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| image = [[File:Grunwald bitwa.jpg|300px]] |
| image = [[File:Grunwald bitwa.jpg|300px]] |
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| caption = ''[[Battle of Grunwald (painting)|Battle of Grunwald]]'' by [[Jan Matejko]] (1878) |
| caption = ''[[Battle of Grunwald (painting)|Battle of Grunwald]]'' by [[Jan Matejko]] (1878) |
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| date = |
| date = July 15, 1410 |
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| place = Between villages of [[Grunwald, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Grunwald]] (Grünfelde) and Tannenberg ([[Stębark]]) |
| place = Between villages of [[Grunwald, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Grunwald]] (Grünfelde) and Tannenberg ([[Stębark]]) |
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| coordinates = {{coord|53|29|10|N|20|07|29|E|type:event_region:PL|display=title}} |
| coordinates = {{coord|53|29|10|N|20|07|29|E|type:event_region:PL|display=title}} |
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| result = Decisive Polish–Lithuanian victory |
| result = Decisive Polish–Lithuanian victory |
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| combatant1 = [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]]<br>[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]<br> Polish–Lithuanian vassals, allies and mercenaries:<ref name=turn26/><br /> |
| combatant1 = [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]]<br>[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]<br> Polish–Lithuanian vassals, allies and mercenaries:<ref name=turn26/><br /> |
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[[Ruthenia]],<ref name=turn28/> [[Masovia]],<ref name=jucas75/> [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavia]],<ref name=u138/> [[Tartars]],<ref name=turn25/> [[Czechs]], [[Bohemia]],<ref name=turn26/> [[Moravia]],<ref name=turn26/> [[Wallachia]]<ref name=davies98/> |
[[Ruthenia]],<ref name=turn28/> [[Masovia]],<ref name=jucas75/> [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavia]],<ref name=u138/> [[Tartars]],<ref name=turn25>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=25}}</ref> [[Czechs]], [[Bohemia]],<ref name=turn26/> [[Moravia]],<ref name=turn26/> [[Wallachia]]<ref name=davies98/> |
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| combatant2 = [[Teutonic Order]], guest crusaders, and mercenaries from western Europe |
| combatant2 = [[Teutonic Order]], guest crusaders, and mercenaries from western Europe |
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| commander1 = [[Jogaila]] (Władysław II Jagiełło), supreme commander<ref name=turn26/><br> |
| commander1 = [[Jogaila]] (Władysław II Jagiełło), supreme commander<ref name=turn26>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=26}}</ref><br> |
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[[Vytautas the Great]], Lithuanian commander |
[[Vytautas the Great]], Lithuanian commander |
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| commander2 = Grandmaster [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]{{KIA}} |
| commander2 = Grandmaster [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]{{KIA}} |
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{{FixBunching|end}} |
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The '''Battle of Grunwald''' or '''1st Battle of Tannenberg''' was fought on |
The '''Battle of Grunwald''' or '''1st Battle of Tannenberg''' was fought on July 15, 1410, during the [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War]]. The alliance of the [[Jagiellon Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], led respectively by King [[Jogaila]] (Władysław Jagiełło) and Grand Duke [[Vytautas]] (Witold), decisively defeated the [[Teutonic Knights]], led by Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. While defeated, the Teutonic Knights [[Siege of Marienburg (1410)|withstood the siege]] on their fortress in Marienburg ([[Malbork]]) and suffered only minimal territorial losses at the [[Peace of Thorn (1411)]] ([[Toruń]]). Territorial disputes continued until the [[Peace of Melno]] was concluded in 1422. However, the Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of [[war reparations]] caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe and marked the rise of the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] as the dominant political and military force in the region.<ref name=ek175/> |
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The battle was one of the largest battles in [[Medieval Europe]] and is regarded as the most important victory in the history of Poland and Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=92}}</ref> It was surrounded by [[Romantic nationalism|romantic legends]] and [[nationalism|nationalistic propaganda]], becoming a larger symbol of struggle against invaders and a source of national pride. During the 20th century, the battle was used in [[Nazi propaganda|Nazi]] and [[Soviet propaganda]] campaigns. Only in recent decades have historians made progress towards a dispassionate, scholarly assessment of the battle reconciling the previous narratives, which differed widely by nation. |
The battle was one of the largest battles in [[Medieval Europe]] and is regarded as the most important victory in the history of Poland and Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=92}}</ref> It was surrounded by [[Romantic nationalism|romantic legends]] and [[nationalism|nationalistic propaganda]], becoming a larger symbol of struggle against invaders and a source of national pride. During the 20th century, the battle was used in [[Nazi propaganda|Nazi]] and [[Soviet propaganda]] campaigns. Only in recent decades have historians made progress towards a dispassionate, scholarly assessment of the battle reconciling the previous narratives, which differed widely by nation. |
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===Sources=== |
===Sources=== |
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[[File:Anonymous letter concerning the Battle of Žalgiris (Tannenberg).jpg|thumb|An anonymous letter concerning the Great Battle (dated between 1411 an 1413) is among few remaining contemporary sources]] |
[[File:Anonymous letter concerning the Battle of Žalgiris (Tannenberg).jpg|thumb|An anonymous letter concerning the Great Battle (dated between 1411 an 1413) is among few remaining contemporary sources]] |
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There are |
There are few contemporary and reliable sources about the battle, and most are Polish. The most important and trustworthy source is ''Cronica conflictus Wladislai regis Poloniae cum Cruciferis anno Christi 1410'', which was written within a year of the battle by an eyewitness.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=8}}</ref> Its authorship is uncertain but candidates have been proposed: Polish [[Kanclerz|deputy chancellor]] [[Mikołaj Trąba]] and Jogaila's secretary [[Zbigniew Oleśnicki (cardinal)|Zbigniew Oleśnicki]].<ref name=jucas9>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=9}}</ref> While the original ''Cronica conflictus'' did not survive, a short summary was preserved from the 16th century. Another pivotal source is ''Historia Poloniae'' by Polish historian [[Jan Długosz]] (1415–1480).<ref name=jucas9/> It is a comprehensive and detailed account written several decades after the battle. The reliability of this source suffers not only from the long gap between the events and the chronicle, but also Długosz's biases against the Lithuanians.<ref name=jucas10>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=10}}</ref> ''[[Banderia Prutenorum]]'' is a mid-15th century manuscript with images and Latin descriptions of the Teutonic battle flags captured during the battle and displayed in [[Wawel Cathedral]]. Other Polish sources include two letters written by Jogaila to his wife [[Anne of Cilli]] and [[Bishop of Poznań]] [[Wojciech Jastrzębiec]] and letters sent by Jastrzębiec to Poles in the [[Holy See]].<ref name=jucas10/> German sources include a concise account in the chronicle of [[Johann von Posilge]]. An anonymous letter, written between 1411 and 1413, was discovered by Swedish historian [[Sven Ekdahl]] and provided important details on Lithuanian maneuvers.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=11}}</ref><ref name=ekdahl1963/> |
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== Historical background == |
== Historical background == |
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In 1230, the [[Teutonic Knights]], a crusading [[military order]], moved to [[Kulmerland]] and launched the [[Prussian Crusade]] against the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[Old Prussians|Prussian clans]]. With support from the Pope and [[Holy Roman Emperor]], the Teutons conquered and converted the Prussians by 1280s and shifted their attention to the pagan [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. For about a hundred years the Knights raided the Lithuanian lands, particularly [[Samogitia]] as it separated the Knights in Prussia from their [[Livonian Order|branch in Livonia]]. The border regions became uninhabited wilderness, but the Knights gained very little territory. The Lithuanians first gave up Samogitia during the [[Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384)]] in the [[Treaty of Dubysa]]. The territory was used as a bargaining chip to ensure Teutonic support for one of the sides in the internal power struggle. |
In 1230, the [[Teutonic Knights]], a crusading [[military order]], moved to [[Kulmerland]] and launched the [[Prussian Crusade]] against the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[Old Prussians|Prussian clans]]. With support from the Pope and [[Holy Roman Emperor]], the Teutons conquered and converted the Prussians by 1280s and shifted their attention to the pagan [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. For about a hundred years the Knights raided the Lithuanian lands, particularly [[Samogitia]] as it separated the Knights in Prussia from their [[Livonian Order|branch in Livonia]]. The border regions became uninhabited wilderness, but the Knights gained very little territory. The Lithuanians first gave up Samogitia during the [[Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384)]] in the [[Treaty of Dubysa]]. The territory was used as a bargaining chip to ensure Teutonic support for one of the sides in the internal power struggle. |
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In 1385 Grand Duke [[Jogaila|Jogaila of Lithuania]] agreed to marry reigning Queen [[Jadwiga of Poland]] in the [[Union of Kreva]]. Jogaila converted to Christianity and was crowned as the King of Poland thus creating a [[personal union]] between the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The official [[Christianization of Lithuania|Lithuanian conversion to Christianity]] removed the religious rationale for the Order's activities in the area.<ref name=stone16/> Its Grand Master, [[Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein]], supported by the Hungarian king [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]], responded by publicly contesting the sincerity of Jogaila's conversion, bringing the charge to a [[papal court]].<ref name=stone16>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=16}}</ref> The territorial disputes continued over Samogitia, which was in Teutonic hands since the [[Peace of Raciąż]] of 1404. Poland also had territorial claims against the Knights in [[Dobrzyń Land]] and Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]), but the two states were largely at peace since the [[Treaty of Kalisz (1343)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=132}}</ref> The conflict was also motivated by trade considerations: the Knights controlled lower reaches of the three largest rivers ([[Neman River|Neman]], [[Vistula]] and [[Daugava]]) in Poland and Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiaupa|2000|p=137}}</ref> |
In 1385, Grand Duke [[Jogaila|Jogaila of Lithuania]] agreed to marry reigning Queen [[Jadwiga of Poland]] in the [[Union of Kreva]]. Jogaila converted to Christianity and was crowned as the King of Poland thus creating a [[personal union]] between the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The official [[Christianization of Lithuania|Lithuanian conversion to Christianity]] removed the religious rationale for the Order's activities in the area.<ref name=stone16/> Its Grand Master, [[Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein]], supported by the Hungarian king [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]], responded by publicly contesting the sincerity of Jogaila's conversion, bringing the charge to a [[papal court]].<ref name=stone16>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=16}}</ref> The territorial disputes continued over Samogitia, which was in Teutonic hands since the [[Peace of Raciąż]] of 1404. Poland also had territorial claims against the Knights in [[Dobrzyń Land]] and Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]), but the two states were largely at peace since the [[Treaty of Kalisz (1343)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=132}}</ref> The conflict was also motivated by trade considerations: the Knights controlled lower reaches of the three largest rivers ([[Neman River|Neman]], [[Vistula]] and [[Daugava]]) in Poland and Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiaupa|2000|p=137}}</ref> |
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===War, truce, and preparations=== |
===War, truce, and preparations=== |
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[[File:Lietuviai kovoja su vokiečiais.Lithuanians fighting Teutonic Knights (2).jpg|thumb|left|[[Lithuanian people|Lithuanians]] fighting with Teutonic Knights ([[Bas-Relief]]).]] |
[[File:Lietuviai kovoja su vokiečiais.Lithuanians fighting Teutonic Knights (2).jpg|thumb|left|[[Lithuanian people|Lithuanians]] fighting with Teutonic Knights ([[Bas-Relief]]).]] |
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In May 1409 an [[Samogitian uprisings|uprising in Teutonic-held Samogitia]] started. Lithuania supported the uprising and the Knights threatened to invade. Poland announced its support for the Lithuanian cause and threatened to invade Prussia in return. As Prussian troops evacuated Samogitia, the Teutonic Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] declared war on the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania on |
In May 1409, an [[Samogitian uprisings|uprising in Teutonic-held Samogitia]] started. Lithuania supported the uprising and the Knights threatened to invade. Poland announced its support for the Lithuanian cause and threatened to invade Prussia in return. As Prussian troops evacuated Samogitia, the Teutonic Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] declared war on the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania on August 6, 1409.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=20}}</ref> The Knights hoped to defeat Poland and Lithuania separately and began by invading [[Greater Poland]] and [[Kuyavia]], catching the Poles by surprise.<ref name=ivin336>{{harvnb|Ivinskis|1978|p=336}}</ref> The Knights burned the castle at Dobrin ([[Dobrzyń nad Wisłą]]), captured [[Bobrowniki]] after a fourteen-day siege, conquered [[Bydgoszcz]] (Bromberg), and sacked several towns.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=130}}</ref> The Poles organized counterattacks and recaptured Bydgoszcz.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuczynski|1960|p=614}}</ref> The Samogitians attacked Memel ([[Klaipėda]]).<ref name=ivin336/> However, neither side was ready for a full-scale war. |
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[[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], agreed to mediate the dispute. A truce was signed on |
[[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], agreed to mediate the dispute. A truce was signed on October 8, 1409; it was set to expire on June 24, 1410.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=51}}</ref> Both sides used this time for preparations for the battle, gathering the troops and engaging in diplomatic maneuvers. Both sides sent letters and envoys accusing each other of various wrongdoings and threats to Christendom. Wenceslaus, who received a gift of 60,000 florins from the Knights, declared that Samogitia rightfully belonged to the Knights and only Dobrzyń Land should be returned to Poland.<ref name=turn21>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=21}}</ref> The Knights also paid 300,000 [[ducat]]s to [[Sigismund of Hungary]], who had ambitions for the [[principality of Moldova]], for his military assistance.<ref name=turn21/> Sigismund attempted to break the Polish–Lithuanian alliance by offering Vytautas a king's crown; Vytautas's acceptance of such a crown would violate the terms of the [[Ostrów Agreement]] and create Polish-Lithuanian discord.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiaupa|2000|p=139}}</ref> At the same time Vytautas managed to obtain a truce from the [[Livonian Order]].<ref name=chris227>{{harvnb|Christiansen|1997|p=227}}</ref> |
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By December 1409, Jogaila and Vytautas had agreed on a common strategy: their armies would unite into a single massive force and march together towards Marienburg ([[Malbork]]), capital of the Teutonic Knights.<ref name=turn30>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=30}}</ref> The Knights, who took a defensive position, did not expect a joint attack and were preparing for a dual invasion – by the Poles along the [[Vistula River]] towards Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) and by the Lithuanians along the [[Neman River]] towards Ragnit ([[Neman (town)|Neman]]).<ref name=jucas75>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=75}}</ref> To counter this perceived threat, Ulrich von Jungingen concentrated his forces in Schwetz ([[Świecie]]), a central location from where troops could respond to an invasion from any direction rather quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=74}}</ref> Sizable garrisons were left in the eastern castles of Ragnit, Rhein ([[Ryn]]) near Lötzen ([[Giżycko]]), and Memel ([[Klaipėda]]).<ref name=jucas75/> To keep the plans secret and misguide the Knights, Jogaila and Vytautas organised several raids into border territories, thus forcing the Knights to keep their troops in place.<ref name=turn30/> |
By December 1409, Jogaila and Vytautas had agreed on a common strategy: their armies would unite into a single massive force and march together towards Marienburg ([[Malbork]]), capital of the Teutonic Knights.<ref name=turn30>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=30}}</ref> The Knights, who took a defensive position, did not expect a joint attack and were preparing for a dual invasion – by the Poles along the [[Vistula River]] towards Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) and by the Lithuanians along the [[Neman River]] towards Ragnit ([[Neman (town)|Neman]]).<ref name=jucas75>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=75}}</ref> To counter this perceived threat, Ulrich von Jungingen concentrated his forces in Schwetz ([[Świecie]]), a central location from where troops could respond to an invasion from any direction rather quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=74}}</ref> Sizable garrisons were left in the eastern castles of Ragnit, Rhein ([[Ryn]]) near Lötzen ([[Giżycko]]), and Memel ([[Klaipėda]]).<ref name=jucas75/> To keep the plans secret and misguide the Knights, Jogaila and Vytautas organised several raids into border territories, thus forcing the Knights to keep their troops in place.<ref name=turn30/> |
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The precise number of soldiers involved has proven difficult to establish.<ref name=turn25 |
The precise number of soldiers involved has proven difficult to establish.<ref name=turn25/> None of the contemporary sources provided reliable troop counts. [[Jan Długosz]] provided the number of the banners, the principal unit of each cavalry: 51 for the Knights, 50 for the Poles, and 40 for the Lithuanians.<ref name=ivin338/> However, it is unclear how many men were under each banner. The structure and number of infantry units ([[pikemen]], [[archery|archers]], [[crossbow]]men) and artillery units is unknown. Estimates, often biased by political and nationalistic considerations, were produced by various historians.<ref name=turn25/> German historians tend to present lower numbers, while Polish historians tend to use higher estimates.<ref name=jucas57/> The high-end estimates by Polish historian [[Stefan Kuczyński]] of 39,000 Polish–Lithuanian and 27,000 Teutonic men<ref name=ivin338>{{harvnb|Ivinskis|1978|p=338}}</ref> have been cited in western literature as "commonly accepted".<ref name=turn25/><ref name=davies98>{{harvnb|Davies|2005|p=98}}</ref><ref name=john43>{{harvnb|Johnson|1996|p=43}}</ref> |
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While less numerous, the Teutonic army had advantages in discipline, military training, and superior military equipment.<ref name=Razin486/> Their heavy cavalry was one of the best in Europe. The Teutonic army was also equipped with [[bombard]]s that could shoot lead and stone [[projectiles]].<ref name=Razin486/> |
While less numerous, the Teutonic army had advantages in discipline, military training, and superior military equipment.<ref name=Razin486/> Their heavy cavalry was one of the best in Europe. The Teutonic army was also equipped with [[bombard]]s that could shoot lead and stone [[projectiles]].<ref name=Razin486/> |
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Both forces were composed of troops from several states and lands, including numerous mercenaries; for example, [[Bohemia]]n mercenaries fought on each side.<ref name=turn29/> The Knights also invited guest crusaders. Twenty-two different peoples, mostly Germanic, joined the Teutonic side.<ref>{{harvnb|Разин|1999|pp=485–486}}</ref> Teutonic recruits included soldiers from [[Westphalia]], [[Frisia]], [[Austria]], [[Swabia]],<ref name=turn29>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=29}}</ref> Stettin ([[Szczecin]]).<ref name="Jučas 2009 56">{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=56}}</ref> Two Hungarian nobles, [[Nicholas II Garay]] and [[Stibor of Stiboricz]], brought 200 men for the Knights,<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=139}}</ref> but support from [[Sigismund of Hungary]] was disappointing.<ref name=chris227/> |
Both forces were composed of troops from several states and lands, including numerous mercenaries; for example, [[Bohemia]]n mercenaries fought on each side.<ref name=turn29/> The Knights also invited guest crusaders. Twenty-two different peoples, mostly Germanic, joined the Teutonic side.<ref>{{harvnb|Разин|1999|pp=485–486}}</ref> Teutonic recruits included soldiers from [[Westphalia]], [[Frisia]], [[Austria]], [[Swabia]],<ref name=turn29>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=29}}</ref> Stettin ([[Szczecin]]).<ref name="Jučas 2009 56">{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=56}}</ref> Two Hungarian nobles, [[Nicholas II Garay]] and [[Stibor of Stiboricz]], brought 200 men for the Knights,<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=139}}</ref> but support from [[Sigismund of Hungary]] was disappointing.<ref name=chris227/> |
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Poland brought mercenaries from [[Moravia]] and Bohemia. The [[Czechs]] produced two full banners, under command of [[Jan Sokol of Lamberk]].<ref name=turn26 |
Poland brought mercenaries from [[Moravia]] and Bohemia. The [[Czechs]] produced two full banners, under command of [[Jan Sokol of Lamberk]].<ref name=turn26/> Serving among the Czechs was [[Jan Žižka]], future commander of the [[Hussite]] forces. [[Alexander the Good]] commanded Moldavian troops.<ref name=u138>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=138}}</ref> Vytautas gathered troops from Lithuanian and [[Ruthenia]]n (modern [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]) lands. The Lithuanian army included three banners from [[Smolensk]], under the command of Jogaila's brother [[Lengvenis]], and a contingent of Tatars of the [[Golden Horde]], under the command of the exiled Khan [[Jalal ad-Din khan|Jalal ad-Din]].<ref name=turn28>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=28}}</ref> The overall commander of the joint Polish–Lithuanian forces was King Jogaila; however, he did not directly participate in the battle. The Lithuanian units were commanded directly by Grand Duke Vytautas, who was second in command and helped design the grand strategy of the campaign. Vytautas actively participated in the battle, managing both Lithuanian and Polish units.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=64}}</ref> [[Jan Długosz]] stated that the low-ranking [[Miecznik|Sword Bearer]] of the Crown [[Zyndram of Maszkowice]] commanded the Polish army, but that is highly doubtful.<ref name=jucas63>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=63}}</ref> More likely [[Marszałek|Marshal of the Crown]] [[Zbigniew of Brzezie]] commanded the Polish troops in the field. |
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== Course of the battle == |
== Course of the battle == |
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===March into Prussia=== |
===March into Prussia=== |
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[[File:Grunwald 1410.png|thumb|300px|Map of the army movements in the Grunwald campaign]] |
[[File:Grunwald 1410.png|thumb|300px|Map of the army movements in the Grunwald campaign]] |
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The first stage of the Grunwald campaign was gathering all Polish–Lithuanian troops at [[Czerwinsk]], a designated meeting point about {{convert|80|km|abbr=on}} from the Prussian border, where the joint army crossed the [[Vistula]] over a [[pontoon bridge]].<ref name=turn33/> This maneuver, which required precision and intense coordination among multi-ethnic forces, was accomplished in about a week from |
The first stage of the Grunwald campaign was gathering all Polish–Lithuanian troops at [[Czerwinsk]], a designated meeting point about {{convert|80|km|abbr=on}} from the Prussian border, where the joint army crossed the [[Vistula]] over a [[pontoon bridge]].<ref name=turn33/> This maneuver, which required precision and intense coordination among multi-ethnic forces, was accomplished in about a week from June 24 to June 30, 1410.<ref name=jucas75/> Polish soldiers from [[Greater Poland]] gathered in [[Poznań]] and those from [[Lesser Poland]] in [[Wolbórz]]. On June 24, 1410, Jogaila and Czech mercenaries arrived in [[Wolbórz]].<ref name=jucas75/> Three days later, the Polish army was already at the meeting point. The Lithuanian army marched out from [[Vilnius]] on June 3 and joined up with the Ruthenian regiments in [[Hrodna]].<ref name=jucas75/> They arrived in Czerwinsk on the same day as the Poles crossed the river. After the crossing, Masovian troops under [[Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia|Siemowit IV]] and [[Janusz I of Warsaw|Janusz I]] joined the Polish–Lithuanian army.<ref name=jucas75/> The massive force began its march north towards Marienburg ([[Malbork]]), capital of Prussia, on July 3. The Prussian border was crossed on July 9.<ref name=turn33>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=33}}</ref> |
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The river crossing remained secret until Hungarian envoys, who were attempting to negotiate a peace, revealed it to the Teutonic Grand Master.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=141}}</ref> As soon as Ulrich von Jungingen grasped Polish–Lithuanian intentions, he left 3,000 men at Schwetz ([[Świecie]]) under [[Heinrich von Plauen]]<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=142}}</ref> and marched the main forces to organise a line of defence on the Drewenz River ([[Drwęca]]) near Kauernik ([[Kurzętnik]]).<ref name=turn35/> The river crossing was fortified with [[stockade]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=76}}</ref> On |
The river crossing remained secret until Hungarian envoys, who were attempting to negotiate a peace, revealed it to the Teutonic Grand Master.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=141}}</ref> As soon as Ulrich von Jungingen grasped Polish–Lithuanian intentions, he left 3,000 men at Schwetz ([[Świecie]]) under [[Heinrich von Plauen]]<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=142}}</ref> and marched the main forces to organise a line of defence on the Drewenz River ([[Drwęca]]) near Kauernik ([[Kurzętnik]]).<ref name=turn35/> The river crossing was fortified with [[stockade]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=76}}</ref> On July 11, after meeting with his eight-member [[war council]],<ref name=jucas63/> Jogaila decided against crossing the river at such a strong defensible position. The army would instead bypass the river crossing by turning east, towards its sources, where no other major rivers separated his army from Marienburg.<ref name=turn35>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=35}}</ref> The march continued east towards Soldau ([[Działdowo]]), although no attempt was made to capture the town.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=36}}</ref> The Teutonic army followed the Drewenz River north, crossed it near Löbau ([[Lubawa]]), and then moved east in parallel with the Polish–Lithuanian army. The latter ravaged the village of Gilgenburg ([[Dąbrówno]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|pp=36–37}}</ref> Von Jungingen was so enraged by the atrocities that he swore to defeat the invaders in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|pp=148–149}}</ref> |
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===Battle preparations=== |
===Battle preparations=== |
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[[File:50 zl r 1975.jpg|thumb|left|A 50-[[Polish złoty]] banknote issued in 1974 shows a [[Cross of Grunwald]] and the two [[Grunwald Swords]]]] |
[[File:50 zl r 1975.jpg|thumb|left|A 50-[[Polish złoty]] banknote issued in 1974 shows a [[Cross of Grunwald]] and the two [[Grunwald Swords]]]] |
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In the early morning of |
In the early morning of July 15, 1410, both armies met in an area covering approximately {{convert|4|km2|abbr=on}} between the villages of [[Grunwald, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Grunwald]], Tannenberg ([[Stębark]]) and Ludwigsdorf ([[Łodwigowo]]).<ref name=jucas77>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=77}}</ref> Both armies formed opposing lines along a northeast–southwest axis. The Polish–Lithuanian army was positioned in front and east of Ludwigsdorf and Tannenberg.<ref name=turn44/> Polish heavy cavalry formed the left flank, Lithuanian light cavalry formed the right flank, while various mercenary troops formed the center. Their men were organized in three lines of wedge-shaped formations about 20 men deep.<ref name=turn44>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=44}}</ref> The Teutonic forces concentrated their elite heavy cavalry, commanded by Grand Marshal [[Frederic von Wallenrode]], against the Lithuanians.<ref name=jucas77/> The Knights, who were the first to organize their army for the battle, hoped to provoke Poles or Lithuanians to attack first. Their troops, wearing heavy armor, had to stand in scorching sun for several hours waiting for an attack.<ref name=turn45>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=45}}</ref> One chronicle suggested that they had dug pits that an attacking army would fall into.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=149}}</ref> They also attempted to use [[field artillery]], but a light rain dampened their powder and only two cannon shots were fired.<ref name=turn45/> As Jogaila delayed, Grand Master sent messengers with two swords to "assist Jogaila and Vytautas in battle". The swords were meant as an insult and provocation.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=43}}</ref> Known as the [[Grunwald Swords]], they became one of the national symbols of Poland. |
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===Battle begins: Lithuanian attack and retreat=== |
===Battle begins: Lithuanian attack and retreat=== |
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|image3_cap= Polish heavy cavalry break-through |
|image3_cap= Polish heavy cavalry break-through |
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Vytautas, supported by a few Polish banners, started an assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces.<ref name=turn45/> After more than an hour of heavy fighting, the Lithuanian light cavalry started a full retreat. [[Jan Długosz]] |
Vytautas, supported by a few Polish banners, started an assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces.<ref name=turn45/> After more than an hour of heavy fighting, the Lithuanian light cavalry started a full retreat. [[Jan Długosz]] described this development as a complete annihilation of the entire Lithuanian army. According to Długosz, the Knights assumed that victory was theirs, broke their formation for a disorganized pursuit of the retreating Lithuanians, and gathered much loot before returning to the battlefield to face the Polish troops.<ref name=jucas78>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=78}}</ref> He made no mention of the Lithuanians that returned to the battlefield. Thus Długosz portrayed the battle as a single-handed Polish victory.<ref name=jucas78/> This view has been challenged by modern historians. They proposed that the retreat was a planned, strategic maneuver, borrowed from the [[Golden Horde]].<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=48}}</ref> The same false retreat was used in the [[Battle of the Vorskla River]] of 1399, where the Lithuanian army was dealt a crushing defeat and Vytautas himself barely escaped alive.<ref>{{harvnb|Sužiedėlis|1976|p=337}}</ref> This theory is supported by a German letter, discovered and published by Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl in 1963.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|pp=152–153}}</ref> The letter cautions the new Grand Master to look out for false retreats of the kind that were used in the Great Battle.<ref name=ekdahl1963>{{harvnb|Ekdahl|1963}}</ref> Stephen Turnbull asserted that the Lithuanian retreat did not quite fit the tried formula of a false retreat. Such a retreat was usually staged by one or two units (as opposed to almost an entire army) and was swiftly followed by a counterattack (whereas the Lithuanians returned late in the battle).<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|pp=48–49}}</ref> |
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===Battle continues: Polish–Teutonic fight=== |
===Battle continues: Polish–Teutonic fight=== |
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===Battle ends: Teutonic Knights defeated=== |
===Battle ends: Teutonic Knights defeated=== |
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At that time, the reorganized Lithuanians returned to the battle, attacking von Jungingen from the rear.<ref name=turn64/> The Teutonic forces were by then becoming outnumbered by the mass of Polish knights and the advancing Lithuanian cavalry. As von Jungingen attempted to break through the Lithuanian lines, he was killed.<ref name=turn64/> According to ''Cronica conflictus'', Dobiesław of Oleśnica thrust a lance through Grand Master's neck,<ref name=turn64>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=64}}</ref> while Długosz presented [[Mszczuj of Skrzynno]] as the killer. Surrounded and leaderless, the Teutonic Knights began to retreat. Part of the routed units retreated towards their camp. This move backfired when the [[camp followers]] turned against their masters and joined the manhunt.<ref name=turn66/> The knights attempted to build a [[wagon fort]]: the camp was surrounded by wagons serving as an improvised fortification.<ref name=turn66/> However, the defense was soon broken and the camp was ravaged. According to ''Cronica conflictus'', more Knights died there than in the battlefield.<ref name=turn66>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=66}}</ref> The battle lasted for about ten hours.<ref name=kiaupa2002/> |
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The Teutonic Knights attributed the defeat to treason on the part of [[Nikolaus von Renys]] (Mikołaj of Ryńsk), commander of the Culm ([[Chełmno]]) banner, and he was beheaded without a trial.<ref name=urban168/> He was the founder and leader of the [[Lizard Union (medieval)|Lizard Union]], a group of Knights sympathetic to Poland. According to the Knights, von Renys lowered his banner, which was taken as a signal of surrender and led to the panicked retreat.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=79}}</ref> The legend that the Knights were "stabbed in the back" was echoed in the post-World War I [[stab-in-the-back legend]] and preoccupied German historiography of the battle until 1945.<ref name=urban168/> |
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== Aftermath == |
== Aftermath == |
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The defeat of the Teutonic Knights was resounding. About 8,000 Teuton soldiers were killed<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=157}}</ref> and an additional 14,000 were taken captive.<ref name=turn68/> According to Teutonic payroll records, only 1,427 men reported back to Marienburg to claim their pay.<ref name=turn68/> Of 1,200 men sent from Danzig, only 300 returned.<ref name="Jučas 2009 56"/> According to different sources, some 200 or 400 brothers of the Order were killed, including much of the Teutonic leadership – Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]], Grand Marshal [[Friedrich von Wallenrode]], Grand Komtur [[Kuno von Lichtenstein]], Grand Treasurer Thomas von Merheim, Marshal of Supply Forces Albrecht von Schwartzburg, and ten of the [[komtur]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|pp=85–86}}</ref> [[Markward von Salzbach]], Komtur of Brandenburg ([[Ushakovo, Kaliningrad Oblast|Ushakovo]]), and Heinrich Schaumburg, [[voigt]] of [[Sambia]], were executed by order of Vytautas after the battle.<ref name=turn68/> The bodies of von Jungingen and other high-ranking officials were transported to [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg Castle]] for burial on July 19.<ref name=ju87>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=87}}</ref> Bodies of lower-ranking Teutonic officials and twelve Polish knights were buried at the church in Tannenberg.<ref name=ju87/> The rest of the dead were buried in several mass graves. The highest- ranking Teutonic official to escape the battle was Werner von Tettinger, Komtur of Elbing ([[Elbląg]]).<ref name=turn68>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=68}}</ref> |
The defeat of the Teutonic Knights was resounding. About 8,000 Teuton soldiers were killed<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=157}}</ref> and an additional 14,000 were taken captive.<ref name=turn68/> According to Teutonic payroll records, only 1,427 men reported back to Marienburg to claim their pay.<ref name=turn68/> Of 1,200 men sent from Danzig, only 300 returned.<ref name="Jučas 2009 56"/> According to different sources, some 200 or 400 brothers of the Order were killed, including much of the Teutonic leadership – Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]], Grand Marshal [[Friedrich von Wallenrode]], Grand Komtur [[Kuno von Lichtenstein]], Grand Treasurer Thomas von Merheim, Marshal of Supply Forces Albrecht von Schwartzburg, and ten of the [[komtur]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|pp=85–86}}</ref> [[Markward von Salzbach]], Komtur of Brandenburg ([[Ushakovo, Kaliningrad Oblast|Ushakovo]]), and Heinrich Schaumburg, [[voigt]] of [[Sambia]], were executed by order of Vytautas after the battle.<ref name=turn68/> The bodies of von Jungingen and other high-ranking officials were transported to [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg Castle]] for burial on July 19.<ref name=ju87>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=87}}</ref> Bodies of lower-ranking Teutonic officials and twelve Polish knights were buried at the church in Tannenberg.<ref name=ju87/> The rest of the dead were buried in several mass graves. The highest- ranking Teutonic official to escape the battle was Werner von Tettinger, Komtur of Elbing ([[Elbląg]]).<ref name=turn68>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=68}}</ref> |
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Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Among those taken were Dukes [[Konrad VII the White|Konrad VII]] of Oels ([[Oleśnica]]) and [[Casimir V, Duke of Pomerania|Casimir V]] of [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomerania]].<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=69}}</ref> Most of the commoners and mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on condition that they report to [[Kraków]] on |
Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Among those taken were Dukes [[Konrad VII the White|Konrad VII]] of Oels ([[Oleśnica]]) and [[Casimir V, Duke of Pomerania|Casimir V]] of [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomerania]].<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=69}}</ref> Most of the commoners and mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on condition that they report to [[Kraków]] on November 11, 1410.<ref>{{harvnb|Jučas|2009|p=88}}</ref> Only those that were expected to pay ransom were kept in captivity. Considerable ransoms were recorded; the mercenary Holbracht von Loym had to pay ''sixty times the number of 150 [[Prague groschen]]'', amounting to more than 30 kilograms of silver.<ref>{{harvnb|Pelech|1987|pp=105–107}}</ref> |
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===Further campaign and peace=== |
===Further campaign and peace=== |
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{{main|Siege of Marienburg (1410)|Peace of Thorn (1411)}} |
{{main|Siege of Marienburg (1410)|Peace of Thorn (1411)}} |
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[[File:Malbork 1.jpg|thumb|After the battle, the [[Malbork Castle|Castle of Marienburg]], which served as the [[Teutonic Knights]]'s capital, was [[Siege of Marienburg (1410)|unsuccessfully besieged]] for two months by the Polish–Lithuanian forces]] |
[[File:Malbork 1.jpg|thumb|After the battle, the [[Malbork Castle|Castle of Marienburg]], which served as the [[Teutonic Knights]]'s capital, was [[Siege of Marienburg (1410)|unsuccessfully besieged]] for two months by the Polish–Lithuanian forces]] |
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After the battle, the Polish and Lithuanian forces delayed their attack on the Teutonic capital in Marienburg ([[Malbork]]) by staying on the battlefield for three days and then marching an average of only about {{convert|15|km|abbr=on}} per day.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=162}}</ref> The main forces did not reach heavily fortified Marienburg until |
After the battle, the Polish and Lithuanian forces delayed their attack on the Teutonic capital in Marienburg ([[Malbork]]) by staying on the battlefield for three days and then marching an average of only about {{convert|15|km|abbr=on}} per day.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=162}}</ref> The main forces did not reach heavily fortified Marienburg until July 26. This delay gave [[Heinrich von Plauen]] enough time to organize a defense. Jogaila also sent his troops to other Teutonic fortresses, which often surrendered without resistance,<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=164}}</ref> including the major cities of Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]), Thorn ([[Toruń]]), and Elbing ([[Elbląg]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=17}}</ref> Only eight castles remained in Teutonic hands.<ref>{{harvnb|Ivinskis|1978|p=342}}</ref> The besiegers of Marienburg expected a speedy capitulation and were not prepared for a long-term engagement, suffering from lack of ammunition, low morale, and an epidemic of [[dysentery]].<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=75}}</ref> The Knights appealed to their allies for help and [[Sigismund of Hungary]], [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], and the [[Livonian Order]] promised financial aid and reinforcements.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=74}}</ref> The siege of Marienburg was lifted on September 19. The Polish–Lithuanian forces left garrisons in fortresses that were captured or surrendered and returned home. However, the Knights quickly recaptured most of the castles. By the end of October, only four Teutonic castles along the border remained in Polish hands.<ref>{{harvnb|Urban|2003|p=166}}</ref> Jogaila raised a fresh army and dealt another defeat to the Knights in the [[Battle of Koronowo]] on October 10, 1410. Following other brief engagements, both sides agreed to negotiate. |
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The [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|Peace of Thorn]] was signed in February 1411. Under its terms, the Knights ceded the Dobrin Land ([[Dobrzyń Land]]) to Poland and agreed to resign their claims to [[Samogitia]] during the lifetimes of Jogaila and Vytautas,<ref name=chris228/> although another two wars — the [[Hunger War]] of 1414 and the [[Gollub War]] of 1422 — would be waged before the [[Treaty of Melno]] permanently resolved the territorial disputes.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiaupa|2000|pp=142–144}}</ref> The Poles and Lithuanians were unable to translate the military victory into territorial or diplomatic gains. However, the Peace of Thorn imposed a heavy financial burden on the Knights from which they never recovered. They had to pay an indemnity in silver, estimated at ten times the annual income of the [[King of England]], in four annual installments.<ref name=chris228>{{harvnb|Christiansen|1997|p=228}}</ref> To meet these payments, the Knights borrowed heavily, confiscated gold and silver from churches, and increased taxes. Two major Prussian cities, Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) and Thorn ([[Toruń]]), revolted against the tax increases.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=78}}</ref> The defeat at Grunwald left the Teutonic Knights with few forces to defend their remaining territories. Since both Poland and Lithuania were now Christian countries, the Knights had difficulties recruiting new volunteer crusaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Christiansen|1997|pp=228–230}}</ref> The Grand Masters then needed to rely on mercenary troops, which proved an expensive drain on their already depleted budget. The internal conflicts, economic decline, and tax increases led to unrest and the foundation of the [[Prussian Confederation]], or ''Alliance against Lordship'', in 1441. This in turn led to a series of conflicts that culminated in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)|Thirteen Years' War]] (1454).<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=17–19}}</ref> |
The [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|Peace of Thorn]] was signed in February 1411. Under its terms, the Knights ceded the Dobrin Land ([[Dobrzyń Land]]) to Poland and agreed to resign their claims to [[Samogitia]] during the lifetimes of Jogaila and Vytautas,<ref name=chris228/> although another two wars — the [[Hunger War]] of 1414 and the [[Gollub War]] of 1422 — would be waged before the [[Treaty of Melno]] permanently resolved the territorial disputes.<ref>{{harvnb|Kiaupa|2000|pp=142–144}}</ref> The Poles and Lithuanians were unable to translate the military victory into territorial or diplomatic gains. However, the Peace of Thorn imposed a heavy financial burden on the Knights from which they never recovered. They had to pay an indemnity in silver, estimated at ten times the annual income of the [[King of England]], in four annual installments.<ref name=chris228>{{harvnb|Christiansen|1997|p=228}}</ref> To meet these payments, the Knights borrowed heavily, confiscated gold and silver from churches, and increased taxes. Two major Prussian cities, Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) and Thorn ([[Toruń]]), revolted against the tax increases.<ref>{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=78}}</ref> The defeat at Grunwald left the Teutonic Knights with few forces to defend their remaining territories. Since both Poland and Lithuania were now Christian countries, the Knights had difficulties recruiting new volunteer crusaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Christiansen|1997|pp=228–230}}</ref> The Grand Masters then needed to rely on mercenary troops, which proved an expensive drain on their already depleted budget. The internal conflicts, economic decline, and tax increases led to unrest and the foundation of the [[Prussian Confederation]], or ''Alliance against Lordship'', in 1441. This in turn led to a series of conflicts that culminated in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)|Thirteen Years' War]] (1454).<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=17–19}}</ref> |
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[[File:2007Kraków.jpg|right|thumb|A Battle of Grunwald monument was erected in [[Kraków]] for the battle's 500th anniversary. It was destroyed during World War II by the Germans and rebuilt in 1976.]] |
[[File:2007Kraków.jpg|right|thumb|A Battle of Grunwald monument was erected in [[Kraków]] for the battle's 500th anniversary. It was destroyed during World War II by the Germans and rebuilt in 1976.]] |
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The battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important battles in Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian history.<ref name=john43/> In Lithuania, the victory at the Battle of Grunwald is synonymous with the Grand Duchy's political and military peak. It was a source of national pride during the age of [[Romantic nationalism]] and inspired resistance to the [[Germanization]] and [[Russification]] policies of the [[German Empire|German]] and [[Russian Empire]]s. The Knights were portrayed as bloodthirsty invaders and Grunwald as a just victory achieved by a small oppressed nation.<ref name=john43/> In 1910, to mark the 500th anniversary of the battle, a monument by [[Antoni Wiwulski]] was unveiled in [[Kraków]] during a three-day celebration, attended by some 150,000 people.<ref>{{harvnb|Dabrowski|2004|pp=164–165}}</ref> About 60 other towns and villages in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] erected Grunwald monuments for the anniversary.<ref>{{harvnb|Ekdahl|2008|p=179}}</ref> About the same time, [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] wrote the novel ''[[The Knights of the Cross]]'' (Polish: ''Krzyżacy''), prominently featuring the battle in one of the chapters. In 1960, Polish filmmaker [[Aleksander Ford]] used the book as the basis for his film, ''[[Knights of the Teutonic Order (film)|Knights of the Teutonic Order]]''. A museum, monuments, and memorials were constructed at the battlefield in 1960.<ref>{{harvnb|Ekdahl|2008|p=186}}</ref> The battle has lent its name to military decorations ([[Cross of Grunwald]]), sport teams ([[Grunwald Poznań]], [[BC Žalgiris]], [[FK Žalgiris]]), and various organizations. An annual [[medieval reenactment|battle reenactment]] takes place |
The battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important battles in Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian history.<ref name=john43/> In Lithuania, the victory at the Battle of Grunwald is synonymous with the Grand Duchy's political and military peak. It was a source of national pride during the age of [[Romantic nationalism]] and inspired resistance to the [[Germanization]] and [[Russification]] policies of the [[German Empire|German]] and [[Russian Empire]]s. The Knights were portrayed as bloodthirsty invaders and Grunwald as a just victory achieved by a small oppressed nation.<ref name=john43/> In 1910, to mark the 500th anniversary of the battle, a monument by [[Antoni Wiwulski]] was unveiled in [[Kraków]] during a three-day celebration, attended by some 150,000 people.<ref>{{harvnb|Dabrowski|2004|pp=164–165}}</ref> About 60 other towns and villages in [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] erected Grunwald monuments for the anniversary.<ref>{{harvnb|Ekdahl|2008|p=179}}</ref> About the same time, [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] wrote the novel ''[[The Knights of the Cross]]'' (Polish: ''Krzyżacy''), prominently featuring the battle in one of the chapters. In 1960, Polish filmmaker [[Aleksander Ford]] used the book as the basis for his film, ''[[Knights of the Teutonic Order (film)|Knights of the Teutonic Order]]''. A museum, monuments, and memorials were constructed at the battlefield in 1960.<ref>{{harvnb|Ekdahl|2008|p=186}}</ref> The battle has lent its name to military decorations ([[Cross of Grunwald]]), sport teams ([[Grunwald Poznań]], [[BC Žalgiris]], [[FK Žalgiris]]), and various organizations. An annual [[medieval reenactment|battle reenactment]] takes place on July 15. A pageant was held in 2010 reenacting the event and commemorating the battle's 600th anniversary. It attracted 200,000 spectators who watched 2,200 participants playing the role of knights in a reenactment of the battle. An additional 3,800 participants played peasants and camp-followers. The pageant's organisers believe that the event has become the largest reenactment of medieval combat in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|2010}}</ref> |
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===Germany and Russia=== |
===Germany and Russia=== |
Revision as of 00:59, 13 January 2011
Battle of Grunwald | |||||||
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Part of the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War | |||||||
Battle of Grunwald by Jan Matejko (1878) | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Kingdom of Poland | Teutonic Order, guest crusaders, and mercenaries from western Europe | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło), supreme commander[1] | Grandmaster Ulrich von Jungingen † | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
16,000–39,000 men[7] | 11,000–27,000 men[7] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
4,000–5,000 dead 8,000 wounded[8] |
200–400 knights killed 8,000 dead 14,000 captured |
The Battle of Grunwald or 1st Battle of Tannenberg was fought on July 15, 1410, during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The alliance of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led respectively by King Jogaila (Władysław Jagiełło) and Grand Duke Vytautas (Witold), decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights, led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Most of the Teutonic Knights' leadership were killed or taken prisoner. While defeated, the Teutonic Knights withstood the siege on their fortress in Marienburg (Malbork) and suffered only minimal territorial losses at the Peace of Thorn (1411) (Toruń). Territorial disputes continued until the Peace of Melno was concluded in 1422. However, the Knights never recovered their former power and the financial burden of war reparations caused internal conflicts and an economic downturn in their lands. The battle shifted the balance of power in Eastern Europe and marked the rise of the Polish–Lithuanian union as the dominant political and military force in the region.[9]
The battle was one of the largest battles in Medieval Europe and is regarded as the most important victory in the history of Poland and Lithuania.[10] It was surrounded by romantic legends and nationalistic propaganda, becoming a larger symbol of struggle against invaders and a source of national pride. During the 20th century, the battle was used in Nazi and Soviet propaganda campaigns. Only in recent decades have historians made progress towards a dispassionate, scholarly assessment of the battle reconciling the previous narratives, which differed widely by nation.
Names and sources
Names
The battle was fought in the territory of the Monastic state of the Teutonic Order, on the plains between three villages: Grünfelde (Grunwald) to the west, Tannenberg (Stębark) to the northeast, and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo, Ludwikowice) to the south. Jogaila referred to the site in Latin as in loco conflictus nostri, quem cum Cruciferis de Prusia habuimus, dicto Grunenvelt.[9] Later Polish chroniclers interpreted the word Grunenvelt as Grünwald, meaning "green forest" in German. The Lithuanians followed suit and translated the name as Žalgiris. The Germans named the battle after Tannenberg ("fir hill" in German). Thus there are three commonly used names for the battle: German: Schlacht bei Tannenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Grunwaldem, Lithuanian: Žalgirio mūšis. Its names in the languages of other involved peoples include Belarusian: Дубровенская бітва, Ukrainian: Грюнвальдська битва, Russian: Грюнвальдская битва, Czech: Bitva u Grunvaldu, Romanian: Bătălia de la Grünwald.
Sources
There are few contemporary and reliable sources about the battle, and most are Polish. The most important and trustworthy source is Cronica conflictus Wladislai regis Poloniae cum Cruciferis anno Christi 1410, which was written within a year of the battle by an eyewitness.[11] Its authorship is uncertain but candidates have been proposed: Polish deputy chancellor Mikołaj Trąba and Jogaila's secretary Zbigniew Oleśnicki.[12] While the original Cronica conflictus did not survive, a short summary was preserved from the 16th century. Another pivotal source is Historia Poloniae by Polish historian Jan Długosz (1415–1480).[12] It is a comprehensive and detailed account written several decades after the battle. The reliability of this source suffers not only from the long gap between the events and the chronicle, but also Długosz's biases against the Lithuanians.[13] Banderia Prutenorum is a mid-15th century manuscript with images and Latin descriptions of the Teutonic battle flags captured during the battle and displayed in Wawel Cathedral. Other Polish sources include two letters written by Jogaila to his wife Anne of Cilli and Bishop of Poznań Wojciech Jastrzębiec and letters sent by Jastrzębiec to Poles in the Holy See.[13] German sources include a concise account in the chronicle of Johann von Posilge. An anonymous letter, written between 1411 and 1413, was discovered by Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl and provided important details on Lithuanian maneuvers.[14][15]
Historical background
Lithuanian Crusade and Polish–Lithuanian union
In 1230, the Teutonic Knights, a crusading military order, moved to Kulmerland and launched the Prussian Crusade against the pagan Prussian clans. With support from the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor, the Teutons conquered and converted the Prussians by 1280s and shifted their attention to the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For about a hundred years the Knights raided the Lithuanian lands, particularly Samogitia as it separated the Knights in Prussia from their branch in Livonia. The border regions became uninhabited wilderness, but the Knights gained very little territory. The Lithuanians first gave up Samogitia during the Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384) in the Treaty of Dubysa. The territory was used as a bargaining chip to ensure Teutonic support for one of the sides in the internal power struggle.
In 1385, Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania agreed to marry reigning Queen Jadwiga of Poland in the Union of Kreva. Jogaila converted to Christianity and was crowned as the King of Poland thus creating a personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The official Lithuanian conversion to Christianity removed the religious rationale for the Order's activities in the area.[16] Its Grand Master, Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein, supported by the Hungarian king Sigismund of Luxemburg, responded by publicly contesting the sincerity of Jogaila's conversion, bringing the charge to a papal court.[16] The territorial disputes continued over Samogitia, which was in Teutonic hands since the Peace of Raciąż of 1404. Poland also had territorial claims against the Knights in Dobrzyń Land and Danzig (Gdańsk), but the two states were largely at peace since the Treaty of Kalisz (1343).[17] The conflict was also motivated by trade considerations: the Knights controlled lower reaches of the three largest rivers (Neman, Vistula and Daugava) in Poland and Lithuania.[18]
War, truce, and preparations
In May 1409, an uprising in Teutonic-held Samogitia started. Lithuania supported the uprising and the Knights threatened to invade. Poland announced its support for the Lithuanian cause and threatened to invade Prussia in return. As Prussian troops evacuated Samogitia, the Teutonic Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen declared war on the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania on August 6, 1409.[19] The Knights hoped to defeat Poland and Lithuania separately and began by invading Greater Poland and Kuyavia, catching the Poles by surprise.[20] The Knights burned the castle at Dobrin (Dobrzyń nad Wisłą), captured Bobrowniki after a fourteen-day siege, conquered Bydgoszcz (Bromberg), and sacked several towns.[21] The Poles organized counterattacks and recaptured Bydgoszcz.[22] The Samogitians attacked Memel (Klaipėda).[20] However, neither side was ready for a full-scale war.
Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, agreed to mediate the dispute. A truce was signed on October 8, 1409; it was set to expire on June 24, 1410.[23] Both sides used this time for preparations for the battle, gathering the troops and engaging in diplomatic maneuvers. Both sides sent letters and envoys accusing each other of various wrongdoings and threats to Christendom. Wenceslaus, who received a gift of 60,000 florins from the Knights, declared that Samogitia rightfully belonged to the Knights and only Dobrzyń Land should be returned to Poland.[24] The Knights also paid 300,000 ducats to Sigismund of Hungary, who had ambitions for the principality of Moldova, for his military assistance.[24] Sigismund attempted to break the Polish–Lithuanian alliance by offering Vytautas a king's crown; Vytautas's acceptance of such a crown would violate the terms of the Ostrów Agreement and create Polish-Lithuanian discord.[25] At the same time Vytautas managed to obtain a truce from the Livonian Order.[26]
By December 1409, Jogaila and Vytautas had agreed on a common strategy: their armies would unite into a single massive force and march together towards Marienburg (Malbork), capital of the Teutonic Knights.[27] The Knights, who took a defensive position, did not expect a joint attack and were preparing for a dual invasion – by the Poles along the Vistula River towards Danzig (Gdańsk) and by the Lithuanians along the Neman River towards Ragnit (Neman).[3] To counter this perceived threat, Ulrich von Jungingen concentrated his forces in Schwetz (Świecie), a central location from where troops could respond to an invasion from any direction rather quickly.[28] Sizable garrisons were left in the eastern castles of Ragnit, Rhein (Ryn) near Lötzen (Giżycko), and Memel (Klaipėda).[3] To keep the plans secret and misguide the Knights, Jogaila and Vytautas organised several raids into border territories, thus forcing the Knights to keep their troops in place.[27]
Opposing forces
Historian | Polish | Lithuanian | Teutonic |
---|---|---|---|
Karl Heveker and Hans Delbrück |
16,500 | 11,000 | |
Eugene Razin[29] | 16,000–17,000 | 11,000 | |
Max Oehler | 23,000 | 15,000 | |
Jerzy Ochmański | 22,000–27,000 | 12,000 | |
Sven Ekdahl | 20,000–25,000 | 12,000–15,000 | |
Andrzej Nadolski | 20,000 | 10,000 | 15,000 |
Jan Dąbrowski | 15,000–18,000 | 8,000–11,000 | 19,000 |
Zigmantas Kiaupa[30] | 18,000 | 11,000 | 15,000–21,000 |
Marian Biskup | 19,000–20,000 | 10,000–11,000 | 21,000 |
Daniel Stone[16] | 27,000 | 11,000 | 21,000 |
Stefan Kuczyński | 39,000 | 27,000 |
The precise number of soldiers involved has proven difficult to establish.[5] None of the contemporary sources provided reliable troop counts. Jan Długosz provided the number of the banners, the principal unit of each cavalry: 51 for the Knights, 50 for the Poles, and 40 for the Lithuanians.[31] However, it is unclear how many men were under each banner. The structure and number of infantry units (pikemen, archers, crossbowmen) and artillery units is unknown. Estimates, often biased by political and nationalistic considerations, were produced by various historians.[5] German historians tend to present lower numbers, while Polish historians tend to use higher estimates.[7] The high-end estimates by Polish historian Stefan Kuczyński of 39,000 Polish–Lithuanian and 27,000 Teutonic men[31] have been cited in western literature as "commonly accepted".[5][6][32]
While less numerous, the Teutonic army had advantages in discipline, military training, and superior military equipment.[29] Their heavy cavalry was one of the best in Europe. The Teutonic army was also equipped with bombards that could shoot lead and stone projectiles.[29] Both forces were composed of troops from several states and lands, including numerous mercenaries; for example, Bohemian mercenaries fought on each side.[33] The Knights also invited guest crusaders. Twenty-two different peoples, mostly Germanic, joined the Teutonic side.[34] Teutonic recruits included soldiers from Westphalia, Frisia, Austria, Swabia,[33] Stettin (Szczecin).[35] Two Hungarian nobles, Nicholas II Garay and Stibor of Stiboricz, brought 200 men for the Knights,[36] but support from Sigismund of Hungary was disappointing.[26]
Poland brought mercenaries from Moravia and Bohemia. The Czechs produced two full banners, under command of Jan Sokol of Lamberk.[1] Serving among the Czechs was Jan Žižka, future commander of the Hussite forces. Alexander the Good commanded Moldavian troops.[4] Vytautas gathered troops from Lithuanian and Ruthenian (modern Belarus and Ukraine) lands. The Lithuanian army included three banners from Smolensk, under the command of Jogaila's brother Lengvenis, and a contingent of Tatars of the Golden Horde, under the command of the exiled Khan Jalal ad-Din.[2] The overall commander of the joint Polish–Lithuanian forces was King Jogaila; however, he did not directly participate in the battle. The Lithuanian units were commanded directly by Grand Duke Vytautas, who was second in command and helped design the grand strategy of the campaign. Vytautas actively participated in the battle, managing both Lithuanian and Polish units.[37] Jan Długosz stated that the low-ranking Sword Bearer of the Crown Zyndram of Maszkowice commanded the Polish army, but that is highly doubtful.[38] More likely Marshal of the Crown Zbigniew of Brzezie commanded the Polish troops in the field.
Course of the battle
March into Prussia
The first stage of the Grunwald campaign was gathering all Polish–Lithuanian troops at Czerwinsk, a designated meeting point about 80 km (50 mi) from the Prussian border, where the joint army crossed the Vistula over a pontoon bridge.[39] This maneuver, which required precision and intense coordination among multi-ethnic forces, was accomplished in about a week from June 24 to June 30, 1410.[3] Polish soldiers from Greater Poland gathered in Poznań and those from Lesser Poland in Wolbórz. On June 24, 1410, Jogaila and Czech mercenaries arrived in Wolbórz.[3] Three days later, the Polish army was already at the meeting point. The Lithuanian army marched out from Vilnius on June 3 and joined up with the Ruthenian regiments in Hrodna.[3] They arrived in Czerwinsk on the same day as the Poles crossed the river. After the crossing, Masovian troops under Siemowit IV and Janusz I joined the Polish–Lithuanian army.[3] The massive force began its march north towards Marienburg (Malbork), capital of Prussia, on July 3. The Prussian border was crossed on July 9.[39]
The river crossing remained secret until Hungarian envoys, who were attempting to negotiate a peace, revealed it to the Teutonic Grand Master.[40] As soon as Ulrich von Jungingen grasped Polish–Lithuanian intentions, he left 3,000 men at Schwetz (Świecie) under Heinrich von Plauen[41] and marched the main forces to organise a line of defence on the Drewenz River (Drwęca) near Kauernik (Kurzętnik).[42] The river crossing was fortified with stockades.[43] On July 11, after meeting with his eight-member war council,[38] Jogaila decided against crossing the river at such a strong defensible position. The army would instead bypass the river crossing by turning east, towards its sources, where no other major rivers separated his army from Marienburg.[42] The march continued east towards Soldau (Działdowo), although no attempt was made to capture the town.[44] The Teutonic army followed the Drewenz River north, crossed it near Löbau (Lubawa), and then moved east in parallel with the Polish–Lithuanian army. The latter ravaged the village of Gilgenburg (Dąbrówno).[45] Von Jungingen was so enraged by the atrocities that he swore to defeat the invaders in battle.[46]
Battle preparations
In the early morning of July 15, 1410, both armies met in an area covering approximately 4 km2 (1.5 sq mi) between the villages of Grunwald, Tannenberg (Stębark) and Ludwigsdorf (Łodwigowo).[47] Both armies formed opposing lines along a northeast–southwest axis. The Polish–Lithuanian army was positioned in front and east of Ludwigsdorf and Tannenberg.[48] Polish heavy cavalry formed the left flank, Lithuanian light cavalry formed the right flank, while various mercenary troops formed the center. Their men were organized in three lines of wedge-shaped formations about 20 men deep.[48] The Teutonic forces concentrated their elite heavy cavalry, commanded by Grand Marshal Frederic von Wallenrode, against the Lithuanians.[47] The Knights, who were the first to organize their army for the battle, hoped to provoke Poles or Lithuanians to attack first. Their troops, wearing heavy armor, had to stand in scorching sun for several hours waiting for an attack.[49] One chronicle suggested that they had dug pits that an attacking army would fall into.[50] They also attempted to use field artillery, but a light rain dampened their powder and only two cannon shots were fired.[49] As Jogaila delayed, Grand Master sent messengers with two swords to "assist Jogaila and Vytautas in battle". The swords were meant as an insult and provocation.[51] Known as the Grunwald Swords, they became one of the national symbols of Poland.
Battle begins: Lithuanian attack and retreat
Template:Image stack Vytautas, supported by a few Polish banners, started an assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces.[49] After more than an hour of heavy fighting, the Lithuanian light cavalry started a full retreat. Jan Długosz described this development as a complete annihilation of the entire Lithuanian army. According to Długosz, the Knights assumed that victory was theirs, broke their formation for a disorganized pursuit of the retreating Lithuanians, and gathered much loot before returning to the battlefield to face the Polish troops.[52] He made no mention of the Lithuanians that returned to the battlefield. Thus Długosz portrayed the battle as a single-handed Polish victory.[52] This view has been challenged by modern historians. They proposed that the retreat was a planned, strategic maneuver, borrowed from the Golden Horde.[53] The same false retreat was used in the Battle of the Vorskla River of 1399, where the Lithuanian army was dealt a crushing defeat and Vytautas himself barely escaped alive.[54] This theory is supported by a German letter, discovered and published by Swedish historian Sven Ekdahl in 1963.[55] The letter cautions the new Grand Master to look out for false retreats of the kind that were used in the Great Battle.[15] Stephen Turnbull asserted that the Lithuanian retreat did not quite fit the tried formula of a false retreat. Such a retreat was usually staged by one or two units (as opposed to almost an entire army) and was swiftly followed by a counterattack (whereas the Lithuanians returned late in the battle).[56]
Battle continues: Polish–Teutonic fight
While the Lithuanians were retreating, heavy fighting began between Polish and Teutonic forces. Teutonic forces, commanded by Grand Komtur Kuno von Lichtenstein, concentrated on the Polish right flank. Six of the von Walenrode banners did not pursue the retreating Lithuanians and joined the attack on the right flank.[30] A particularly high-value target was the royal banner of Kraków. It seemed that the Knights were gaining the upper hand and at one point the royal standard-bearer Marcin of Wrocimowice lost the Kraków banner.[57] However, it was soon recaptured and fighting continued. Jogaila deployed his reserves – the second line of his army.[30] Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen then personally led 16 banners, almost a third of the original Teutonic strength, to the right Polish flank[58] and Jogaila deployed his last reserves, the third line of his army.[30] The melee reached the Polish command and one Knight, identified as Lupold or Diepold of Kökeritz, charged directly against King Jogaila.[59] Jogaila's secretary, Zbigniew Oleśnicki, saved the king's life, gaining royal favor and becoming one of the most influential people in Poland.[16]
Battle ends: Teutonic Knights defeated
At that time, the reorganized Lithuanians returned to the battle, attacking von Jungingen from the rear.[60] The Teutonic forces were by then becoming outnumbered by the mass of Polish knights and the advancing Lithuanian cavalry. As von Jungingen attempted to break through the Lithuanian lines, he was killed.[60] According to Cronica conflictus, Dobiesław of Oleśnica thrust a lance through Grand Master's neck,[60] while Długosz presented Mszczuj of Skrzynno as the killer. Surrounded and leaderless, the Teutonic Knights began to retreat. Part of the routed units retreated towards their camp. This move backfired when the camp followers turned against their masters and joined the manhunt.[61] The knights attempted to build a wagon fort: the camp was surrounded by wagons serving as an improvised fortification.[61] However, the defense was soon broken and the camp was ravaged. According to Cronica conflictus, more Knights died there than in the battlefield.[61] The battle lasted for about ten hours.[30]
The Teutonic Knights attributed the defeat to treason on the part of Nikolaus von Renys (Mikołaj of Ryńsk), commander of the Culm (Chełmno) banner, and he was beheaded without a trial.[62] He was the founder and leader of the Lizard Union, a group of Knights sympathetic to Poland. According to the Knights, von Renys lowered his banner, which was taken as a signal of surrender and led to the panicked retreat.[63] The legend that the Knights were "stabbed in the back" was echoed in the post-World War I stab-in-the-back legend and preoccupied German historiography of the battle until 1945.[62]
Aftermath
Casualties and captives
The defeat of the Teutonic Knights was resounding. About 8,000 Teuton soldiers were killed[64] and an additional 14,000 were taken captive.[65] According to Teutonic payroll records, only 1,427 men reported back to Marienburg to claim their pay.[65] Of 1,200 men sent from Danzig, only 300 returned.[35] According to different sources, some 200 or 400 brothers of the Order were killed, including much of the Teutonic leadership – Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen, Grand Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrode, Grand Komtur Kuno von Lichtenstein, Grand Treasurer Thomas von Merheim, Marshal of Supply Forces Albrecht von Schwartzburg, and ten of the komturs.[66] Markward von Salzbach, Komtur of Brandenburg (Ushakovo), and Heinrich Schaumburg, voigt of Sambia, were executed by order of Vytautas after the battle.[65] The bodies of von Jungingen and other high-ranking officials were transported to Marienburg Castle for burial on July 19.[67] Bodies of lower-ranking Teutonic officials and twelve Polish knights were buried at the church in Tannenberg.[67] The rest of the dead were buried in several mass graves. The highest- ranking Teutonic official to escape the battle was Werner von Tettinger, Komtur of Elbing (Elbląg).[65]
Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Among those taken were Dukes Konrad VII of Oels (Oleśnica) and Casimir V of Pomerania.[68] Most of the commoners and mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on condition that they report to Kraków on November 11, 1410.[69] Only those that were expected to pay ransom were kept in captivity. Considerable ransoms were recorded; the mercenary Holbracht von Loym had to pay sixty times the number of 150 Prague groschen, amounting to more than 30 kilograms of silver.[70]
Further campaign and peace
After the battle, the Polish and Lithuanian forces delayed their attack on the Teutonic capital in Marienburg (Malbork) by staying on the battlefield for three days and then marching an average of only about 15 km (9.3 mi) per day.[71] The main forces did not reach heavily fortified Marienburg until July 26. This delay gave Heinrich von Plauen enough time to organize a defense. Jogaila also sent his troops to other Teutonic fortresses, which often surrendered without resistance,[72] including the major cities of Danzig (Gdańsk), Thorn (Toruń), and Elbing (Elbląg).[73] Only eight castles remained in Teutonic hands.[74] The besiegers of Marienburg expected a speedy capitulation and were not prepared for a long-term engagement, suffering from lack of ammunition, low morale, and an epidemic of dysentery.[75] The Knights appealed to their allies for help and Sigismund of Hungary, Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, and the Livonian Order promised financial aid and reinforcements.[76] The siege of Marienburg was lifted on September 19. The Polish–Lithuanian forces left garrisons in fortresses that were captured or surrendered and returned home. However, the Knights quickly recaptured most of the castles. By the end of October, only four Teutonic castles along the border remained in Polish hands.[77] Jogaila raised a fresh army and dealt another defeat to the Knights in the Battle of Koronowo on October 10, 1410. Following other brief engagements, both sides agreed to negotiate.
The Peace of Thorn was signed in February 1411. Under its terms, the Knights ceded the Dobrin Land (Dobrzyń Land) to Poland and agreed to resign their claims to Samogitia during the lifetimes of Jogaila and Vytautas,[78] although another two wars — the Hunger War of 1414 and the Gollub War of 1422 — would be waged before the Treaty of Melno permanently resolved the territorial disputes.[79] The Poles and Lithuanians were unable to translate the military victory into territorial or diplomatic gains. However, the Peace of Thorn imposed a heavy financial burden on the Knights from which they never recovered. They had to pay an indemnity in silver, estimated at ten times the annual income of the King of England, in four annual installments.[78] To meet these payments, the Knights borrowed heavily, confiscated gold and silver from churches, and increased taxes. Two major Prussian cities, Danzig (Gdańsk) and Thorn (Toruń), revolted against the tax increases.[80] The defeat at Grunwald left the Teutonic Knights with few forces to defend their remaining territories. Since both Poland and Lithuania were now Christian countries, the Knights had difficulties recruiting new volunteer crusaders.[81] The Grand Masters then needed to rely on mercenary troops, which proved an expensive drain on their already depleted budget. The internal conflicts, economic decline, and tax increases led to unrest and the foundation of the Prussian Confederation, or Alliance against Lordship, in 1441. This in turn led to a series of conflicts that culminated in the Thirteen Years' War (1454).[82]
Legacy
Poland, Lithuania and Belarus
The battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important battles in Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian history.[32] In Lithuania, the victory at the Battle of Grunwald is synonymous with the Grand Duchy's political and military peak. It was a source of national pride during the age of Romantic nationalism and inspired resistance to the Germanization and Russification policies of the German and Russian Empires. The Knights were portrayed as bloodthirsty invaders and Grunwald as a just victory achieved by a small oppressed nation.[32] In 1910, to mark the 500th anniversary of the battle, a monument by Antoni Wiwulski was unveiled in Kraków during a three-day celebration, attended by some 150,000 people.[83] About 60 other towns and villages in Galicia erected Grunwald monuments for the anniversary.[84] About the same time, Nobel Prize winner Henryk Sienkiewicz wrote the novel The Knights of the Cross (Polish: Krzyżacy), prominently featuring the battle in one of the chapters. In 1960, Polish filmmaker Aleksander Ford used the book as the basis for his film, Knights of the Teutonic Order. A museum, monuments, and memorials were constructed at the battlefield in 1960.[85] The battle has lent its name to military decorations (Cross of Grunwald), sport teams (Grunwald Poznań, BC Žalgiris, FK Žalgiris), and various organizations. An annual battle reenactment takes place on July 15. A pageant was held in 2010 reenacting the event and commemorating the battle's 600th anniversary. It attracted 200,000 spectators who watched 2,200 participants playing the role of knights in a reenactment of the battle. An additional 3,800 participants played peasants and camp-followers. The pageant's organisers believe that the event has become the largest reenactment of medieval combat in Europe.[86]
Germany and Russia
The Germans generally saw the Knights as heroic and noble men, who brought Christianity and civilization to the east.[32] In August 1914, during World War I, Germany won a battle against Russia near the site. When the Germans realized its propaganda potential, they named the 1914 battle the Battle of Tannenberg.[87] The 1914 battle was framed as revenge for the Polish–Lithuanian victory 504 years earlier. Nazi Germany later exploited the sentiment by portraying their Lebensraum policies as a continuation of the Knights' historical mission.[88]
Due to the participation of the three Smolensk regiments in the battle, Russians saw the battle as a Polish–Lithuanian–Russian coalition against invading Germans. Chronicler Jan Długosz praised the Smolensk banners, who fought bravely and were the only banners from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania not to retreat. In Soviet historiography, the battle of Grunwald was styled as a racial struggle between Slavs and Germans.[89] The Teutonic Knights were portrayed as the medieval forerunners of Hitler's armies, while the battle itself was seen as the medieval counterpart to the Battle of Stalingrad.[32][89]
In William Urban's summary, almost all accounts of the battle made before the 1960s were more influenced by romantic legends and nationalistic propaganda than by fact.[62] Historians have since made progress towards dispassionate scholarship and reconciliation of the various national accounts of the battle.[88]
References
- Notes
- ^ a b c d e Turnbull 2003, p. 26
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 28
- ^ a b c d e f g Jučas 2009, p. 75
- ^ a b Urban 2003, p. 138
- ^ a b c d Turnbull 2003, p. 25
- ^ a b Davies 2005, p. 98
- ^ a b c d Jučas 2009, pp. 57–58
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 73
- ^ a b Ekdahl 2008, p. 175
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 92
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 8
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 9
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 10
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 11
- ^ a b Ekdahl 1963
- ^ a b c d Stone 2001, p. 16
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 132
- ^ Kiaupa 2000, p. 137
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 20
- ^ a b Ivinskis 1978, p. 336
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 130
- ^ Kuczynski 1960, p. 614
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 51
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 21
- ^ Kiaupa 2000, p. 139
- ^ a b Christiansen 1997, p. 227
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 30
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 74
- ^ a b c Разин 1999, p. 486
- ^ a b c d e Kiaupa 2002
- ^ a b Ivinskis 1978, p. 338
- ^ a b c d e Johnson 1996, p. 43
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 29
- ^ Разин 1999, pp. 485–486
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 56
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 139
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 64
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 63
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 33
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 141
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 142
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 35
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 76
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 36
- ^ Turnbull 2003, pp. 36–37
- ^ Urban 2003, pp. 148–149
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 77
- ^ a b Turnbull 2003, p. 44
- ^ a b c Turnbull 2003, p. 45
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 149
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 43
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 78
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 48
- ^ Sužiedėlis 1976, p. 337
- ^ Urban 2003, pp. 152–153
- ^ Turnbull 2003, pp. 48–49
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 83
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 53
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 61
- ^ a b c Turnbull 2003, p. 64
- ^ a b c Turnbull 2003, p. 66
- ^ a b c Urban 2003, p. 168
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 79
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 157
- ^ a b c d Turnbull 2003, p. 68
- ^ Jučas 2009, pp. 85–86
- ^ a b Jučas 2009, p. 87
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 69
- ^ Jučas 2009, p. 88
- ^ Pelech 1987, pp. 105–107
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 162
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 164
- ^ Stone 2001, p. 17
- ^ Ivinskis 1978, p. 342
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 75
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 74
- ^ Urban 2003, p. 166
- ^ a b Christiansen 1997, p. 228
- ^ Kiaupa 2000, pp. 142–144
- ^ Turnbull 2003, p. 78
- ^ Christiansen 1997, pp. 228–230
- ^ Stone 2001, pp. 17–19
- ^ Dabrowski 2004, pp. 164–165
- ^ Ekdahl 2008, p. 179
- ^ Ekdahl 2008, p. 186
- ^ Fowler 2010
- ^ Burleigh 1985, p. 27
- ^ a b Johnson 1996, p. 44
- ^ a b Davies 2005, p. 99
- Bibliography
- Burleigh, Michael (1985), "The German Knight: Making of A Modern Myth", History Today, 6 (35), ISSN 0018-2753
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - Christiansen, Eric (1997), The Northern Crusades (2nd ed.), Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-026653-4
- Dabrowski, Patrice M. (2004), Commemorations and the shaping of modern Poland, Indiana University Press, ISBN 9780253344298
- Davies, Norman (2005), God's Playground. A History of Poland. The Origins to 1795, vol. I (Revised ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5
- Ekdahl, Sven (2008), "The Battle of Tannenberg-Grunwald-Žalgiris (1410) as reflected in Twentieth-Century monuments", in Victor Mallia-Milanes (ed.), The Military Orders: History and Heritage, vol. 3, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 9780754662907
- Ekdahl, Sven (1963), "Die Flucht der Litauer in der Schlacht bei Tannenberg", Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, 1 (12) Template:De icon
- Fowler, Jonathan (2010), Tabards on, visors down: fans relive 1410 Battle of Grunwald, AFP
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - Ivinskis, Zenonas (1978), Lietuvos istorija iki Vytauto Didžiojo mirties, Rome: Lietuvių katalikų mokslo akademija, LCC 79346776 Template:Lt icon
- Johnson, Lonnie (1996), Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195100719
- Jučas, Mečislovas (2009), The Battle of Grünwald, Vilnius: National Museum Palace of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, ISBN 9786099507453
- Kiaupa, Zigmantas (2002), "Didysis karas su Kryžiuočiais", Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės, Vilnius: Elektroninės leidybos namai, ISBN 9986-9216-9-4
{{citation}}
: External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help) Template:Lt icon - Kiaupa, Zigmantas (2000), The History of Lithuania Before 1795, Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History, ISBN 9986-810-13-2
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Kuczynski, Stephen M. (1960), The Great War with the Teutonic Knights in the years 1409-1411, Ministry of National Defence, OCLC 20499549
- Mickūnaitė, Giedrė (2006), Making a great ruler: Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, Central European University Press, ISBN 9789637326585
- Pelech, Markian (1987), "W sprawie okupu za jeńców krzyżackich z Wielkiej Wojny (1409-1411)", Zapiski Historyczne, 2 (52) Template:Pl icon
- Разин, Е. А. (1999), История военного искусства XVI – XVII вв., vol. 3, Издательство Полигон, ISBN 5891730413 Template:Ru icon
- Stone, Daniel (2001), The Polish-Lithuanian state, 1386-1795, University of Washington Press, ISBN 9780295980935
- Sužiedėlis, Simas (1976), "Tatars", Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol. V, Boston, Massachusetts: Juozas Kapočius, LCC 74-114275
- Turnbull, Stephen (2003), Tannenberg 1410: Disaster for the Teutonic Knights, Campaign Series, vol. 122, London: Osprey, ISBN 9781841765617
- Urban, William (2003), Tannenberg and After: Lithuania, Poland and the Teutonic Order in Search of Immortality (Revised ed.), Chicago: Lithuanian Research and Studies Center, ISBN 0-929700-25-2
External links
- Account by Jan Dlugosz, written sixty years after the battle
- 600th anniversary celebrations in 2010
- Template:Pl icon Battle of Grunwald reenactment (every year on 15 July)
- Template:La icon Photos of Banderia Prutenorum, a catalog of captured Teutonic banners
- Festival to mark the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Grunwald in pictures on the official website of Belarus