JulianBradshaw (talk | contribs) m Remove double spaces Tag: Visual edit |
B.KaiEditor (talk | contribs) Improving the grammar and tone of the page. Tag: Reverted |
||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Optical device for recording images}} |
|||
{{copyedit|for=contractions, "you", tone, linking, length|date=November 2021}} |
|||
{{About|the mechanics and primary types of cameras|the history of camera development|History of the camera|modern specifics|Digital camera|a more comprehensive list of cameras|List of camera types|other uses|}} |
|||
{{Infobox Musical |
|||
{{copy edit|date=September 2021}} |
|||
|name = Bad Girls |
|||
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} |
|||
|subtitle = The Musical |
|||
[[File:LEI0440 Leica IIIf chrom - Sn. 580566 1951-52-M39 Blitzsynchron front view-6531 hf-.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leica Camera]] (1950s)]] |
|||
|image = Bad Girls Poster.jpg |
|||
[[File:Hasselblad 500 CM.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hasselblad]] 500 C/M with [[Carl Zeiss AG|Zeiss]] lens]] |
|||
|image_size = 150px |
|||
|caption = Bad Girls Original Poster |
|||
|music = Kath Gotts |
|||
|lyrics = Kath Gotts |
|||
|book = Maureen Chadwick <br> Ann McManus |
|||
|basis = [[ITV1]] television series <br> ''[[Bad Girls (TV series)|Bad Girls]]'' |
|||
|productions = 2006 [[Leeds]] <br> 2007 [[West End theatre|West End]] |
|||
<!-- Please do not include production-specific (acting, directing, etc.) awards --> |
|||
|awards = |
|||
}} |
|||
'''''Bad Girls: The Musical''''' is a [[musical theatre|musical]] based on a book written by [[Maureen Chadwick]] and Ann McManus with [[music]] and [[lyrics]] by Kath Gotts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2016-03-13|title=REVIEW: Bad Girls, Union Theatre ✭✭✭✭|url=https://britishtheatre.com/review-bad-girls-union-theatre-4stars/|access-date=2021-11-19|website=British Theatre|language=en-GB}}</ref> It is based on the popular [[ITV1]] prison drama series, ''[[Bad Girls (TV series)|Bad Girls]]'', also based on the book by Chadwick and McManus.<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
A '''camera''' is an [[Optics|optical]] instrument that captures a visual [[image]]. At a basic level, cameras are sealed boxes (the camera body) with a small hole (the [[aperture]]) that allows [[light]] through to capture an image on a light-sensitive surface (usually [[photographic film]] or a [[Image sensor|digital sensor]]). Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the light falls onto the light-sensitive surface. [[Lens]]es focus the light entering the camera, and the size of the [[aperture]] can be widened or narrowed. A [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] [[Mechanism (engineering)|mechanism]] determines the amount of time the [[photosensitive]] surface is exposed to light. |
|||
==Productions== |
|||
The original production was developed and directed by [[Maggie Norris]]. It had an audition at the [[West Yorkshire Playhouse]], [[Leeds]] in June 2006. The [[West End theatre|West End]] production began previews at the [[Garrick Theatre]] on the 16th of August 2007, officially opening on 12 September 2007; however, it closed two months later with the final performance staged on 17th of November 2007. The rights to produce the musical are now available through Josef Weinberger Ltd. An Original Cast Recording CD of the musical is now available and a DVD recording of the London production was released in February 2009. It is also available to view on demand through Vimeo.com. [[Nicole Faraday]], who portrayed the role of [[Shell Dockley]] in both productions won the prestigious [[TMA Award]] for Best Supporting Role in a Musical in 2006 and was a nominee again for the role of Shell at the [[Whatsonstage.com Awards]] 2007/8. |
|||
The still image camera is the main instrument in the art of [[photography]]. Captured images may be reproduced later as a part of the process of [[photography]], [[digital imaging]], or [[photographic printing]]. Similar artistic fields in the moving image camera domain are film, [[videography]], and [[cinematography]]. |
|||
Professional revivals have been staged at The [[Union Theatre, London]] (9th March – 2nd April 2016) and [[Upstairs At The Gatehouse]], London (13th Feb – 3rd March 2019), then later again starring [[Nicole Faraday]] in the role of [[Shell Dockley]]. In addition, there have been 200 amateur productions in the UK and worldwide, licensed through [[Music Theatre International]]. |
|||
The word ''camera'' comes from ''[[camera obscura]]'', the Latin name of the original device for projecting an image onto a flat surface (literally translated to "dark chamber"). The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The first permanent photograph was made in 1825 by [[Nicéphore Niépce|Joseph Nicéphore Niépce]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1885093.stm |work=BBC News |date=21 March 2002 |title=World's oldest photo sold to library |quote=The image of an engraving depicting a man leading a horse was made in 1825 by Nicéphore Niépce, who invented a technique known as heliogravure. |access-date=17 November 2011}}</ref> |
|||
==Synopsis== |
|||
{{toclimit|3}} |
|||
;Act 1 |
|||
New inmate [[List of Bad Girls characters#Rachel Hicks|Rachel Hicks]] arrives in prison terrified, not being helped by the brusque manner of jaded Senior Officer, [[Sylvia Hollamby|Sylvia "BodyBag" Hollamby]]. The new Wing Governor, [[List of Bad Girls characters#Helen Stewart|Helen Stewart]], tries to be a more reassuring presence as she takes Rachel through to G-Wing. We meet the women of [[Larkhall]] in "I SHOULDN'T BE HERE" and Rachel is introduced to life inside the prison. Principal Officer [[Jim Fenner]] – who believes he's been unfairly passed over for the position of Wing Governor – is dismayed to see Helen making yet another appearance in the wing. He and Sylvia both wish she would stay in her office and stop [[meddling]] with how they run things in the prison. |
|||
== Mechanics == |
|||
Fenner is quick to take Rachel under his wing. He obtained a cell for herself – nice and private. Rachel is upset about having her baby taken away, but Fenner reassures her that he could help sort things out for her on the outside. He can see Rachel is special and he's going to be keeping a very close eye on her. |
|||
[[File:Reflex camera simple labels.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Basic elements of a modern digital single-lens reflex (SLR) still camera]] |
|||
Most cameras capture light from the [[visible spectrum]], while specialized cameras capture other portions of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], such as [[infra-red]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gustavson |first1=Todd |title=Camera: a history of photography from daguerreotype to digital |publisher=Sterling Publishing Co., Inc |year=2009 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4027-5656-6}}</ref>{{Rp|vii}} |
|||
All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium.<ref>{{Cite web|title=camera design {{!}} designboom.com|url=https://www.designboom.com/tag/camera-design/|access-date=2021-09-18|website=designboom {{!}} architecture & design magazine|language=en}}</ref> A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Hugh D. |last2=Freedman |first2=Roger A. |last3=Ford |first3=A. Lewis |title=Sears and Zemansky's University Physics |edition=12 |publisher=Pearson Addison-Wesley |year=2008 |location=San Francisco, California |isbn=978-0-321-50147-9 }}</ref>{{Rp|1182–1183}} |
|||
[[Shell Dockley]] and her sidekick [[List of Bad Girls characters#Denny Blood|Denny Blood]] are quick to pay a friendly visit to Rachel as well. Shell just wants to give Rachel the lowdown on how things work in prison. And if she's not carrying any drugs, then obviously she'll be buying, won't she? Shell is in charge – and wherever Rachel goes she'll always be watching over her like a "GUARDIAN ANGEL". |
|||
Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of [[focus (optics)|focus]], [[aperture]] and [[shutter speed]].<ref name="London">{{cite book |last1=London |first1=Barbara |last2=Upton |first2=John |last3=Kobré |first3=Kenneth |last4=Brill |first4=Betsy |title=Photography |edition=7 |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2002 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-028271-2}}</ref>{{Rp|4}} |
|||
Rachel rushes to tell Fenner about Shell bullying her, but he ticks her off for blabbing about their “special relationship”. Helen observes Fenner talking to Rachel and is suspicious. She tells Fenner and Sylvia that she wants to put lifer, [[Nikki Wade]], onto the Enhanced regime as encouragement to win her appeal, which has just been granted. Fenner and Sylvia think it's outrageous to be giving any sort of privileges to a known trouble-maker like Wade. Fenner even suggests that Helen may be getting a bit too personally involved. Helen puts her foot down. It's time to stop living in the past and carry out her orders. |
|||
=== Exposure control === |
|||
Fenner looks on the bright side. If Helen insists on sticking her neck out for Nikki, then it won't take much to really land her in it. If Wade kicks off, which won't be hard for them to arrange, then Helen will be in a right mess. They congratulate themselves on their Prison Officer skills in "JAILCRAFT", during which we see Fenner in the male staff toilets tipping off the Number One Governing Governor about Helen's lack of discernment and inexperience dealing with the inmates. |
|||
{{Main|Exposure (photography)}} |
|||
==== Aperture ==== |
|||
{{Main|Aperture}} |
|||
[[File: Lenses with different apertures.jpg|thumb|Different apertures of a lens]] |
|||
The aperture, sometimes called the ''diaphragm'' or ''iris'',<ref name="Britannica-technology">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=technology of photography|encyclopedia=Britannica Academic|access-date=13 December 2019|url=https://academic-eb-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/technology-of-photography/108552#36407.toc|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Warren-35">{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-393-4|editor=Lynne Warren |title=Camera: 35 mm|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography|location=New York|date=2006}}</ref> is the opening through which light enters the camera.<ref name="Britannica-camera">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=camera|encyclopedia=Britannica Academic|access-date=12 December 2019|url=https://academic-eb-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/camera/18803|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Typically located in the lens,<ref name="Warren-camera">{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-393-4|editor=Lynne Warren |title=Camera: An Overview|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography|location=New York|date=2006}}</ref> this opening can widen or narrow to alter the amount of light that strikes the film.<ref name="Columbia">{{Cite encyclopedia|edition=8|publisher=Columbia University Press|editor=Paul Lagasse |last=Columbia University|title=camera|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|date=2018|url=https://www.pin1.harvard.edu/pin/authenticate?__authen_application=HUL_ACC_MGMT_SVC&__hulaccess_gateway=ezproxy&__hulaccess_resource=zorecord&__hulaccess_url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Ftopic%2Fcamera|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The aperture is controlled by the movements of overlapping plates or blades that rotate together or apart, which function to shrink or expand the hole (aperture) at the center.<ref name="Columbia" /><ref name="How">{{Cite web|url=https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm/printable|title=How Cameras Work|work=How Stuff Works|access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref> The diameter of the aperture can be set manually, typically by adjusting a dial on the camera body or lens. Automatic adjustments can also occur based on calculations influenced by an internal light meter.<ref name="Columbia" /> |
|||
The size of the opening is set at standard increments, typically called [[f-number|''f-stops'']]{{efn|Technically the f-number is the focal length of the lens divided by the diameter of the effective aperture}}<ref name="Columbia" /> (but also ''f-numbers'', ''stop numbers'', or simply ''steps'' or ''stops''), that usually range from {{f/}}1.4 to {{f/}}32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.<ref name="Britannica-technology" /> As the numbers increase, each increment halves the amount of light entering the camera.<ref name="Warren-camera" /> Conversely, the lower the number, the larger the opening, and the more light enters the camera.<ref name="Columbia" /> |
|||
Nikki is told to pack up her bags as she is moving cells. Shell - who's been set up by Sylvia to overhear this - is outraged. How come Nikki's getting special treatment? As predicted, she can't resist laying into Nikki and starting a fight and when the officers come running to intervene, it's Nikki who gets the blame. Fenner sends her down to the segregation block. Nikki is used to a feeling of injustice. She remembers what brought her to prison in the first place – the night when she stabbed an off-duty police officer who was trying to rape her then girlfriend, and her whole life was changed in "ONE MOMENT". |
|||
The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus, so the image background is blurry when the foreground is in focus and vice versa. This [[depth of field]] increases as the aperture closes. As a result, objects at differing distances from the camera can both be in focus; when the aperture is at its narrowest, the foreground and background are both in sharp focus.<ref name="Warren-35" /> |
|||
Helen is determined not to be thwarted and goes to speak to Nikki in the seg block. She tells her that she's over-ruling Fenner and putting her on Enhanced. She wants Nikki to fight for her freedom, not just for herself but for all the other women. Nikki is taken aback by Helen's determined faith in her, but goes along with it. |
|||
==== Shutter ==== |
|||
Helen has some bad news for the two Julies – prostitutes who've styled themselves alike and taken the same name. There's a problem with the arrangements [[List of Bad Girls characters#Julie Saunders & Julie Johnston|Julie Saunders]] has made for her son David over the school holidays, and he had to be taken into foster care. Julie is devastated. Why do they have to punish the kids? It's not their fault. [[List of Bad Girls characters#Julie Saunders & Julie Johnston|Julie Johnston]] is unsurprised - life is always going wrong for them and nothing ever changes when you're living a "LIFE OF GRIME". |
|||
{{Main|Shutter (photography)}} |
|||
The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.<ref name="Warren-camera" /><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-240-80740-9|pages=770–771|last=Rose|first=B|title=The Camera Defined|encyclopedia=The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography|access-date=12 December 2019|date=2007|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780240807409501525}}</ref> |
|||
Back on the wing, there's a new arrival - [[Yvonne Atkins]] - and Shell's Top Dog position is under threat. Denny tries her usual routine of fronting up to the "new girl", but is quickly cut down to size. Yvonne – because of her gangland husband's scary reputation – has managed to avoid the indignities of a proper search. After intimidating Sylvia, she reveals a coat lining stuffed with booze and cigarettes. Everyone's invited to have a drink and a good time. She spots little Rachel looking lost on her own, and tells her that everyone is invited to join the party, which is strictly "A LIST". |
|||
There are two types of mechanical shutters. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released.<ref name="Britannica-technology" /> |
|||
After the party, everyone is a bit giddy – even Nikki. When Helen comes to see how she is settling into her new enhanced cell, Nikki risks flirting with her and telling her how gorgeous she is. Helen is flustered and quickly leaves. When Justin asks her to go for a drink, she is grateful for the diversion. Fenner and Sylvia look on with amusement, confident that she won't be lasting much longer in the job. |
|||
[[File: Focal-plane shutter.jpg|thumb|A focal-plane shutter. In this shutter, the metal shutter blades travel vertically.]] |
|||
More commonly, a [[focal-plane shutter]] is used.<ref name=" Warren-camera" /> This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera (many SLRs have interchangeable lenses).<ref name="Columbia" /><ref name="Britannica-technology" /> |
|||
A [[digital camera]] may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor at the same time (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter).<ref name="Columbia" /> |
|||
Sylvia leaves Fenner to hand over to the night shift and Fenner starts his nightly prowl of the landings, helping himself to what he thinks of as the perks of the job when you have "THE KEY". He lets himself into Shell's cell. Meanwhile, Helen and Justin are relaxing off duty, Helen was confident that with Nikki going for her appeal, Fenner will finally be shown who's the boss. After his usual quickie with Shell, Jim pays a visit to Rachel. She is scared but grateful to see him. He re-assures her that she'll be safe now he's here. But Rachel didn't realise that this was how she was going to have to say, "thank you, Sir". Fenner forces his way into her cell. |
|||
In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film.<ref name="Columbia" /><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Motion-picture camera|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=12 December 2019|url=https://www-britannica-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/technology/motion-picture-camera}}</ref> |
|||
The next morning at unlock there is no sign of Rachel. She appears to have barricaded herself into her cell. When there's no answer, Fenner and Justin have to break down the door. They discover that Rachel has hanged herself. Everyone is shocked. Fenner manages to ensure that he alone goes into the cell to cut the body down and check for a suicide note. There is growing anger amongst the other women, especially when they hear the callous way in which Syliva refers to the incident on her walkie-talkie. They erupt into protest in "THAT’S THE WAY IT IS". Helen arrives on the wing and tries to take control of the situation by appealing to speak to Nikki on behalf of the women, but the request backfires, with Helen and Nikki forced to their opposite sides of the bars. Tempers are rising and Fenner deliberately stokes the situation. By the time the Governing Governor arrives on the scene, the situation tips into an all-out riot. |
|||
;Act 2 |
|||
The women have been on lock down for several days following the riot. Alone in her cell [[List of Bad Girls characters#Crystal Gordan|Crystal Gordon]] listens to the women's shouts of protests, voicing her grief the way she knows best, in a gospel song – "FREEDOM ROAD". |
|||
The duration is called the ''shutter speed'' or ''exposure time''. The longer the shutter speed, the slower it is. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur.<ref name="Philip's">{{Cite encyclopedia|publisher=Philip's|isbn=978-0-19-954609-1|title=Camera|encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia|access-date=12 December 2019|url=https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo|url-access=registration|year=2004}}</ref><ref name="Britannica-technology" /><ref name="Columbia" /><ref name="Warren-camera" /> |
|||
In the POs' office, Sylvia is anxiously waiting to hear the latest news from Fenner. Justin's appalled by both of them and still standing up for Helen. Fenner enters - smug and self-satisfied. The Number One has as good as told him that the Wing Governor job is his – just as soon as Stewart can be sent packing. He imagines how life is going to be once he is in charge and "THE FUTURE IS BRIGHT" again, with his chorus line of fantasy glamour prison officers celebrating the new regime. |
|||
Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same.<ref name="Warren-camera" /> |
|||
Back to reality and the Number One informs Helen that after a suicide and a riot her only option is to resign, but Helen is determined not to go quietly. She's going to take her case to tribunal and do anything she can to stop Fenner getting her job. |
|||
==== Metering ==== |
|||
The women are finally let out for meal time on the wing. Accusations are flying but Fenner silences them all. From now on, it's back to basics. The Julies make a stand and announce they are going on strike until Fenner is sacked. Unperturbed, Fenner gives their servery jobs to Shell and Denny and cancels the Julies' visiting rights. Shell and Denny are delighted with their new power. The women wait to take their lead from Yvonne, who announces she'd rather be dead than fed by Shell. No, they're all going on strike – hunger strike! Justin is dismayed and asks Nikki to try to stop this, but she's not interested in playing Head Prefect. |
|||
{{Main|Light meter}} |
|||
[[File: Sekonic L-358 Flash Master.jpg|thumb|A handheld digital light meter showing an exposure of 1/200th at an aperture of f/11, at ISO 100. The light sensor is on top, under the white diffusing hemisphere.]] |
|||
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter.{{Efn|Some photographers use handheld [[exposure meter]]s independent of the camera and use the readings to manually set the exposure settings on the camera.<ref name="Britannica-camera" />|name=|}} Taken through the lens (called ''{{Abbr|TTL|through the lens}} metering''), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive [[semiconductor]]s.<ref name="How" /> They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's [[microprocessor]]. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure.{{Efn|Film canisters typically contain a DX code that can be read by modern cameras so that the camera's computer knows the sensitivity of the film, the ISO.<ref name=" Warren-camera" />]|name=|}} |
|||
[[Light meter]]s typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering, weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).<ref name="Warren-35" /><ref name="Philip's" /><ref name="Britannica-camera" /><ref name="Columbia" /> |
|||
Helen has arranged for Julie S to have the contact number of the foster home that her son is located so that she can call him. She doesn't know what to say – he thinks his mum is a top international travel agent! Julie J insists that lying is best – just tell him she's abroad. But when Julie S speaks to her son David, she finds that he already knows the truth. She tries to explain things to him in "SORRY". |
|||
=== Lens === |
|||
Fenner meets up with the Number One in the male staff toilets. There's a bad news - Helen is refusing to fall on her sword. The Number One is clear that a head needs to roll and whatever happens it's not going to be his. So if Fenner wanted to save his neck, other influences will have to be brought to bear. Fenner's cursing his luck as Sylvia bursts in, eager for good news. But it's going to take one more cock-up to clinch Helen's downfall – such as a load of Class A drugs turning up on the wing...? |
|||
{{Main|Camera lens|Photographic lens design}} |
|||
The [[lens]] of a camera captures light from the subject and focuses it on the sensor. The design and manufacturing of the lens are critical to photo quality. A technological revolution in camera design during the 19th century modernized optical glass manufacturing and lens design. This contributed to the modern manufacturing processes of a wide range of optical instruments such as reading glasses and microscopes. Pioneering companies include [[Carl Zeiss|Zeiss]] and Leitz. |
|||
Nikki is called to see Helen in her office. Both women are in a confrontational mood. Nikki assumes that Helen is settling for a cushy desk job elsewhere and Helen is still angry at Nikki for kicking off a riot. But when Helen breaks down, Nikki reminds her that they're on the same side against Fenner and moves to comfort her. Justin bursts in and there's an awkward stand off between the three of them. When he reveals that he's popping around Helen's flat later on to help work on her tribunal case, Nikki sarcastically suggests that she'll come too. When Helen is at home and Nikki back in her cell they both struggle with their feelings for each other - "EVERY NIGHT". |
|||
Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths. Examples include extreme [[wide-angle lens|wide angle]], standard, and medium [[telephoto lens|telephoto]]. Lenses either have a fixed focal length ([[prime lens]]) or a variable focal length ([[zoom lens]]). Each lens is best suited to certain types of photography. Extreme wide-angles might be preferred for architecture due to their ability to capture a wide view of buildings. Standard lenses commonly have a wide aperture, and because of this, they are often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful in sports and wildlife but is more susceptible to camera shake, which might cause motion blur.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/camera-lenses.htm |title=Understanding Camera Lenses |last=McHugh |first=Sean |work=Cambridge in Colour |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819025344/http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/camera-lenses.htm |archive-date=19 August 2013}}</ref> |
|||
Justin arrives at Helen's flat to find her in a despondent mood. He tries to rally her by telling her how much he looks up to her. When he boldly moves in for a kiss, Helen's aghast. He realises that he's overstepped the mark but she reassures him that the problem lies with her, not with him. When he pushes for an explanation she confesses that it's Nikki who's got under her skin. |
|||
==== Focus ==== |
|||
Next morning the hunger strike is taking it's toll. Yvonne decides to work on the weakest link and try to win Denny over to their side. She reaches out as a mother to a daughter – and though Denny resists, it's clear there's a chink in her armour beginning to show. But hunger isn't the only deprivation they're suffering. As Yvonne watches the handsome young hunk Justin, she confesses to the Julies that it's all she can think of most nights. Here they are in prison "ALL BANGED UP" without the bang! |
|||
[[File:Daisies-Focus.jpg|thumb|right|The distance range in which objects appear clear and sharp, called ''[[depth of field]]'', can be adjusted by many cameras. This allows for a photographer to control which objects appear in focus and which do not.|alt=An image of flowers, with one in focus. The background is out of focus.]] |
|||
Due to the optical properties of a [[photographic lens]], only objects within a limited range of distance from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various ways to accurately focus a camera. The simplest cameras have [[Focus free lens|fixed focus]] and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 meters (10 ft.) to infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive types, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or [[scale-focus]] that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras, this is indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree; mountains). |
|||
Justin takes Nikki to one side. Though it's galling to say so, he hints at Helen's feelings for her and says that if she wants to find out for sure then they have to try to save her job. Fenner and Sylvia will be trying every trick in the book to get rid of Helen now. Sure enough Sylvia enters and announces there's been a tip-off, that a large stash of drugs is hidden on the wing. She heads straight for the servery where Shell and Denny are working and pulls out the sugar jar. Lo and behold it's stuffed full of cocaine. Shell is the obvious culprit and Sylvia tells Justin to send her down the block, while Sylvia reports to Fenner. Shell protests that she's been set up. Got it in one, agrees Nikki, but it's Fenner who's done the dirty on her. Justin declares that he's not taking his orders from Bodybag and all the women are amazed. It's obvious to everyone else that Fenner is behind this and it's time for Shell to wise up. If Fenner's out to get her, then she needs to get him first. Shell is persuaded to join their plan to bring him down and be their secret weapon – "THE BADDEST AND THE BEST". Yvonne calls Charlie and requests a state of the art wireless minicam – he immediately obliges and sends one over the wall. |
|||
[[Rangefinder camera]]s allow the distance to objects to be measured employing a coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a [[ground glass]] or plastic micro-prism screen. [[Twin-lens reflex camera]]s use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens) in a parallel body for composition and focus. [[View camera]]s use a ground glass screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing [[sheet film]] before exposure. Modern cameras often offer [[autofocus]] systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htm |title=How Autofocus Cameras Work |last=Brown |first=Gary |date=April 2000 |work=HowStuffWorks.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930141617/http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htm |archive-date=30 September 2013}}</ref> |
|||
Shell waits for Fenner down the block, with the hidden camera trained on the bed and linked through to the main security system. Justin tells her that he'll be flicking the switch to override in time to catch Fenner in flagrante as the Number One looks on. Shell's stoked up and ready for action. But when Fenner appears indifferent to her she realises that she's got to work fast to seduce him into her honey trap, and there's nothing like a bit of country and western "FIRST LADY" to do the trick. Finally, with Jim down to his underpants, handcuffed to the bed and with Shell astride him, the camera reveals all to the Number One. Alarms are sounded, police are called and suddenly the electrics go on the blink. Shell can't resist taking the plan one step further than was intended, and sets fire to the cell, leaving Jim begging for mercy. Once again, she asserts that if you're going to be bad, you might as well be "THE BADDEST AND THE BEST" (REPRISE). |
|||
Experimental cameras such as the [[planar Fourier capture array]] (PFCA) do not require focusing to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of information (specifically, one component of the [[Fourier transform#Two-dimensional functions|2D Fourier transform]]) about the far-away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured, and images can be reconstructed by computation. |
|||
Next day, the Number One announces that Fenner will be brought to justice, once he's out of the hospital. He hands over to the good governance of Helen and the women are delighted. But they've got another reason to celebrate today as well. It's Denny's 21st birthday and Yvonne has arranged for a fireworks display. The women are given permission to go outside and watch for a few minutes. Helen calls Nikki back. She's sure that Nikki's appeal will be plain-sailing now Fenner's not around to sabotage things. At last, Helen is able to show her true feelings for Nikki and they share a kiss. But Helen holds back – she'll wait for Nikki when she's free, which won't be long now. Finally Nikki can see a future and affirms that "THIS IS MY LIFE". |
|||
Some cameras support post-focusing. Post focusing refers to taking photos that are later focused on a computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every [[camera angle]] of a scene, which is known as ''plenoptic technology''. A current [[plenoptic camera]] design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the optimal picture.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/technology-blog/lytro-camera-lets-focus-shooting-now-available-pre-003019940.html |title=Lytro camera lets you focus after shooting, now available for pre-order |last=Wehner |first=Mike |date=19 October 2011 |work=Yahoo! News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022224439/http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/technology-blog/lytro-camera-lets-focus-shooting-now-available-pre-003019940.html |archive-date=22 October 2011}}</ref> |
|||
Out in the prison yard all the women are sharing the joy of the fireworks and daring to be hopeful about their own lives as well. They're not giving up on their hopes and dreams. Suddenly they are overwhelmed by the sound of a helicopter above them. It seems that Yvonne's fireworks were more than just a birthday gift. A ladder descends as Yvonne announces that her cab's arrived. She climbs on and offers a ride to Denny. She's off to do her time in Spain and taking Denny with her. Denny is finally going "home". |
|||
=== Image capture on film === |
|||
==Characters== |
|||
{{Main|Film formats}} |
|||
The characters in the musical are the same as those in Series 1 of the television show, including Helen Stewart, Nikki Wade, Shell Dockley, Denny Blood, Crystal Gordon, the two Julies and Yvonne Atkins. The musical's characters also include Noreen Biggs, who did not appear in the TV series until Series 4 and Justin Mattison, who was created for the musical. Justin is effectively the musical's version of Dominic McAllister, who appeared in Series 1 and Series 2, having much in common with this character: he is a young prison officer who is shown to care about the women's welfare; he questions Jim Fenner's methods; the two Julies and Yvonne Atkins are attracted to him and flirt with him; he has a crush on Helen Stewart; and he indicates to Nikki Wade that Helen is interested in her. |
|||
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2019}}Traditional cameras capture light onto [[photographic plate]]s or photographic film. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a [[charge-coupled device]] (CCD) or a [[CMOS]] sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a [[memory card]] or other storage inside the camera for later playback or [[digital image processing|processing]]. |
|||
A wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In early history, plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of cameras; although, they quickly developed some standardization for the more popular cameras. The introduction of [[roll film]] drove the standardization process still further so that by the 1950s, only a few standard roll films were in use. These included [[120 films]] providing 8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 films providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 films providing 8 or 12 exposures (principally in [[Brownie (camera)|Brownie cameras]]) and 135 ([[35mm format|35mm film]]) providing 12, 20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the [[half-frame camera|half-frame format]] or bulk cassettes for the Leica Camera range. |
|||
==Casts== |
|||
{{col-begin}} |
|||
{{col-2}} |
|||
;Original Leeds Production (2006): |
|||
*[[Noreen Biggs]] - Tricia Deighton |
|||
*[[Shell Dockley]] - [[Nicole Faraday]] |
|||
*[[Jim Fenner]] - Hal Fowler |
|||
*[[Rachel Hicks]] - [[Elaine Glover]] |
|||
*Crystal Gordon - Dawn Hope |
|||
*Sylvia 'Bodybag' Hollamby - Rachel Izen |
|||
*[[Julie Saunders]] - Julie Jupp |
|||
*Justin Mattison - [[Neil McDermott]] |
|||
*[[Yvonne Atkins]] - Ellen O'Grady |
|||
*[[Julie Johnston (Bad Girls)|Julie Johnston]] - [[Louise Plowright]] |
|||
*Denny Blood - Amanda Posener |
|||
*[[Helen Stewart (Bad Girls)|Helen Stewart]] - [[Laura Rogers]] |
|||
*[[Nikki Wade]] - [[Hannah Waddingham]] |
|||
*The Number One - Michael N Harbour |
|||
{{col-break}} |
|||
;West End Production (2007): |
|||
*[[Noreen Biggs]] - [[Maria Charles]] |
|||
*[[Shell Dockley]] - [[Nicole Faraday]] |
|||
*[[Jim Fenner]] - [[David Burt]] |
|||
*[[Rachel Hicks]] - Emily Aston |
|||
*Crystal Gordon - [[Camilla Beeput]] |
|||
*Sylvia 'Bodybag' Hollamby - [[Helen Fraser (actress)|Helen Fraser]] |
|||
*[[Julie Saunders]] - Julie Jupp |
|||
*Justin Mattison - Chris Grierson |
|||
*[[Yvonne Atkins]] - [[Sally Dexter]] |
|||
*[[Julie Johnston (Bad Girls)|Julie Johnston]] - [[Rebecca Wheatley]] |
|||
*Denny Blood - Amanda Posener |
|||
*[[Helen Stewart (Bad Girls)|Helen Stewart]] - [[Laura Rogers]] |
|||
*Nikki Wade - [[Caroline Head]] |
|||
*The Number One - Michael N Harbour |
|||
For [[cine camera]]s, film 35 mm wide and perforated with [[film perforations|sprocket holes]] was established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5 mm film, created by splitting 35 mm film, was one early amateur format, but [[9.5 mm film]], introduced in Europe in 1922, and [[16 mm film]], introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for "home movies" in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical [[8 mm film|8 mm]] format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16 mm film, then splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The [[Super 8 mm film|Super 8]] format, still 8 mm wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger [[film frame]]s, was introduced in 1965. |
|||
{{col-end}} |
|||
==== Film speed (ISO) ==== |
|||
Four former cast members of ''[[Bad Girls (TV series)|Bad Girls]]'' feature in the [[West End theatre|West End]] musical, with [[Helen Fraser (actress)|Helen Fraser]] as Sylvia "Bodybag" Hollamby and [[Maria Charles]] as Noreen Biggs reprising their original roles from the television series. [[Nicole Faraday]], who plays Shell Dockley in the musical, played Snowball Merriman in Series 4 and 5 of ''[[Bad Girls (TV series)|Bad Girls]]'' and [[Laura Rogers]], who plays the part of Wing Governor Helen Stewart played the role of drug addict inmate, Sheena Williams in Series 7. |
|||
Traditionally used to tell the camera the [[film speed]] of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's [[Gain (electronics)|gain]] from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the [[ISO 5800]] system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-12-07|title=How important is film speed?|url=https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cameras-photography/tips/how-important-is-film-speed.htm|access-date=2021-09-21|website=HowStuffWorks|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
==== White balance ==== |
|||
==Song list== |
|||
In digital cameras, there is electronic compensation for the [[color temperature]] associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of [[film stock]] or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register the natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example, white balancing to a blue object to obtain a warm color temperature.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Understanding White Balance|url=https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/white-balance.htm|access-date=2021-09-21|website=www.cambridgeincolour.com}}</ref> |
|||
{{col-begin}} |
|||
{{col-2}} |
|||
; Act I |
|||
* I Shouldn't Be Here - Shell, Crystal, Denny, Julie S, Julie J, Nikki, Jim, Sylvia, Helen and Prisoners. |
|||
* Guardian Angel - Shell & Denny |
|||
* Jailcraft - Jim, Sylvia & Number One |
|||
* One Moment - Nikki |
|||
* Life of Grime - Julie J, Julie S and Prisoners |
|||
* A-List - Yvonne & Prisoners |
|||
* The Key - Jim, Shell & Rachel |
|||
* That's the Way It Is - Helen, Sylvia, Yvonne, Shell, Nikki, Julie J, Julie S, Number One, Jim, Prisoners & Officers |
|||
=== Camera accessories === |
|||
{{col-2}} |
|||
==== Flash ==== |
|||
; Act II |
|||
A [[Flash (photography)|flash]] provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).{{Efn|The older type of disposable flashbulb uses an aluminum or zirconium wire in a glass tube filled with oxygen. During the exposure, the wire is burned away, producing a bright flash.<ref name="Britannica-camera" /> |name=|}}<ref name="Britannica-camera" /> |
|||
* Freedom Road - Crystal |
|||
* The Future Is Bright - Jim, Sylvia & Officers |
|||
* Sorry - Julie S |
|||
* Every Night - Nikki & Helen |
|||
* All Banged Up - Yvonne, Julie J, Julie S & Justin |
|||
* The Baddest & the Best - Nikki, Denny, Justin, Yvonne, Julie J, Julie S, Shell, Crystal & Prisoners |
|||
* First Lady - Shell & Jim |
|||
* Baddest & the Best (Reprise) - Shell |
|||
* This Is My Life - Nikki, Helen & Prisoners |
|||
{{col-end}} |
|||
This is the final song list for the production at the [[Garrick Theatre]] which differs slightly to the audition at the [[West Yorkshire Playhouse]]. For example, the song ''P-P-P-Please'' that featured in the Leeds run was cut from the West End Production. The second number, ''An Angel Like You'', in Leeds, was rewritten as ''Guardian Angel'' for the West End. |
|||
Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.<ref name="Britannica-camera" /><ref name="Warren-35" /> |
|||
A cast album from the West End was recorded for First Night Records and released in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://first-night-records.co.uk/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=38&osCsid=re78r2o2do80j9fcfrodf62lb7|title = First Night Records Online Store}}</ref> |
|||
Additional flash equipment can include a [[Diffuser (optics)|light diffuser]], mount and stand, reflector, [[soft box]], trigger and cord. |
|||
==DVD release== |
|||
Bad Girls: The Musical was released on Region 4 DVD in Australia on 12 January 2009. It was later released in the United Kingdom on Region 2 DVD on 9 February 2009. |
|||
The DVD is now available to view on demand through Vimeo.com. |
|||
==== Other accessories ==== |
|||
{| border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 1em 0 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |
|||
Accessories for cameras are mainly for care, protection, special effects, and functions. |
|||
|- style="background:#EFEFEF" |
|||
* [[Lens hood]]: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also [[matte box]]). |
|||
| colspan="5" | '''Bad Girls: The Musical''' |
|||
* [[Lens cap]]: covers and protects the lens during storage. |
|||
|- |
|||
* [[Lens adapter]]: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed. |
|||
| rowspan="5" align="center" width="150" | |
|||
* [[Photographic filter|Filters]]: allow artificial colors or change light density. |
|||
| align="center" width="150" colspan="3"| '''Set Details''' |
|||
* [[Extension tube|Lens extension tubes]] allow close focus in [[macro photography]]. |
|||
| width="150" align="center" |'''Special Features''' |
|||
* Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector. |
|||
|-valign="top" |
|||
* [[Camera monitor]]: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, [[focus peaking]], [[zebra patterning|zebra stripes]], [[waveform monitor]]s (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"), [[vectorscope]]s and [[false color]] to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer. |
|||
| colspan="3" align="left" width="400"| |
|||
* [[Large format (photography)|Large format cameras]] use special equipment, which includes magnifier loupe, view finder, angle finder, focusing rail /truck. |
|||
* Full Feature |
|||
* Battery and sometimes a charger. |
|||
* 1-Disc Set |
|||
* Some professional SLR could be provided with interchangeable [[Viewfinder|finders]] for eye-level or waist-level focusing, [[focusing screen]]s, eye-cup, data backs, [[Motor drive|motor-drives]] for film transportation or external battery packs. |
|||
*16:9 Aspect Ratio |
|||
* [[Tripod (photography)|Tripod]], primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and [[Time-lapse photography|time-lapse]] photography. |
|||
*Subtitles: TBA |
|||
* Microscope adapter, an adapter used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining. |
|||
*English (Stereo) |
|||
* [[Bulb (photography)|Cable release]], a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable to remotely control the shutter, it can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period. It is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button. |
|||
| rowspan="4" align="left" width="300"| |
|||
* [[Dew shield]] – Prevents moisture build-up on the lens. |
|||
*None |
|||
* [[UV filter]]: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality. |
|||
|- |
|||
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Release Dates''' |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="center" | United Kingdom |
|||
|align="center" | Australia |
|||
|align="center" | United States |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="center" | 9 February 2009 |
|||
|align="center" | 12 January 2009 |
|||
|align="center" | |
|||
|} |
|||
== |
== Primary types == |
||
=== Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera === |
|||
* [[Bad Girls (television series)|''Bad Girls'']] |
|||
{{Main|Single-lens reflex camera}} |
|||
{{See|Instant return mirror}}[[File:Nikon D200 front (aka).jpg|thumb|Nikon D200 digital camera]]In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the [[Photography|photographic medium]], and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of the 35 mm Still Camera |author=Roger Hicks |publisher=Focal Press, London & Boston |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-240-51233-4 |page=137}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Register of 35 mm SLR cameras |author=Rudolph Lea |publisher=Wittig Books, Hückelhoven |year=1993 |isbn=978-3-88984-130-8 |page=23}}</ref> The [[Asahiflex IIB|Asahiflex II]], released by Japanese company [[Pentax|Asahi (Pentax)]] in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.<ref>Michael R. Peres (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMJxyAwGvKcC&pg=PA779 ''The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography'', p. 779], [[Taylor & Francis]]</ref> |
|||
In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of [[parallax]], which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats, including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5, respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include [[Bronica]], [[Graflex]], [[Hasselblad]], [[Mamiya]], and Pentax. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to [[digital SLR]] cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems. |
|||
==Notes== |
|||
{{Reflist}} |
|||
Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and [[pentaprism]] to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent [[Pellicle mirror|pellicle]] as in the [[Canon (company)|Canon]] ''Pellix''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/ |title=Canon Pellix Camera |work=Photography in Malaysia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016173448/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/ |archive-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> and others with a small periscope such as in the [[K. G. Corfield Ltd|Corfield]] Periflex series.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historywebsite.co.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htm |title=Corfield Cameras – The Periflex Era |last=Parker |first=Bev |publisher=Wolverhampton Museum of Industry}}</ref> |
|||
==External links == |
|||
* [http://www.badgirlsthemusical.com/ Bad Girls The Musical West End Production] |
|||
{{Bad Girls}} |
|||
* [https://www.josef-weinberger.com/musicals/musical/bad-girls-the-muscial.html Josef Weinberger Ltd / Amateur Performing Rights] |
|||
=== Large-format camera === |
|||
[[Category:West End musicals]] |
|||
{{Main|View camera}} |
|||
[[Category:2006 musicals]] |
|||
[[Category:Bad Girls (TV series)|Musical]] |
|||
The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its [[Monorail camera|monorail]] and [[field camera]] variants, and the [[press camera]]. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking [[roll film]] and later [[digital back]]s are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a [[ground-glass]] screen, which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use. |
|||
[[Category:British musicals]] |
|||
[[Category:LGBT-related musicals]] |
|||
==== Plate camera ==== |
|||
[[File:Studijskifotoaparat.JPG|thumb|19th-century studio camera with bellows for focusing]] |
|||
{{Main|Photographic plate}} |
|||
The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were ''plate cameras'', using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography ([[Autochrome Lumière]]). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective. |
|||
Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because [[Photographic lens design|lens design]] only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint, and most [[photographer]]s had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed and a sensitized plate put in its place protected by a [[dark slide (photography)|dark slide]]. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out, and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark slide replaced. |
|||
Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted. |
|||
=== Medium-format camera === |
|||
{{Main|Medium-format}} |
|||
Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wildi|first=Ernst|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/499049825|title=The medium format advantage|date=2001|publisher=Focal Press|isbn=978-1-4294-8344-5|edition=2nd |location=Boston|oclc=499049825}}</ref> Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/706802878|title=The manual of photography.|date=2011|publisher=Elsevier/Focal Press|others=Elizabeth Allen, Sophie Triantaphillidou|isbn=978-0-240-52037-7|edition=10th|location=Oxford|oclc=706802878}}</ref> The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format. |
|||
==== Twin-lens reflex camera ==== |
|||
[[File:Rolleiflex camera.jpg|thumb|Twin-lens reflex camera]] |
|||
{{Main|Twin-lens reflex camera}} |
|||
Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses, one to form the image and one as a viewfinder.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burrows |first1=Paul |title=The rise and fall of the TLR: why the twin-lens reflex camera is a real classic |url=https://www.digitalcameraworld.com/features/the-rise-and-fall-of-tlr-cameras-why-the-twin-lens-reflex-is-a-real-classic |website=Digital Camera World |publisher=Future US Inc |access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref> The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers, such as Mamiya, also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances, the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded. |
|||
Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses, they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films. |
|||
=== Compact cameras === |
|||
==== Instant camera ==== |
|||
{{Main|Instant camera}} |
|||
After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed, and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]], in which a row of ten shots could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras. |
|||
==== Subminiature camera ==== |
|||
{{Main|Subminiature camera}}[[File:2016 Minox C 8.jpg|thumb|Subminiature spy camera]] |
|||
Subminiature cameras were first produced in the nineteenth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm [[Minox]], the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive sub-miniatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited. |
|||
==== Folding camera ==== |
|||
{{Main|Folding camera}} |
|||
The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the base-plate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact, and small models were dubbed ''vest pocket'' cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs. |
|||
==== Box camera ==== |
|||
[[File:Kodak box camera.JPG|thumb|Kodak box camera|151x151px]] |
|||
{{Main|Box camera}} |
|||
9Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few, if any, controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens. |
|||
=== Rangefinder camera === |
|||
[[File:Leica IIIa Rangefinder.jpg|thumb|Rangefinder camera, Leica c. 1936]] |
|||
{{Main|Rangefinder camera}} |
|||
As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became, more common, [[rangefinder]] cameras were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had [[interchangeable lens]]es, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages. |
|||
Rangefinder cameras were produced in [[Half-frame|half-]] and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format). |
|||
=== Motion picture cameras === |
|||
{{Main|Movie camera}} |
|||
{{See|Digital movie camera}} |
|||
A [[movie camera]] or a [[video camera]] operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a [[frame rate|rate]] of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/filmmakershandbo00asch_0 |title=The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age |last1=Ascher |first1=Steven |last2=Pincus |first2=Edward |publisher=Penguin Group |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-452-28678-8 |edition=3 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{Rp|4}} |
|||
Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in [[special effect]]s work, and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes. |
|||
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a ''frame'', through the use of an intermittent mechanism. |
|||
The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the ''frame rate'' (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain [[persistence of vision|merge the separate pictures]] to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888, and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as [[35mm movie film|35mm film]], and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include [[70 mm film]] and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format. |
|||
The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld, while some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation. |
|||
==== Professional video camera ==== |
|||
[[File:Arri Alexa camera.jpg|thumb|[[Arri Alexa]], a digital movie camera]] |
|||
{{Main|Professional video camera}} |
|||
{{See|Video camera}} |
|||
A [[professional video camera]] (often called a ''television camera'' even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on [[filmstock|film]]). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, [[direct-to-video]] movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc. |
|||
These cameras earlier used [[Video camera tube|vacuum tubes]] and later electronic [[image sensors]]. |
|||
==== Camcorders ==== |
|||
[[File:Sony Handycam HDV digital camcorder HDR-HC1E.jpg|thumb|alt=A Sony HDV Camcorder|Sony HDR-HC1E, a [[HDV]] camcorder.]] |
|||
{{Main|Camcorders}} |
|||
A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term "camcorder," the name on the package and manual is often "video camera recorder." Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function. |
|||
=== Digital camera === |
|||
{{Main|Digital camera}} |
|||
[[File:Disassembled_digital_camera.jpg|thumb|right|295x295px|Disassembled Digital Camera]] |
|||
{{see|Digital image|Digital imaging|Digital photography|Digital single-lens reflex camera|Digital video}} |
|||
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes [[digital image]]s and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction.<ref>Farlex Inc: [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/digital+camera definition of digital camera at the Free Dictionary]; retrieved 7 September 2013</ref> They typically use semiconductor image sensors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=J. B. |title=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-49088-5 |pages=245–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4QlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245}}</ref> Most cameras sold today are digital,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/11/AR2006011102323.html |title=Nikon Says It's Leaving Film-Camera Business |access-date=23 February 2007 |date=12 January 2006 |newspaper=Washington Post |first=Mike |last=Musgrove}}</ref> and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called [[camera phone]]s) to vehicles. |
|||
Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device.<ref>MakeUseOf: [http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/technology-explained-how-does-a-digital-camera-work/ How does a Digital Camera Work]; retrieved 7 September 2013</ref> The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded and store and delete images from [[Flash memory|memory]]. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with [[Sound recording and reproduction|sound]]. Some digital cameras can [[Cropping (image)|crop]] and [[Image stitching|stitch]] pictures and perform other elementary [[image editing]]. |
|||
Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s. |
|||
The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer [[Steven Sasson]] in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a [[Compact cassette|cassette tape]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gustavson |first1=Todd |title=500 Cameras: 170 Years of Photographic Innovation |publisher=Sterling Publishing, Inc |date=1 November 2011 |location=Toronto, Ontario |isbn=978-1-4027-8086-8}}</ref>{{Rp|442}}The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hitchcock, Susan (editor) |title=National Geographic complete photography |editor=Susan Tyler Hitchcock |publisher=National Geographic Society |date=20 September 2011 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-4351-3968-8}}</ref>{{Rp|225}} Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory. |
|||
In 1986, Japanese company [[Nikon]] introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.<ref>[http://apphotnum.free.fr/N2BE2.html Nikon SLR-type digital cameras], Pierre Jarleton</ref> |
|||
The first [[full-frame digital SLR]] cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax,<ref>[https://www.dpreview.com/opinion/4721880615/the-long-difficult-road-to-pentax-full-frame The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame], [[Digital Photography Review]]</ref> the [[Contax N Digital|N Digital]] by [[Contax]]'s Japanese R6D team,<ref>''[[British Journal of Photography]]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=uk9WAAAAMAAJ Issues 7410-7422], 2003, p. 2</ref> and the [[Canon EOS-1Ds|EOS-1Ds]] by [[Canon Inc.|Canon]].<ref>[https://www.dpreview.com/articles/7466980622/canoneos1ds Canon EOS-1Ds, 11 megapixel full-frame CMOS], [[Digital Photography Review]]</ref> Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} |
|||
On most digital cameras a display, often a [[liquid crystal display]] (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as [[Film speed|ISO speed]], exposure, and shutter speed.<ref name="London" />{{Rp|6–7}}<ref>{{cite book |title=National Geographic photography field guide |last1=Burian |first1=Peter |last2=Caputo |first2=Robert |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7922-5676-2 |edition=2 |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{Rp|12}} |
|||
==== Camera phone ==== |
|||
[[File:Phone photography.jpg|thumb|Smartphone with built-in camera]] |
|||
{{Main|Camera phone}} |
|||
{{See|Front-facing camera|Selfie}} |
|||
In 2000, [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the [[J-SH04]] [[J-Phone]], in Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hoista.net/post/18437919296/evolution-of-the-cameraphone-from-sharp-j-sh04-to |title=Evolution of the Camera phone: From Sharp J-SH04 to Nokia 808 Pureview |date=28 February 2012 |publisher=Hoista.net |access-date=21 June 2013}}</ref> By the mid-2000s, higher-end [[cell phones]] had an integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost all [[smartphone]]s had an integrated digital camera. |
|||
== See also == |
|||
{{Portal|Film}} |
|||
* [[Camera matrix]] |
|||
* [[History of the camera]] |
|||
* [[Mobile phone features#Cameras|Cameras in mobile phones]] |
|||
* [[List of camera types]] |
|||
* [[Timeline of historic inventions]] |
|||
{{Clear}} |
|||
== Footnotes == |
|||
{{notelist}} |
|||
== References == |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
== Further reading == |
|||
{{refbegin|30em}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Ascher |first1=Steven |last2=Pincus |first2=Edward |title=The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age |edition=3 |publisher=Penguin Group |year=2007 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-452-28678-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/filmmakershandbo00asch_0}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Frizot |first1=Michel |title=A New History of Photography |chapter=Light machines: On the threshold of invention |editor=Michel Frizot |publisher=Konemann |location=Koln, Germany |isbn=978-3-8290-1328-4 |date=January 1998}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Gernsheim |first1=Helmut |title=A Concise History of Photography |edition=3 |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc |year=1986 |location=Mineola, New York |isbn=978-0-486-25128-8}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Hirsch |first1=Robert |title=Seizing the Light: A History of Photography |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc |year=2000 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-697-14361-7}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Hitchcock, Susan (editor) |title=National Geographic complete photography |editor=Susan Tyler Hitchcock |publisher=National Geographic Society |date=20 September 2011 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-4351-3968-8}}<!--| access-date = 13 February 2014 --> |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=William S. |last2=Rice |first2=Mark |last3=Williams |first3=Carla |title=A History of Photography |editor=Therese Mulligan |editor2=David Wooters |publisher=Taschen America |year=2005 |location=Los Angeles, California |isbn=978-3-8228-4777-0}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last=Spira |first1=S.F. |author-link=Fred Spira |last2=Lothrop, Jr. |first2=Easton S. |last3=Spira |first3=Jonathan B. |title=The History of Photography as Seen Through the Spira Collection |location=New York |publisher=Aperture |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-89381-953-8}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Starl |first1=Timm |title=A New History of Photography |chapter=A New World of Pictures: The Daguerreotype |editor=Michel Frizot |publisher=Konemann |location=Koln, Germany |isbn=978-3-8290-1328-4 |date=January 1998}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last1=Wenczel |first1=Norma |title=The Optical Camera Obscura II Images and Texts |chapter=Part I – Introducing an Instrument |editor=Wolfgang Lefèvre |work=Inside the Camera Obscura – Optics and Art under the Spell of the Projected Image |publisher=Max Planck Institute for the History of Science |year=2007 |pages=13–30 |chapter-url=http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P333.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402135648/http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P333.PDF |archive-date=2 April 2012}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
== External links == |
|||
{{Commons|Camera}} |
|||
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm How cameras works at How stuff works.] |
|||
{{Photography}} |
|||
{{Camera brands}} |
|||
{{Authority control}} |
|||
[[Category:Cameras|Cameras]] |
|||
[[Category:Photography equipment]] |
|||
[[Category:Optical devices]] |
Revision as of 00:50, 7 January 2022
A camera is an optical instrument that captures a visual image. At a basic level, cameras are sealed boxes (the camera body) with a small hole (the aperture) that allows light through to capture an image on a light-sensitive surface (usually photographic film or a digital sensor). Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the light falls onto the light-sensitive surface. Lenses focus the light entering the camera, and the size of the aperture can be widened or narrowed. A shutter mechanism determines the amount of time the photosensitive surface is exposed to light.
The still image camera is the main instrument in the art of photography. Captured images may be reproduced later as a part of the process of photography, digital imaging, or photographic printing. Similar artistic fields in the moving image camera domain are film, videography, and cinematography.
The word camera comes from camera obscura, the Latin name of the original device for projecting an image onto a flat surface (literally translated to "dark chamber"). The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The first permanent photograph was made in 1825 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.[1]
Mechanics
Most cameras capture light from the visible spectrum, while specialized cameras capture other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infra-red.[2]: vii
All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium.[3] A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light enters the camera.[4]: 1182–1183
Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded, along with means to adjust various combinations of focus, aperture and shutter speed.[5]: 4
Exposure control
Aperture
The aperture, sometimes called the diaphragm or iris,[6][7] is the opening through which light enters the camera.[8] Typically located in the lens,[9] this opening can widen or narrow to alter the amount of light that strikes the film.[10] The aperture is controlled by the movements of overlapping plates or blades that rotate together or apart, which function to shrink or expand the hole (aperture) at the center.[10][11] The diameter of the aperture can be set manually, typically by adjusting a dial on the camera body or lens. Automatic adjustments can also occur based on calculations influenced by an internal light meter.[10]
The size of the opening is set at standard increments, typically called f-stops[a][10] (but also f-numbers, stop numbers, or simply steps or stops), that usually range from f/1.4 to f/32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.[6] As the numbers increase, each increment halves the amount of light entering the camera.[9] Conversely, the lower the number, the larger the opening, and the more light enters the camera.[10]
The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus, so the image background is blurry when the foreground is in focus and vice versa. This depth of field increases as the aperture closes. As a result, objects at differing distances from the camera can both be in focus; when the aperture is at its narrowest, the foreground and background are both in sharp focus.[7]
Shutter
The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.[9][12]
There are two types of mechanical shutters. The leaf-type uses a circular iris diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly opens and closes when the shutter is released.[6]
More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used.[9] This shutter operates close to the film plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras since covering the film (rather than blocking the light passing through the lens) allows the photographer to view the image through the lens at all times, except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera (many SLRs have interchangeable lenses).[10][6]
A digital camera may use a mechanical or electronic shutter, the latter of which is common in smartphone cameras. Electronic shutters either record data from the entire sensor at the same time (a global shutter) or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter).[10]
In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancement of each frame of film.[10][13]
The duration is called the shutter speed or exposure time. The longer the shutter speed, the slower it is. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000 of a second, though longer and shorter durations are not uncommon. In the early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long exposure times often resulted in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this, shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-moving action and eliminate motion blur.[14][6][10][9]
Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening is also narrowed one step, then the amount of light that contacts the film or sensor is the same.[9]
Metering
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter.[b] Taken through the lens (called TTL metering), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive semiconductors.[11] They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure.[c]
Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering, weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).[7][14][8][10]
Lens
The lens of a camera captures light from the subject and focuses it on the sensor. The design and manufacturing of the lens are critical to photo quality. A technological revolution in camera design during the 19th century modernized optical glass manufacturing and lens design. This contributed to the modern manufacturing processes of a wide range of optical instruments such as reading glasses and microscopes. Pioneering companies include Zeiss and Leitz.
Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths. Examples include extreme wide angle, standard, and medium telephoto. Lenses either have a fixed focal length (prime lens) or a variable focal length (zoom lens). Each lens is best suited to certain types of photography. Extreme wide-angles might be preferred for architecture due to their ability to capture a wide view of buildings. Standard lenses commonly have a wide aperture, and because of this, they are often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful in sports and wildlife but is more susceptible to camera shake, which might cause motion blur.[15]
Focus
Due to the optical properties of a photographic lens, only objects within a limited range of distance from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various ways to accurately focus a camera. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 meters (10 ft.) to infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive types, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or scale-focus that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras, this is indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree; mountains).
Rangefinder cameras allow the distance to objects to be measured employing a coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a ground glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Twin-lens reflex cameras use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens) in a parallel body for composition and focus. View cameras use a ground glass screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing sheet film before exposure. Modern cameras often offer autofocus systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.[16]
Experimental cameras such as the planar Fourier capture array (PFCA) do not require focusing to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of information (specifically, one component of the 2D Fourier transform) about the far-away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured, and images can be reconstructed by computation.
Some cameras support post-focusing. Post focusing refers to taking photos that are later focused on a computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every camera angle of a scene, which is known as plenoptic technology. A current plenoptic camera design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the optimal picture.[17]
Image capture on film
Traditional cameras capture light onto photographic plates or photographic film. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a memory card or other storage inside the camera for later playback or processing.
A wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In early history, plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of cameras; although, they quickly developed some standardization for the more popular cameras. The introduction of roll film drove the standardization process still further so that by the 1950s, only a few standard roll films were in use. These included 120 films providing 8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 films providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 films providing 8 or 12 exposures (principally in Brownie cameras) and 135 (35mm film) providing 12, 20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the half-frame format or bulk cassettes for the Leica Camera range.
For cine cameras, film 35 mm wide and perforated with sprocket holes was established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5 mm film, created by splitting 35 mm film, was one early amateur format, but 9.5 mm film, introduced in Europe in 1922, and 16 mm film, introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for "home movies" in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical 8 mm format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16 mm film, then splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The Super 8 format, still 8 mm wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger film frames, was introduced in 1965.
Film speed (ISO)
Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800 system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light.[18]
White balance
In digital cameras, there is electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register the natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example, white balancing to a blue object to obtain a warm color temperature.[19]
Camera accessories
Flash
A flash provides a short burst of bright light during exposure and is a commonly used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).[d][8]
Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.[8][7]
Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector, soft box, trigger and cord.
Other accessories
Accessories for cameras are mainly for care, protection, special effects, and functions.
- Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).
- Lens cap: covers and protects the lens during storage.
- Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed.
- Filters: allow artificial colors or change light density.
- Lens extension tubes allow close focus in macro photography.
- Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.
- Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more colorful screen and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer.
- Large format cameras use special equipment, which includes magnifier loupe, view finder, angle finder, focusing rail /truck.
- Battery and sometimes a charger.
- Some professional SLR could be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eye-cup, data backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.
- Tripod, primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long exposure, and time-lapse photography.
- Microscope adapter, an adapter used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the microscope is examining.
- Cable release, a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a cable to remotely control the shutter, it can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period. It is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter button.
- Dew shield – Prevents moisture build-up on the lens.
- UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.
Primary types
Single-lens reflex (SLR) camera
In photography, the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is provided with a mirror to redirect light from the lens to the viewfinder prior to releasing the shutter for composing and focusing an image. When the shutter is released, the mirror swings up and away, allowing the exposure of the photographic medium, and instantly returns after the exposure is finished. No SLR camera before 1954 had this feature, although the mirror on some early SLR cameras was entirely operated by the force exerted on the shutter release and only returned when the finger pressure was released.[20][21] The Asahiflex II, released by Japanese company Asahi (Pentax) in 1954, was the world's first SLR camera with an instant return mirror.[22]
In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax, which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats, including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5, respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Mamiya, and Pentax. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.
Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent pellicle as in the Canon Pellix[23] and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series.[24]
Large-format camera
The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remained in use for high-quality photography and technical, architectural, and industrial photography. There are three common types: the view camera, with its monorail and field camera variants, and the press camera. They have extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking roll film and later digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark slide back. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focusing are done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen, which is replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only and are slow to use.
Plate camera
The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers were plate cameras, using sensitized glass plates. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by extendible bellows. There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise, lower, and tilt the lens forwards or backward to control perspective.
Focusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint, and most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow focusing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was removed and a sensitized plate put in its place protected by a dark slide. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out, and the shutter opened, and then closed and the dark slide replaced.
Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adapter sleeves were made to allow sheet film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted.
Medium-format camera
Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35 mm cameras.[25] Typically these systems use 120 or 220 roll film.[26] The most common image sizes are 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×7 cm; the older 6×9 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.
Twin-lens reflex camera
Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses, one to form the image and one as a viewfinder.[27] The lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers, such as Mamiya, also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focused using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances, the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances, however, parallax errors were encountered, and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.
Some TLRs had interchangeable lenses, but as these had to be paired lenses, they were relatively heavy and did not provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 films; some used the smaller 127 films.
Compact cameras
Instant camera
After exposure, every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the paper 'sandwich' is distributed on the image. After a minute, the cover sheet just needs to be removed, and one gets a single original positive image with a fixed format. With some systems, it was also possible to create an instant image negative, from which then could be made copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70 system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots could be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture. There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as adapters for instant film use in medium- and large-format cameras.
Subminiature camera
Subminiature cameras were first produced in the nineteenth century and use film significantly smaller than 35mm. The expensive 8×11mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to 1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage (the Minox company later also produced larger cameras). Later inexpensive sub-miniatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image quality with these small film sizes was limited.
Folding camera
The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the base-plate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact, and small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.
Box camera
9Box cameras were introduced as budget-level cameras and had few, if any, controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.
Rangefinder camera
As camera lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became, more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make focusing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. The two separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its range- and viewfinder linkages.
Rangefinder cameras were produced in half- and full-frame 35 mm and roll film (medium format).
Motion picture cameras
A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a still camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession, commonly at a rate of 24 frames per second. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved.[28]: 4
Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as cine cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However, these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work, and many modern cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a frame, through the use of an intermittent mechanism.
The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888, and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film, and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include 70 mm film and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.
The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld, while some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.
Professional video camera
A professional video camera (often called a television camera even though the use has spread beyond television) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images (as opposed to a movie camera, that earlier recorded the images on film). Originally developed for use in television studios, they are now also used for music videos, direct-to-video movies, corporate and educational videos, marriage videos, etc.
These cameras earlier used vacuum tubes and later electronic image sensors.
Camcorders
A camcorder is an electronic device combining a video camera and a video recorder. Although marketing materials may use the colloquial term "camcorder," the name on the package and manual is often "video camera recorder." Most devices capable of recording video are camera phones and digital cameras primarily intended for still pictures; the term "camcorder" is used to describe a portable, self-contained device, with video capture and recording its primary function.
Digital camera
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction.[29] They typically use semiconductor image sensors.[30] Most cameras sold today are digital,[31] and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.
Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens of variable aperture to focus light onto an image pickup device.[32] The aperture and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being captured or recorded and store and delete images from memory. Most digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing.
Consumers adopted digital cameras in the 1990s. Professional video cameras transitioned to digital around the 2000s–2010s. Finally, movie cameras transitioned to digital in the 2010s.
The first camera using digital electronics to capture and store images was developed by Kodak engineer Steven Sasson in 1975. He used a charge-coupled device (CCD) provided by Fairchild Semiconductor, which provided only 0.01 megapixels to capture images. Sasson combined the CCD device with movie camera parts to create a digital camera that saved black and white images onto a cassette tape.[33]: 442 The images were then read from the cassette and viewed on a TV monitor.[34]: 225 Later, cassette tapes were replaced by flash memory.
In 1986, Japanese company Nikon introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.[35]
The first full-frame digital SLR cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax,[36] the N Digital by Contax's Japanese R6D team,[37] and the EOS-1Ds by Canon.[38] Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.[citation needed]
On most digital cameras a display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), permits the user to view the scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed.[5]: 6–7 [39]: 12
Camera phone
In 2000, Sharp introduced the world's first digital camera phone, the J-SH04 J-Phone, in Japan.[40] By the mid-2000s, higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera, and by the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera.
See also
- Camera matrix
- History of the camera
- Cameras in mobile phones
- List of camera types
- Timeline of historic inventions
Footnotes
- ^ Technically the f-number is the focal length of the lens divided by the diameter of the effective aperture
- ^ Some photographers use handheld exposure meters independent of the camera and use the readings to manually set the exposure settings on the camera.[8]
- ^ Film canisters typically contain a DX code that can be read by modern cameras so that the camera's computer knows the sensitivity of the film, the ISO.[9]]
- ^ The older type of disposable flashbulb uses an aluminum or zirconium wire in a glass tube filled with oxygen. During the exposure, the wire is burned away, producing a bright flash.[8]
References
- ^ "World's oldest photo sold to library". BBC News. 21 March 2002. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
The image of an engraving depicting a man leading a horse was made in 1825 by Nicéphore Niépce, who invented a technique known as heliogravure.
- ^ Gustavson, Todd (2009). Camera: a history of photography from daguerreotype to digital. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-5656-6.
- ^ "camera design | designboom.com". designboom | architecture & design magazine. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
- ^ Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A.; Ford, A. Lewis (2008). Sears and Zemansky's University Physics (12 ed.). San Francisco, California: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-50147-9.
- ^ a b London, Barbara; Upton, John; Kobré, Kenneth; Brill, Betsy (2002). Photography (7 ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-028271-2.
- ^ a b c d e "technology of photography". Britannica Academic. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
- ^ a b c d Lynne Warren, ed. (2006). "Camera: 35 mm". Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-393-4.
- ^ a b c d e f "camera". Britannica Academic. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g Lynne Warren, ed. (2006). "Camera: An Overview". Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-393-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Columbia University (2018). "camera". In Paul Lagasse (ed.). The Columbia Encyclopedia (8 ed.). Columbia University Press.
- ^ a b "How Cameras Work". How Stuff Works. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
- ^ Rose, B (2007). "The Camera Defined". The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. Elsevier. pp. 770–771. ISBN 978-0-240-80740-9. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- ^ "Motion-picture camera". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- ^ a b "Camera". World Encyclopedia. Philip's. 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-954609-1. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
- ^ McHugh, Sean. "Understanding Camera Lenses". Cambridge in Colour. Archived from the original on 19 August 2013.
- ^ Brown, Gary (April 2000). "How Autofocus Cameras Work". HowStuffWorks.com. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013.
- ^ Wehner, Mike (19 October 2011). "Lytro camera lets you focus after shooting, now available for pre-order". Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on 22 October 2011.
- ^ "How important is film speed?". HowStuffWorks. 7 December 2010. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
- ^ "Understanding White Balance". www.cambridgeincolour.com. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
- ^ Roger Hicks (1984). A History of the 35 mm Still Camera. Focal Press, London & Boston. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-240-51233-4.
- ^ Rudolph Lea (1993). Register of 35 mm SLR cameras. Wittig Books, Hückelhoven. p. 23. ISBN 978-3-88984-130-8.
- ^ Michael R. Peres (2013), The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, p. 779, Taylor & Francis
- ^ "Canon Pellix Camera". Photography in Malaysia. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013.
- ^ Parker, Bev. "Corfield Cameras – The Periflex Era". Wolverhampton Museum of Industry.
- ^ Wildi, Ernst (2001). The medium format advantage (2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press. ISBN 978-1-4294-8344-5. OCLC 499049825.
- ^ The manual of photography. Elizabeth Allen, Sophie Triantaphillidou (10th ed.). Oxford: Elsevier/Focal Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-240-52037-7. OCLC 706802878.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Burrows, Paul. "The rise and fall of the TLR: why the twin-lens reflex camera is a real classic". Digital Camera World. Future US Inc. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
- ^ Ascher, Steven; Pincus, Edward (2007). The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age (3 ed.). New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-452-28678-8.
- ^ Farlex Inc: definition of digital camera at the Free Dictionary; retrieved 7 September 2013
- ^ Williams, J. B. (2017). The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future. Springer. pp. 245–8. ISBN 978-3-319-49088-5.
- ^ Musgrove, Mike (12 January 2006). "Nikon Says It's Leaving Film-Camera Business". Washington Post. Retrieved 23 February 2007.
- ^ MakeUseOf: How does a Digital Camera Work; retrieved 7 September 2013
- ^ Gustavson, Todd (1 November 2011). 500 Cameras: 170 Years of Photographic Innovation. Toronto, Ontario: Sterling Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-8086-8.
- ^ Hitchcock, Susan (editor) (20 September 2011). Susan Tyler Hitchcock (ed.). National Geographic complete photography. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4351-3968-8.
{{cite book}}
:|last1=
has generic name (help) - ^ Nikon SLR-type digital cameras, Pierre Jarleton
- ^ The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame, Digital Photography Review
- ^ British Journal of Photography, Issues 7410-7422, 2003, p. 2
- ^ Canon EOS-1Ds, 11 megapixel full-frame CMOS, Digital Photography Review
- ^ Burian, Peter; Caputo, Robert (2003). National Geographic photography field guide (2 ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-0-7922-5676-2.
- ^ "Evolution of the Camera phone: From Sharp J-SH04 to Nokia 808 Pureview". Hoista.net. 28 February 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Further reading
- Ascher, Steven; Pincus, Edward (2007). The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age (3 ed.). New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-452-28678-8.
- Frizot, Michel (January 1998). "Light machines: On the threshold of invention". In Michel Frizot (ed.). A New History of Photography. Koln, Germany: Konemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-1328-4.
- Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A Concise History of Photography (3 ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-486-25128-8.
- Hirsch, Robert (2000). Seizing the Light: A History of Photography. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISBN 978-0-697-14361-7.
- Hitchcock, Susan (editor) (20 September 2011). Susan Tyler Hitchcock (ed.). National Geographic complete photography. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4351-3968-8.
{{cite book}}
:|last1=
has generic name (help) - Johnson, William S.; Rice, Mark; Williams, Carla (2005). Therese Mulligan; David Wooters (eds.). A History of Photography. Los Angeles, California: Taschen America. ISBN 978-3-8228-4777-0.
- Spira, S.F.; Lothrop, Jr., Easton S.; Spira, Jonathan B. (2001). The History of Photography as Seen Through the Spira Collection. New York: Aperture. ISBN 978-0-89381-953-8.
- Starl, Timm (January 1998). "A New World of Pictures: The Daguerreotype". In Michel Frizot (ed.). A New History of Photography. Koln, Germany: Konemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-1328-4.
- Wenczel, Norma (2007). "Part I – Introducing an Instrument" (PDF). In Wolfgang Lefèvre (ed.). The Optical Camera Obscura II Images and Texts. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. pp. 13–30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2012.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help)