides'', [[Elaeagnaceae]]), an [[achene]] surrounded by the swollen [[hypanthium]], which provides the fleshy layer. |
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|total_width=800 |
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|image1=Tyttebær.jpg |width1=1280 |height1=960 |alt1= |
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|caption1=Lingonberries – berries under both definitions |
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|image2=Bananavarieties.jpg |width2=387 |height2=221 |alt2= |
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|caption2=Bananas – botanically berries, but not commonly described as such |
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|image3=Ripe, ripening, and green blackberries.jpg |width3=3394 |height3=2418 |alt3= |
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|caption3=Blackberries – botanically aggregate fruits |
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|image4=Closeup of blackthorn aka sloe aka prunus spinosa sweden 20050924.jpg |width4=2592 |height4=1944 |alt4= |
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|caption4=Sloe berries – botanically stone fruits or drupes |
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|image5=Taxus baccata MHNT.jpg |width5=4480 |height5=3906 |alt5= |
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|caption5=Yew berry – botanically a modified seed-bearing conifer cone |
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|header=Different kinds of "berries" |
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}} |
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Berries under both definitions include [[Blueberry|blueberries]], [[Cranberry|cranberries]], [[Lingonberry|lingonberries]], and the fruits of many other members of the [[Ericaceae|heather family]], as well as [[Gooseberry|gooseberries]], [[Gogi|goji berries]] and [[Sambucus|elderberries]]. The fruits of some "currants" (''[[Ribes]]'' species), such as [[blackcurrant]]s, [[redcurrant]]s and [[white currant]]s, are botanical berries, and are treated as horticultural berries (or as soft fruit in the UK), even though their most commonly used names do not include the word "berry". |
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=== Pomes === |
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The [[pome]] fruits produced by plants in subtribe Pyrinae of family [[Rosaceae]], such as apples and pears, have a structure (the core) that clearly separates the seeds from the ovary tissue. However, some of the smaller pomes are sometimes referred to as berries. Bright red haws from ''[[Crataegus]]'' are sometimes called hawberries. ''[[Amelanchier]]'' pomes become so soft at maturity that they resemble a [[blueberry]] and are known as Juneberries or Saskatoon berries. |
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Botanical berries not commonly known as berries include [[banana]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html |title=Banana from ''Fruits of Warm Climates'' by Julia Morton |publisher=Purdue University |accessdate=16 April 2009| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090415160027/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html| archivedate=15 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm|author=Armstrong, Wayne P.|title=Identification of Major Fruit Types|publisher=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History|accessdate=17 August 2013}}{{unreliable source|date=August 2015}}</ref> [[tomato]]es,<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> [[grape]]s, [[eggplant]]s or [[aubergine]]s, [[persimmon]]s, [[watermelon]]s and [[pumpkin]]s. |
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=== Aggregate fruits === |
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[[File:Alaska wild berries.jpg||thumb|right|Alaska wild "berries" from the [[Innoko National Wildlife Refuge]], a mixture of true berries and aggregate fruits]] |
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[[Aggregate fruit]]s contain seeds from different ovaries of a single flower. Examples commonly called "berries" include members of the ''Rubus'' genus, such as [[blackberry]] and [[raspberry]]. Other large aggregate fruits, such as soursop (''[[Annona muricata]]'') are not usually called "berries". |
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There are several different kinds of fruits which are commonly called berries but are not botanical berries. [[Blackberry|Blackberries]], [[Raspberry|raspberries]] and [[Strawberry|strawberries]] are kinds of [[aggregate fruit]]s;<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> they contain seeds from different ovaries of a single flower. In aggregate fruits like blackberries, the individual "fruitlets" making up the fruit can be clearly seen. The fruits of [[Prunus spinosa|blackthorn]] may be called "sloe berries",<ref>{{cite news |last=Shilling |first=Jane |date=20 August 2014 |title=Why these bitter berries are summer’s sweetest fruit: Mixed bag of weather results in an early burst of the sloe |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2729455/Why-bitter-berries-summer-s-sweetest-fruit-Mixed-bag-weather-results-early-burst-sloe.html |newspaper=MailOnline |access-date=15 August 2015 }}</ref> but botanically are small [[Drupe|stone fruits]] or drupes, like [[plum]]s or [[apricot]]s. [[Juniper]]s and [[Taxus|yews]] are commonly said to have berries, but these differ from botanical berries. They are highly modified seed-bearing [[Conifer cone|cones]]. In [[Juniper berry|juniper berries]], used to flavour [[gin]], the cone scales, which are hard and woody in most conifers, are instead soft and fleshy when ripe. The bright red berries of yews consist of a fleshy outgrowth ([[aril]]) almost enclosing the poisonous seed. |
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=== Multiple fruits === |
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[[Multiple fruit]]s include the fruits of multiple flowers that are merged or packed closely together. The [[mulberry]] is a berry-like example of a multiple fruit; it develops from a cluster of tiny separate flowers that become compressed as they develop into fruit.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=yKUagx8PB_EC&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=blueberries+%22are+not+true+berries%22 |title=The American Heritage Science Dictionary|publisher=Google Books |date= |accessdate=2013-08-26}}</ref> |
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=== Accessory fruits === |
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{{main|Accessory fruit}} |
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In accessory fruits, the edible part is not generated by the ovary. Berry-like examples include: |
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* [[Strawberry]] - the aggregate of seed-like [[achene]]s is actually the "fruit", derived from an aggregate of ovaries, and the fleshy part develops from the [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]]. |
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* [[Gurbir]], ''[[Duchesnea indica]]'' - structured just like a strawberry |
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* [[Coccoloba uvifera|Sea grape]] (''Coccoloba uvifera''; [[Polygonaceae]]) - the fruit is a dry capsule surrounded by fleshy calyx |
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* Wintergreen (''[[Gaultheria procumbens]]'') - the fruit is a dry capsule surrounded by fleshy calyx |
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== Color and potential health benefits == |
== Color and potential health benefits == |
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[[File:Berries Contrast.JPG||thumb|right|Example of color contrast in these (mostly inedible) wild berries]] |
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[[File:Berries Contrast.JPG||thumb|right|Example of color contrast in (mostly inedible) wild berries]] |
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Berries are typically of a contrasting color to their background (often of green leaves), making them visible and attractive to [[frugivorous]] animals and birds. This assists the wide [[biological dispersal|dispersal]] of the plants' seeds. |
Berries are typically of a contrasting color to their background (often of green leaves), making them visible and attractive to [[frugivorous]] animals and birds. This assists the wide [[biological dispersal|dispersal]] of the plants' seeds. |
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Berry colors are due to natural [[plant pigment]]s |
Berry colors are due to natural [[plant pigment]]s, such as [[anthocyanin]]s, together with other [[flavonoid]]s and [[polyphenols]] localized mainly in berry [[Peel (fruit)|skins]], seeds and leaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ss01/anthocyanin.html|title=The Possible Health Benefits of Anthocyanin Pigments and Polyphenolics|last=Wrolstad|first=Ronald E.|year=2001|publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis|accessdate=7 July 2014|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20140707173920/http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ss01/anthocyanin.html|archivedate=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=J Agric Food Chem|year=2006|volume=54|issue=20|pages=7692-702|title=Metabolite profiling of grape: Flavonols and anthocyanins|authors=Mattivi F, Guzzon R, Vrhovsek U, Stefanini M, Velasco R|pmid=17002441}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Phytochemistry|year=2015|volume=110|pages=46-57|doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.018|title=Fruit-localized photoreceptors increase phenolic compounds in berry skins of field-grown Vitis vinifera L. cv. Malbec|authors=González CV et al.|pmid=25514818}}</ref> Although berry pigments have [[antioxidant]] properties ''[[in vitro]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL |title=Lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of common foods in the United States |journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]|volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=4026–37 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15186133 |doi=10.1021/jf049696w |last2=Beecher |last3=Holden |last4=Haytowitz |last5=Gebhardt |last6=Prior }}</ref> there is no [[physiological]] evidence established to date that berry polyphenols have actual antioxidant or any other functions within the human body. Consequently, it is not permitted to claim that foods containing polyphenols have antioxidant health value on product labels in the United States or Europe.<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/FDA-1995-N-0400-GDL.pdf Guidance for Industry, Food Labeling; Nutrient Content Claims; Definition for "High Potency" and Definition for "Antioxidant" for Use in Nutrient Content Claims for Dietary Supplements and Conventional Foods] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, June 2008</ref><ref name=efsa>{{cite journal |author=EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA)2, 3 |title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=8 |issue=10 |page=1752 |year=2010 |publisher=European Food Safety Authority |location=Parma, Italy |url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/scientific_output/files/main_documents/1752.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1752}}</ref> |
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== Cultural significance == |
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==National commercial production== |
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According to Mediterranean folklore Christ's Crown of Thorns was made of brambles{{clarify|reason=Which species is referred to here?|date=August 2015}} and the color of the berries is from the blood of Christ; a different legend holds that Lucifer entered the bush when he fell from heaven. When Bellerophon tried to ride Pegasus he fell into a thorn bush so that blackberries are also associated with arrogance.<ref name=BerryFolk>{{cite web|last1=Alexander|first1=Courtney|title=Berries As Symbols and in Folklore|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/berryfolklore.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> Elderberries are associated with bad omens.<ref name=BerryFolk/> Raspberries are associated with fragility and kindness, as well as with ensuring good pregnancy and childbirth.<ref name=BerryFolk /> Strawberries are associated with righteousness, the trinity, perfection, sweetness, and modesty.<ref name=BerryFolk /> The Slovakian version of Cinderella is called 'Strawberries in Winter'.<ref name=BerryFolk /> |
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{| style="float:center;" class="wikitable" |
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=== Dyeing === |
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{{expand section|date=August 2015}} |
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Many berries contain juices which can easily stain, affording use as a natural [[dye]]. For example, blackberries are useful for making dyes, especially when ripe berries can easily release juice to produce a [[Colour fastness|colourfast]] effect.<ref name="brambleberriesintherain">{{cite web | url=http://brambleberriesintherain.com/2011/09/dyeing-with-blackberries/ | title=Dyeing with blackberries | accessdate=12 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Culturally and Economically Important Nontimber Forest Products of Northern Maine: Blueberry|url=http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/special_products/maine_ntfp/plants/blueberry/|website=US Forest Service|accessdate=12 August 2015}}</ref><ref name=FSDyeBerry>{{cite web|title=Native Plant Dyes|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/dyes.shtml|website=US Forest Service|accessdate=12 August 2015}}</ref> ''Rubus'' berries, such as blackberry, raspberry, [[black raspberry]], [[dewberry]], [[loganberry]] and [[thimbleberry]], all produce dye colours once used by [[Native Americans]].<ref name=FSDyeBerry /><ref name="Mahady Fong Farnsworth 2001 p. 47"/> In Hawaii, the native raspberry called 'akala' was used to dye [[tapa cloth]] with lavender and pink hues, whereas berries from the [[dianella (plant)|dianella]] [[lily]] were used for blue coloration, and berries from the [[black nightshade]] were used to produce green coloration.<ref name="Krohn-Ching 1980 p. 13"/> |
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In Swaziland, several berry species are used as a dye.<ref name="Shujaa Shujaa 2015 p. 382"/> |
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== Culinary significance == |
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{{refimprove section|date=August 2015}} |
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=== Use in baked goods === |
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[[File:Best Blueberry Pie with Foolproof Pie Dough.jpg|thumb|A slice of [[blueberry pie]]]] |
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Berries are commonly used in pies or tarts, such as [[grape pie]], [[blueberry pie]], [[blackberry pie]], and [[strawberry pie]]. |
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Berries are often used in baking blueberry muffins, blackberry muffins, berry cobblers, berry crisps, berry cakes, berry buckles, berry crumb cakes, berry tea cakes, and berry cookies.<ref name=DesBerry>{{cite web|title=60 Berry desserts|url=http://www.marthastewart.com/274895/60-berry-desserts|website=Martha Stewart|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> Berries are commonly incorporated whole into the batter for baking and care is often taken so as to not burst the berries; frozen or dried berries may be preferable for some baked berry products.<ref>{{cite web|title=Baking with Blueberries|url=http://www.blueberrycouncil.org/blueberry-cooking-tips/baking-blueberries/|website=U.S Highbush Blueberry Council|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gordon|first1=Megan|title=Frozen Berries In Off-Season Baking: Should You Thaw Before Using?|url=http://www.thekitchn.com/bakers-tip-how-to-best-use-frozen-berries-for-offseason-baking-177519|website=The Kitchn|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Fresh Fruit vs Frozen Fruit in baking recipes|url=http://bakingbites.com/2012/07/fresh-vs-frozen-fruit-in-baking-recipes/|website=Baking Bites|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> Fresh berries are also often incorporated into baked berry desserts, sometimes with cream, either as a filling to the dessert or as a topping.<ref name=DesBerry /> |
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=== Beverages === |
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Berries are often added to water and/or juiced as in [[cranberry juice]], which accounts for 95% of cranberry crop usage,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Geisler|first1=Malinda|title=Cranberries Profile|url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/cranberries-profile/|website=AgMRC|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> blueberry juice, [[raspberry juice]], goji berry juice, acai juice, aronia berry juice, and strawberry juice.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Beck|first1=Margery A.|title=Aronia berry gaining market foothold in U.S.|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/07/12/aronia-berry-gaining-market-foothold-in-us/12571761/|website=USA Today|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Fruit Juices|url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-region/united-states/fruit-juices/?id=1410083148489|website=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> [[Wine]] is the principal fermented beverage made from berries (grapes). [[Fruit wine]]s are commonly made out of other berries. In most cases sugars must be added to create the proper mix{{clarify|reason=what is a "proper mix"|date=August 2015}} for fermentation. [[Fruit wine#List of fruits and plants used to make fruit wine|Examples of fruit wines made from berries]] include: elderberry wine, strawberry wine, blueberry wine, blackberry wine, redcurrant wine, huckleberry wine, goji wine and cranberry wine.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wright|first1=John|title=How to make Blackberry Wine and Whisky|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/aug/31/how-make-blackberry-wine-whisky|website=The Gaurdian|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kime|first1=Robert|title=Strawberry Wine|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/enologyvalueadded/evapdfs/strawberrywine.pdf|website=Berry Resources Cornell|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bring on the Blueberry Wine|url=http://www.winemag.com/Web-2012/Bring-on-the-Blueberry-Wine/|website=Wine Mag|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rudebeck|first1=Clare|title=A berry nice vintage: It's time to rediscover the ancient art of fermenting fruit wines|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/a-berry-nice-vintage-its-time-to-rediscover-the-ancient-art-of-fermenting-fruit-wines-1784404.html|website=.independent.co.uk|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> |
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=== Dried === |
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[[File:Dried berries.jpg|thumb|Various [[Dried fruit|dried berries]]]] |
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[[Zante currant|Currants]], [[raisins]] and [[sultana (grape)|sultanas]] are examples of dried grape berries, and many other commercially important berries are available in dried form. |
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===Fried=== |
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Deep frying berry fruits is also popular as seen in [[jalapeño popper]]s, [[fried plantain]]s, [[chile relleno]], [[fried aubergine]], fried pickles (cucumbers), [[fried green tomatoes]], and fried pumpkin; soft fruit berries whether true berries or not do not hold up to frying, though they can be fried if made into a [[fried pie]].{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} |
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=== Fruit preserves === |
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{{main|Fruit preserves}} |
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[[File:Elderberry-jam.JPG|thumb|[[Sambucus|Elderberry]] jam on bread]] |
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<!-- Maybe you can use this: <ref name="Hibler2004">{{cite book|author=Jane Hibler|title=The Berry Bible: With 175 Recipes Using Cultivated and Wild, Fresh and Frozen Berries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W0A8E2haK3oC&pg=PA2|date=1 April 2004|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-008548-3|pages=}}</ref> --> |
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Berries are perishable fruits with a short shelf life and are often preserved by [[dried fruit|drying]], [[frozen food|freezing]], [[pickling]] or making [[fruit preserves]]. Berries such as blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, [[Lingonberry jam|lingonberry]], loganberry,<ref name="Taylor & Francis 2014 p. 121">{{cite book | title=The Jam Book | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-317-84605-5 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eyGsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 | page=121}}</ref> raspberry and strawberry are often used in jams and jellies. Examples of pickled berries include [[pickled peppers]], [[pickled cucumber]]s or gherkins. In the United States, Native Americans were "the first to make preserves from blueberries."<ref name="Grotto 2007 p. 53"/> |
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===Pickling=== |
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Chefs have created quick pickled soft fruit such as blackberries,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Satterfield|first1=Steven|title=Spiced and Pickled Blackberries|url=http://www.foodandwine.com/recipes/spiced-and-pickled-blackberries|website=Food and Wine|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> strawberries,<ref>{{cite web|last1=O'Brady|first1=Tara|title=Pickled Strawberry Preserves|url=http://www.davidlebovitz.com/2015/06/pickled-strawberry-preserves-recipe/|website=david lebovitz|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> and blueberries.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kord|first1=Tyler|title=Pickled Blueberries|url=http://www.saveur.com/article/Recipes/Pickled-Blueberries|website=[[Saveur]]|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> |
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== Cultivation == |
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Strawberries have been grown in gardens for a long time in Europe.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} Blueberries were domesticated starting in 1911 with the first commercial crop in 1916.<ref>{{cite web|title=Blueberries – Celebrating 100 Years|url=http://www.blueberrycouncil.org/about-blueberries/history-of-blueberries/|website=Blueberry Council|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> Huckleberries of all varieties are not fully domesticated but domestication was attempted from 1994-2010 for the economically significant western huckleberry.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Russell|first1=Betsy Z.|title=Wild huckleberry nearly tamed|url=http://idahoptv.org/Outdoors/shows/tasteofidaho/russellarticle.cfm|website=idahoptv|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pittaway|first1=Jenna|title=Dr Barney Interview on the Western Huckleberry|url=http://wildhuckleberry.com/2014/04/10/dr-barney-western-huckleberry/|website=wildhuckleberry|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> Many other varieties of ''Vaccinium'' are likewise not domesticated, with some being of commercial importance. |
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=== Agricultural methods === |
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Like most other food crops, berries are commercially grown with both conventional pest management and [[integrated pest management]] (IPM) practices. [[Organic certification|Organically certified]] berries are becoming more widely available.<ref name="Zhao2007"/><sup>:5</sup> |
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Many soft fruit berries require a period of temperatures between 0°C and 10°C for breaking dormancy, in general: strawberries require 200–300 hours, blueberries 650–850 hours, blackberries 700 hours, raspberries 800–1700 hours, currants and gooseberries 800–1500 hours, and cranberries 2000 hours.<ref name=SiteBerry>{{cite web|last1=Pritts|first1=Dr. Marvin|title=Site and Soil requirements for small fruit crops|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/sitesoireqsmfru.rev.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> However too low a temperature will also kill the crops: blueberries do not tolerate temperatures below -29°C, raspberries, depending on variety, may tolerate as low as -31°C, and blackberries are injured at less than -20°C.<ref name=SiteBerry /> Spring frosts are, however, much more damaging to berry crops than low winter temperatures causing sites with moderate slopes (3-5%) and north or east facing in the northern hemisphere near large bodies of water which regulate spring temperature to be considered ideal in preventing spring frost injury to the new leaves and flowers.<ref name=SiteBerry /> All berry crops have shallow root systems.<ref name=SiteBerry /> Many [[land-grant university]] extension offices suggest that Strawberries should not be planted more than five years on the same site due to the danger of [[Thielaviopsis|black root rot]] (though many other illnesses go by the same name), which is controlled in major commercial production by annual methyl bromide fumigation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Handley|first1=David T.|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://umaine.edu/publications/2067e/|website=University of Maine Extension|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://extension.illinois.edu/strawberries/growing.cfm|website=University of Illinois Extension|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Whiting|first1=David|title=Growing Strawberries in Colorado Gardens|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/Gardennotes/763.html|website=Colorodo State University Extension}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gao|first1=Gary|title=Strawberries are an Excellent Fruit for the Home Garden|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1424.html|website=Ohio State University Extension|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kluepfel|first1=Marjan|last2=Polomski|first2=Bob|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/small_fruits/hgic1405.html|website=Clemson Cooperative Extension|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Strawberry Production Systems|url=http://www.mofga.org/Publications/MaineOrganicFarmerGardener/Spring2012/Strawberries/tabid/2136/Default.aspx|website=Maine Organic Farmers and Gardners Association|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ruttan|first1=Denise|title=Plant strawberries and boost your health|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/plant-strawberries-and-boost-your-health|website=Oregon State University Extension Service|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref name=OrganicBerry>{{cite web|last1=Pritts|first1=Dr. Marvin|title=Key Features of Organic Berry Crop Production|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/Keyfeatorgberrycropprod.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> As well as years in production soil compaction, frequency of fumigation, and usage of herbicides increases the appearance of black root rot in strawberries.<ref name=OrganicBerry /> Raspberries, Blackberries, Strawberries, and many other berries are susceptible to [[Verticillium wilt]]. Blueberries and cranberries grow poorly if the clay or silt content of the soil is higher than 20%, while most other berries tolerate a wide range of soil types.<ref name=SiteBerry /> For most berry crops the ideal soil is well drained sandy loam with a pH of 6.2-6.8 with a moderate to high organic content; however, blueberries have an ideal pH of 4.2-4.8 and can be grown on muck soils and blueberries and cranberries prefer poorer soils with lower cation exchange, lower calcium, and lower levels of phosphorus.<ref name=SiteBerry /> |
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Growing most berries organically requires the usage of proper crop rotation, the right mix of cover crops, and the cultivation of the correct beneficial microorganisms in the soil.<ref name=OrganicBerry /> As blueberries and cranberries thrive in soils that are not hospitable to most other plants and conventional fertilizers are toxic to them, the primary concern when growing them organically is bird management.<ref name=OrganicBerry /> |
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Post-harvest small fruit berries are generally stored at 90-95% relative humidity and 0°C.<ref name=StoreBerry>{{cite web|last1=DeEll|first1=Dr. Jennifer|title=Postharvest Handling and Storage of Berries|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/storage_berries.htm|website=omafra|accessdate=12 August 2015}}</ref> Cranberries are however frost sensitive and should be stored at 3 C.<ref name=StoreBerry /> Berries do not respond to ethylene, except blueberries but flavor does not improve after harvest so they require the same treatment as other berries: removal of ethylene may reduce disease and spoilage in all berries.<ref name=StoreBerry /> Precooling within 1–2 hours post-harvest to storage temperature, generally 0°C, via forced air cooling increases the storage life of berries by about a third.<ref name=StoreBerry /> Under optimum storage conditions raspberries and blackberries last for 2–5 days, strawberries 7–10 days, blueberries 2–4 weeks, and cranberries 2–4 months.<ref name=StoreBerry /> Berries can be shipped under high carbon dioxide or modified atmosphere of 10-15% carbon dioxide for high carbon dioxide or 15-20% carbon dioxide and 5-10% oxygen for a modified atmosphere container to increase shelf life and prevent grey mold rot.<ref name=StoreBerry /> |
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=== Breeding === |
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<!--Maybe you can use this source?<ref name="FoltaKole2011">{{cite book|author1=Kevin M. Folta|author2=Chittaranjan Kole|title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=16 May 2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-5660-4|pages=}}</ref>--> |
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[[Image:Brambleberries.svg|thumb|right|[[Bramble]]s have been cultivated for thousands of years and been crossed back and forth to create the range of edible ''[[Rubus]]'' which we have today.]] |
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{{empty section|date=August 2015}} |
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=== Horticultural soft fruit/berries === |
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Some fruit not commonly referred to as berries and not always botanically berries are included by land-grant university extension offices in their guides for cultivation of berries, or in guides of identifying local wild edible and non-edible berries. Examples include [[Prunus maritima|beach plum]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Whitlow|first1=Dr. Thomas|title=Beach Plum|url=http://www.beachplum.cornell.edu/|website=Cornell|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> [[Diospyros virginiana|American persimmon]], [[Asimina triloba|PawPaw]], [[Malus fusca|Pacific crabapple]], and [[Opuntia|prickly pears]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Edible Berries of the Pacific Northwest|url=http://northernbushcraft.com/guide.php?ctgy=edible_berries®ion=pnw|website=Northern Bushcraft|accessdate=13 August 2015}}</ref> |
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== Other uses == |
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{{empty section|date=August 2015}} |
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== National commercial production == |
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Reporting on the production of berries by such organizations as [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database|FAOSTAT]] includes strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, black, red and white currants, blueberries, cranberries, blackberries, loganberries, huckleberry, dangleberries, myrtle berry, mulberry, and other fruits of the genus ''Vaccinium'' as being the category 'berries'. |
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<ref>{{cite web|title=Berries NES deffinition|url=http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef08e.htm#8.06|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|accessdate=10 August 2015}}</ref> |
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One source suggests that in the year 2005, there were 1.8 million acres of land on Earth producing berries, with 6.3 million tons produced.<ref name="Zhao2007">{{cite book|author=Yanyun Zhao|title=Berry Fruit: Value-Added Products for Health Promotion|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tTw9oDAYgNgC|date=6 June 2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-0614-8}}</ref><sup>:4</sup> |
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<center> |
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{| style="float: right; border: 1px solid #BBB; margin: .46em 0 0 .3em;" class="wikitable" |
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|- |
|- |
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! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfd;"|Berries production in thousand [[tonne]]s (2012)<br /> <small>Aggregated data from: [[FAOSTAT]]<ref>http://faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/go/to/download/Q/QC/E</ref></small> <br /> |
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#dfd;"|Berries production in thousand [[tonne]]s (2012)<br /> <small>Aggregated data from: [[FAOSTAT]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/go/to/download/Q/QC/E|title=FAOSTAT|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref></small> <br /> |
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<small>This includes blueberries, cranberries, currants, <br/>gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries and other "berries" ("berries NES")</small |
<small>This includes blueberries, cranberries, currants, <br />gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries and other "berries" ("berries NES")</small> |
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|- |
|- |
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| |
| United States || align="right"|2074 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Russia||align="right"|710 |
| Russia || align="right"|710 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Poland||align="right"|553 |
| Poland || align="right"|553 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Mexico||align="right"|524 |
| Mexico || align="right"|524 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Turkey||align="right"|432 |
| Turkey || align="right"|432 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Spain||align="right"|319 |
| Spain || align="right"|319 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Canada||align="right"|282 |
| Canada || align="right"|282 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Germany||align="right"|258 |
| Germany || align="right"|258 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Egypt||align="right"|243 |
| Egypt || align="right"|243 |
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|- |
|- |
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| Iran||align="right"|214 |
| Iran || align="right"|214 |
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|- |
|- |
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|}</center> |
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|} |
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=== Economics === |
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According to figures from Global Berry Congress 2015 in the US over 6 million dollars of soft fruit are sold accounting for 19% of total supermarket revenue, more than bananas (a botanical berry) at 11%, and apples (14%); with continued rapid growth in the market expected.<ref>{{cite web|title=Retail revenue soft fruit in US bigger than bananas or apples|url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/137286/Retail-revenue-soft-fruit-in-US-bigger-than-bananas-or-apples|website=freshplaza|accessdate=11 August 2015}}</ref> |
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In certain regions berrypicking can be a large part of the economy, and it is becoming increasingly common for western European countries such as [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]] to import cheap labor from [[Thailand]] or [[Bulgaria]] to do the berry picking.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title = Berrypickers, unite!|url = http://www.economist.com/node/21559956|newspaper = The Economist|access-date = 12 August 2015|issn = 0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Record number of Thai berry pickers to arrive in Finland|url = http://www.helsinkitimes.fi/finland/finland-news/domestic/13418-record-number-of-thai-berry-pickers-to-arrive-in-finland.html|website = helsinkitimes.fi|accessdate = 12 August 2015|first = Aleksi|last = Teivainen}}</ref> This practice has come under scrutiny in the past years because of low wages and living standard for the "berry-pickers" as well as lack of worker safety.<ref name=":0" /> |
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{{clear}} |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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*[[List of culinary fruits]] |
* [[List of culinary fruits]] |
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*[[List of inedible fruits]] |
* [[List of inedible fruits]] |
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{{Portal bar|Agriculture|Plants|Food}} |
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== |
== References== |
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{{reflist| |
{{reflist|30em|refs= |
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<ref name="Mahady Fong Farnsworth 2001 p. 47">{{cite book | last=Mahady | first=G.B. | last2=Fong | first2=H.H.S. | last3=Farnsworth | first3=N.R. | title=Botanical Dietary Supplements: | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2001 | isbn=978-90-265-1855-3 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TiU-Dz2wxyAC&pg=PA47 | page=47}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Grotto 2007 p. 53">{{cite book | last=Grotto | first=D. | title=101 Foods That Could Save Your Life | publisher=Random House Publishing Group | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-553-90451-2 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l4NIwOljrxYC&pg=PA53 | page=53}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Krohn-Ching 1980 p. 13">{{cite book | last=Krohn-Ching | first=V. | title=Hawaii Dye Plants and Dye Recipes | publisher=University Press of Hawaii | year=1980 | isbn=978-0-8248-0698-9 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zO7Gv4OqA2oC&pg=PA13 | page=13}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Shujaa Shujaa 2015 p. 382">{{cite book | last=Shujaa | first=M.J. | last2=Shujaa | first2=K.J. | title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of African Cultural Heritage in North America | publisher=SAGE Publications | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-4833-4638-0 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ooVNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA382 | page=382}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/science/berry-plant-reproductive-body | title=Berry (Plant reproductive body) | publisher=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' | accessdate=16 August 2015}}</ref> |
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}} |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
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* Bowling, B.L. (2005). ''The Berry Grower's Companion''. Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-726-9 |
* Bowling, B.L. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=7G8cAQAACAAJ ''The Berry Grower's Companion'']. Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-726-9 |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{commons+cat|Berries}} |
{{commons+cat|Berries}} |
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{{wiktionary}} |
{{wiktionary}} |
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*[http://nationalberrycrops.org United States National Berry Crops Initiative] |
* [http://nationalberrycrops.org United States National Berry Crops Initiative] |
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{{Fruits}} |
{{Fruits}} |
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{{Non-timber forest products}} |
{{Non-timber forest products}} |
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{{Botany}} |
{{Botany}} |
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{{Portal bar|Plants|Food}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Berries| ]] |
[[Category:Berries| ]] |
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[[Category:Fruit morphology]] |
[[Category:Fruit morphology]] |