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===Ancient period=== |
===Ancient period=== |
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[[Caucasian Albania]]ns are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan. Early invaders included the [[Scythians]] who arrived in the ninth century BCE.<ref name="Library of Congress Azerbaijan"> [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html Azerbaijan] - ''US Library of Congress Country Studies'' (retrieved [[07 June]] [[2006]])</ref> A century after the Scythians, the Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the [[Aras]].<ref name="ISBN2">p. 38</ref> The Medes forged a vast empire between 900-700 BCE, which was overthrown by the [[Achaemenids]] around 600 BCE. The Achaemenids, in turn, were defeated by [[Alexander the Great]] in 330 BCE as the Median satrap Atropates was allowed to remain in power. Following the decline of the [[Seleucid]]s, in Persia, Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom, which was interrupted |
[[Caucasian Albania]]ns are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan. Early invaders included the [[Scythians]] who arrived in the ninth century BCE.<ref name="Library of Congress Azerbaijan"> [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aztoc.html Azerbaijan] - ''US Library of Congress Country Studies'' (retrieved [[07 June]] [[2006]])</ref> A century after the Scythians, the Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the [[Aras]].<ref name="ISBN2">p. 38</ref> The Medes forged a vast empire between 900-700 BCE, which was overthrown by the [[Achaemenids]] around 600 BCE. The Achaemenids, in turn, were defeated by [[Alexander the Great]] in 330 BCE as the Median satrap Atropates was allowed to remain in power. Following the decline of the [[Seleucid]]s, in Persia, Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom, which was interrupted 224 CE until six century CE during which the [[Sassanids]] made it a nominally vassal state.<ref name="ISBN2">p. 38</ref> Caucasian Albania has officially adopted Christianity as its official religion in 313 CE<ref>[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a7ae70259374b050c1256bc60053c668/$FILE/G0240596.pdf] UN document, HRI/CORE/1/Add.117, 27 February 2002</ref> and would remain a Christian nation until the eighth century.<ref name="Heyerdahl"> [http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_heyerdahl_alexidze.html Voices of the Ancients: Heyerdahl Intrigued by Rare Caucasus Albanian Text by Dr. Zaza Alexidze] - Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (retrieved [[07 June]] [[2006]])</ref> In the seventh century, the king of Caucasian Albania, Jevanshir, was killed in a court plot and the country was soon overrun by invading [[Muslim]] [[Abbasid|Arabs]], starting in 642 CE and finishing in 705 CE.<ref name="Library of Congress Iran"> [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0017) Iran] - "Islamic Conquest," US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved [[07 June]] [[2006]])</ref> |
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<ref>[http://www.azerbaijan-un-geneva.az/chronology.php] Chronology of Azerbaijan History, (retrieved [[15 June]] [[2006]])</ref> |
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===Medieval period=== |
===Medieval period=== |
Revision as of 09:56, 15 June 2006
- This article is about the Azerbaijani ethnic group. For a specific analysis of the population of the Republic of Azerbaijan, see Demographics of Azerbaijan.
Regions with significant populations | |
---|---|
Iran: 16.5-23.5 million [1][2] Azerbaijan: 30,000 | |
Languages | |
Azerbaijani | |
Religion | |
Shi'a Islam, Sunni Islam, Atheism, Agnosticism | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Turkic people, Peoples of the Caucasus, and Persians[9] |
The Azerbaijanis (in Azerbaijani: Azərbaycanlılar, Azeris/Azərilər, Azeri Turks/Azəri Türkləri; Azeri Cyrillic: Азәриләр) or Azarbaijanis[10] (in Iran; also Azaris, Turks/Torks) are an ethnic group mainly found in northwestern Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijanis live in a region that spans the Caucasus to the northwestern Iranian plateau. The Azeris are typically at least nominally Muslim and have an ancient cultural heritage that consists of Turkic, Iranian, and Caucasian elements.
The Azeris are a cross-border group, where northerners and southerners vary somewhat, due to nearly two centuries of separate social evolution in Russian/Soviet influenced-Azerbaijan and Iranian Azarbaijan. The Azeri language unifies Azeris and is mutually intelligible with Turkmen and Turkish, as all of these languages can be traced back to the Turkic Oghuz. Azerbaijan's final division was formalized by the Turkmanchai Treaty between Persia and Russia in 1828, which ceded Azerbaijan, north of the Aras river to the Russian Empire.
The Azeris, as a result of this separate existence, range from mainly secularists in Azerbaijan to largely religious Muslims in Iranian Azarbaijan. Since Azerbaijan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, there has been some renewed interest in religion and cross-border ethnic ties.
History
- Main articles History of Azerbaijan and History of Iran
Azerbaijan is believed to be eponymously named after Atropates, an Iranian Median satrap (governor), who ruled a region found in modern Iranian Azarbaijan called Atropatene.[11] Atropates' name is believed to be derived from the Old Persian roots meaning "protected by fire."[12] In addition to Atropates, Azerbaijan has seen a host of inhabitants and invaders including Caucasians, Ancient Iranians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Oghuz Turks, Seljuks, Mongols, and Russians.
Ancient period
Caucasian Albanians are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan. Early invaders included the Scythians who arrived in the ninth century BCE.[13] A century after the Scythians, the Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras.[11] The Medes forged a vast empire between 900-700 BCE, which was overthrown by the Achaemenids around 600 BCE. The Achaemenids, in turn, were defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE as the Median satrap Atropates was allowed to remain in power. Following the decline of the Seleucids, in Persia, Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom, which was interrupted 224 CE until six century CE during which the Sassanids made it a nominally vassal state.[11] Caucasian Albania has officially adopted Christianity as its official religion in 313 CE[14] and would remain a Christian nation until the eighth century.[15] In the seventh century, the king of Caucasian Albania, Jevanshir, was killed in a court plot and the country was soon overrun by invading Muslim Arabs, starting in 642 CE and finishing in 705 CE.[10] [16]
Medieval period
Muslim Arabs defeated both the Sassanids and the Byzantine Empire as they marched into the Caucasus region. The Arabs made Caucasian Albania a vassal state where a Christian resistance led by Prince Javanshir surrendered in 667.[11] Arab authors, between the 9th and 10th centuries, began to refer to the region between the Kura and Aras rivers as Arran.[11] Arabs from Basra and Kufa came to Azerbaijan and seized lands that indigenous peoples abandoned and became a land owning elite.[17] Conversion to Islam was slow as local resistance persisted for centuries and resentment grew as small groups of Arab elites began migrating to cities such as Tabriz and Maraghah. This influx of Arabs sparked a major rebellion by Babak, "a man of obscure origins," who is considered both an Azeri and Iranian national hero, and who led an insurgency in Iranian Azarbaijan against the Arabs from 816-837.[18] Despite some pockets of continued local resistance, the vast majority of the inhabitants of Azerbaijan converted to Islam over the centuries.
In the middle of the 11th century, nomadic Oghuz Turks began to move into the area. The Seljuk dynasty of the Oghuz overthrew Arab rule and established a vast empire that encompassed most of Southwest Asia. The Seljuk period marked the beginning of the turkification of Azerbaijan as the Azeri language began to replace earlier Caucasian and Iranian ones.[13] Local Iranian cultural influence survived however as can be seen in the works of then contemporary writers, such as Nezami Ganjavi, who wrote in Persian, while the emerging Turkic identity of the region was chronicled in legendary epic poems or dastans. The oldest dastan is the Book of Dede Korkut, which relates allegorical tales about the early Turks in the Caucasus and Asia Minor.[11] Turkic dominion was interrupted by the Mongols in 1227. The Mongols and Tamerlane ruled the region until 1405. Turkic rule returned with the Sunni Kara Koyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu, both of which dominated Azerbaijan until the rise of the local Shia Safavids, a Kurdish-descended and Azeri-speaking dynasty, in 1501.[17][11]
Modern period
The Safavids established a vast empire that was multi-cultural (the dynasty was bilingual in Azeri and Persian and culturally Turko-Iranian) and lasted until 1722.[19][20] Noted for its achievements in state building, architecture, and the sciences, the Safavid state crumbled due to internal decay and external pressures from the Russians and Afghans.
After the Safavid state came brief Ottoman control followed by the conquests of Nadir Shah Afshar, a Sunni chieftain from Khorasan who reduced the power of the Shia.[17] The brief reign of Karim Khan came next and was followed by the Turkic Qajars, who ruled Azerbaijan and Iran starting in 1779.[11] It was during the Qajar period that Russia loomed as a threat to Persian holdings in the Caucasus. The Russo-Persian Wars began in the 18th century and ended in the early 19th century with Gulistan Treaty of 1813 and the Turkmanchai Treaty in 1828, which effectively gave the northern portion of Azerbaijan to the Russian Empire.[12] While the Azeris in Iran largely integrated into modern Iranian society, the Azeris in the north lived through the transition from the Russian Empire to brief independence from 1918-1920 and then incorporation into the Soviet Union. The Republic of Azerbaijan achieved independence in 1991, but found itself embroiled in a war over the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia.
Origins
In most references, Azerbaijanis are considered a Turkic people, mainly due to their Turkic language and partial descent from the Oghuz Turks.[21][22][23] However, there has been some debate over the ethnic, cultural, and linguistic origins of the Azeris. Ultimately, the 'debate' over the origins of the Azeris has to do with historic claims over their territory as well as modern nationalism. The debate involves three viewpoints: whether the Azeris are of a Turkic background, ultimately from Central Asia; or are an Iranian people who simply changed their language following Turkic invasions; or are indigenous to the Caucasus and simply adopted the Azerbaijani language, Persian cultural traits, and converted to Islam. Thus, determining whether a Turkic, Iranian, or Caucasian background defines the Azeris also has much to do with the historical views of Azeribaijani neighbors.
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Azeris:
"... are of mixed ethnic origin, the oldest element deriving from the indigenous population of eastern Transcaucasia and possibly from the Medians of northern Persia. This population was Persianized during the period of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran (3rd–7th century AD), but, after the region's conquest by the Seljuq Turks in the 11th century, the inhabitants were Turkicized, and further Turkicization of the population occurred in the ensuing centuries. ..."[24]
This view supports some initial genetic studies conducted in the Republic of Azerbaijan that link the modern Azeris primarily to their neighbors in the Caucasus and, to a lesser extent, northwestern Iran.[25] Further studies with Azeris in Iran will be required in order to fully determine to what extent the modern Azeris stem from Caucasian peoples (notably the Albanians and Armenians) and Iranians (primarily the Medes).
Turkic theory
The Turkic origin theory is mainly based upon the Azeri usage of the Azerbaijani language and favored by those who believe that centuries of heavy Turkic settlement, starting with the Oghuz, shaped Azerbaijan's Turkic identity. The Turkic theory does not alter the general view of the Azeris as a Turkic people, as there is no specific ethnic criteria as to what constitutes a Turk, but discusses to what extent Turkic groups changed the demographics of the Eastern Caucasus and Iranian Azarbaijan.
Although, "Turkic penetration probably began in the Hunnic era and its aftermath," there is little evidence to indicate, "permanent settlements."[22] The earliest major Turkic incursion began with Mahmud of Ghazni (971-1040) and then accelerated considerably during the Seljuk period. The migration of Oghuz Turks from Turkmenistan, which is attested by linguistic similarity, remained high through the Mongol period, as many troops under the Ilkhans were Turkic. By the Safavid period, the turkification of Azerbaijan continued with the influence of the Kizilbash. The very name Azerbaijan is derived from the pre-Turkic name of the province 'Azarbayjan' or 'Adarbayjan' and shows a gradual language shift that took place as local names for the region survived the turkification process.[26]
The Book of Dede Korkut is a prominent document that supports a substantial Oghuz migration into Azerbaijan. UNESCO recently celebrated the 1300th anniversary of this epic work.[27] Despite its purported age, most academics believe that the Book of Dede Korkut originates sometime after the Oghuz entered the Caucasus, with its written text having been compiled in the 15th century.[28] It is the Oghuz migration that most academics view as the most likely source of a Turkic background, but one that most likely involved the turkification of predominantly indigenous peoples.[11][12]
Iranian theory
The Iranian origin theory is based upon the ancient presence of the Medes, in Iranian Azarbaijan, and Scythian invasions during the eighth century BCE. It is believed that the Medes may have mixed with an indigenous population themselves, the Caucasian Mannai, a group that is believed to have had Urartian and Northeast Caucasian origins.[29]
Various early cultural traits are also seen as indications of an ancient Iranian presence. Archaelogical evidence seems to indicate that the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism was prominent throughout the Caucasus before Christianity and Islam, and that the influence of various Persian Empires added to the Iranian character of the area.[30] It has also been hypothesized that the population of Iranian Azarbaijan was predominantly Persian-speaking, following the Sassanid period, before the Oghuz arrived.[31] Cultural similarities between modern Persians and Azeris are also pointed out as evidence of common origins.[9] Moreover, since many Azerbaijani literary figures, such as Qatran Tabrizi, Shams Tabrizi, Nezami and Khaghani, wrote in Persian, prior to and during the Oghuz migration period, it is conjectured that the majority of the population may have also been largely Persian-speaking. Other common Perso-Azeribaijani features include Iranian place names such as Tabriz and Baku.[32]
The modern presence of the Iranian Talysh and Tats in Azerbaijan is also considered evidence of the former Iranian character of the region.[33][34] As a precursor to these modern groups, the ancient Azaris are hypothesized as the main ancestors of the modern Azerbaijanis as well. However, the ancient historians including Herodotus, Polybius and Strabo mention the region as a mixed one with both Iranian and non-Iranian groups, such as the Utii, a Caucasian group that still exists in Azerbaijan.[35]
Caucasian theory
Many modern Azeris, not unlike the Turks of Turkey, have, during their journey into discovering their roots, come across forgotten possible ancestors. As many modern Turkish historians looked to the possibility that groups such as the Hittites may have contributed significantly to the modern Turks, many Azeris have also looked to ancient peoples in order to better understand their own background. In the case of the Azeris, there is some evidence that, in-spite of repeated invasions and migrations, an aboriginal element survived in what is today Azerbaijan even as the languages and religions changed over time. Academic Audrey L. Alstadt notes in her book, The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule, that many modern Azeris regard both the Oghuz Turks and the Albanians of the Caucasus as their ancestors, in particular as there is no political rivalry with either.[12] Regardless, considerable information has been learned about the Caucasian Albanians, including their language and history in the region as well as their conversion to Christianity. In addition, some believe that the Udi language, which is a Caucasian language, is a remnant of the ancient Albanians who were assimilated into various invading cultures over time. Lastly, ethnic animosity and rivalry with many of their neighbors has possibly prevented the modern Azeris from examining possible ties to their immediate neighbors, in particular the Armenians. What remains difficult to determine is the overall number of Turkic invaders, which may not have been enough to alter the population dramatically in the genetic sense.
Genetics
The population of the Republic of Azerbaijan is undoubtedly diverse, but there appear to be traits that have been discovered through genetic testing that may reveal much about the background of the modern Azerbaijanis. The genetic constitution of Azerbaijan, in terms of Y-Chromosome haplotypes, is much closer to their nearest geographic neighbors in the Caucasus, particularly Armenians and the Lezgins, than to the Turkic-speaking populations of Central Asia. A 2003 study found that: "Y-chromosome haplogroups indicate that Indo-European-speaking Armenians and Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanians are genetically more closely related to their geographic neighbors in the Caucasus than to their linguistic neighbors elsewhere."[25] The authors of this study suggest that this indicates a language replacement of indigenous Caucasian peoples. Also, there is evidence of limited genetic admixture derived from Central Asians (specifically Haplogroup H12), notably the Turkmen, that is higher than that of their neighbors including the Georgians and Armenians.[36] MtDNA analysis seemed to indicate the possibility that the main relationship with Iranians is through a greater West Eurasian group that is secondary to that of the Caucasus, according to a study that did not include Azeris, but Georgians who have clustered with Azeris in other studies.[37] The preliminary conclusion from the genetic tests shows the Azeris to be a mixed population with relationships, in order of greatest similarity, mainly with the Caucasus, followed by similarities with Iranians and Near Easterners, Europeans, and Turkmen. In addition, genetic analysis of mtDNA and Y-chromosomes have shown that Caucasian populations are genetically intermediate between European and Near Eastern populations, but that they are more closely related to Near Easterners overall.[25] Another study, conducted in 2003 by the Russian Journal of Genetics, compared Iranians in Azerbaijan (the Talysh and Tats) with Turkic Azerbaijanis and found that,
the genetic structure of the populations examined with the other Iranian-speaking populations (Persians and Kurds from Iran, Ossetins, and Tajiks) and Azerbaijanis showed that Iranian-speaking populations from Azerbaijan were more close to Azerbaijanis, than to Iranian-speaking populations inhabiting other world regions.[38]
The conclusion from this study seems to indicate that groups within close geographic proximity to Azeris are genetically similar in-spite of linguistic differences. These studies suffer from some drawbacks, including a lack of specific Azeribaijani test subjects from Iran. Analyses of autosomal chromosomes, X chromosome and a wider sampling are needed to verify these hypotheses.
Demographics
There are an estimated 24 to 33 million Azerbaijanis in the world, but census figures are difficult to verify. The vast majority live in Azerbaijan and Iranian Azarbayjan. Between 16 to over 23 million Azeris live in Iran, mainly in the northwestern provinces. Approximately 7,800,000 Azeris are found in the Republic of Azerbaijan. An additional diaspora that is believed to number in the millions is found in neighboring countries and around the world. There are sizeable communities in Turkey, Georgia, Russia, USA, Canada, Germany and other countries.
While population estimates in Azerbaijan are considered relatively reliable due to regular censuses taken, the figures for Iran remain more questionable. Since the early 20th century, successive Iranian governments have avoided publishing any statistics on ethnics groups.[39] This policy has made it difficult to attain accurate statistics on ethno-linguistic groups in Iran. The population size of Turkic-speaking ethnic groups are estimated to be higher in Iran than official publications. Officially Iran claims that Azeris make-up 24% of the population. However, many Iran scholars, such as Nikki Keddie, Patricia J. Higgins, Shahrough Akhavi, Ali Reza Sheikholeslami, and others support the view that Azeris may comprise as much as one third of Iran's population.[39][40][41]
A large ex-patriot community of Azerbaijanis is found outside Azerbaijan and Iran. According to Ethnologue, there were over 1 million Azerbaijani-speakers of the north dialect (originating in Azerbaijan) in southern Dagestan, Armenia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan as of 1993.[42] Other sources, such as national censuses, confirm the presence of Azeris throughout the former Soviet Union. The Ethnologue figures may be inaccurate or outdated in the case of Armenia where conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh has affected the population of Azeris there.[43] Ethnologue further reports that an additional 1 million South Azeris live outside Iran, but these figures most likely are a reference to the Turkomans of Iraq, a distinct though related Turkic people.[2]
Azeris in Azerbaijan
By far the largest group in Azerbaijan (over 90%), the Azeris generally tend to dominate most aspects of the country. Unlike most of their ethnic brethren in Iran, the majority of Azeris are staunch secularists as a result of decades of official Soviet atheism and are highly Westernized. Also a legacy of the Soviet era, is the high literacy rate that currently is estimated at 98.8%.[44] A democratic legacy also exists as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, established in 1918, was the first democracy in the Muslim world. Following independence in 1991, Azeri society has been deeply impacted by the massive internal displacement as a result of the war over Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia that has left nearly 1 million displaced Azeris scattered throughout the country and put strains upon the economy.[45] Azerbaijanis are increasingly tied to the growing oil industry, but high levels of corruption and autocratic rule have not produced many benefits for most Azeris.[46] Many Azeris have also grown frustrated over the political process in Azerbaijan as the election of current President Ilham Aliyev has been described as, "marred by allegations of corruption and brutal crackdowns on his political opposition."[47][48] Despite these problems, there is a social and cultural renaissance in Azerbaijan as positive economic predictions and an active political opposition appear determined to improve the lives of average Azeris.[49][13]
Azeris in Iran
Azerbaijanis in Iran are mainly found in the northwest provinces: East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, Ardebil, Zanjan, and Markazi. Many also live in Tehran (one-third), Fars Province, and other regions.[10] Generally, the Azeris in Iran have been, "a well integrated linguistic minority," according to academics such as anthropologist Patricia Higgins.[39] In fact, until the Pahlavi period in the 20th century, "the identity of Iran was not exclusively Persian, but supra-ethnic," as much of the political leadership of Iran starting in the 11th century had been Turkic.[50] The Iranian and Turkic groups were well integrated until 20th century notions of nationalism and communalism began to alter popular perceptions.[50] Yet despite some friction, Azerbaijanis in Iran came to be well represented at all levels of, "political, military, and intellectual hierarchies, as well as the religious hierarchy."[39] Resentment came with Pahlavi policies that suppressed the use of the Azerbaijani language in local government, schools, and the press.[51] However with the advent of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, emphasis shifted away from nationalism as the new government highlighted religion as the main unifying factor. Within the Islamic Revolutionary government, there emerged an Azeri faction led by Ayatollah Kazem Shariatmadari, who advocated greater regional autonomy and wanted the constitution to be revised to include secularists and opposition parties, which was denied.[52] Currently, Azeris in Iran are closely aligned with Persians as:
"... The life styles of urban Azarbaijanis do not differ from those of Persians, and there is considerable intermarriage among the upper classes in cities of mixed populations. Similarly, customs among Azarbaijani villagers do not appear to differ markedly from those of Persian villagers. ..."[10]
In addition, Azeris in Iran are in high positions of authority with the Ayatollah Ali Khamenei currently sitting as the Supreme Leader, the highest ranking in the political authority of Iran. Azeris in Iran also remain quite conservative in comparison to most Azeris in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Nonetheless, since the Republic of Azerbaijan's independence in 1991 there has been renewed interest and contact between Azeris on both sides of the border.
Culture
Azeri culture is composed of many elements that make it unique. In many respects Azeris are Eurasian and bi-cultural as northern Azeris have lived through Russo-Soviet and Eastern European influences, whereas the Azeris of the south have remained within the Turko-Iranian tradition. Modern Azeri culture includes many significant achievements in literature, art, music, and film that are both contemporary and classical in their qualities.
Language and literature
The Azerbaijanis speak Azerbaijani (sometimes called Azerbaijani Turkish or Azeri), a Turkic language that is mutually intelligible with Turkish, with minor variations in accent, vocabulary and grammar. Other mutually intelligible Turkic languages include Turkmen and the Turkish spoken by the Turkomans of Iraq. The standard Azerbaijani language dates back to the 10th century CE, and mainly existed in oral form, and then began to develop as a literary language by the 13th century.[28] Early Azerbaijani began in the form of oral history recitations (called dastans), including the Book of Dede Korkut and Koroglu, which also contained elements of Turkic mythology. Some of the earliest Azeri writings of the past are traced back to the poet Nesîmî (died 1417) and then decades later Fuzûlî (1483–1556). Ismail I, Shah of Safavid Persia also wrote Azeri sufi poetry under the pen name Khatâ'i. Modern Azeri literature continued with an emphasis upon, "humanism," that is conveyed in the writings of Samed Vurgun, Reza Baraheni, Shahriar, and many others.[53]
Religion
The majority of Azerbaijanis are Shia Muslims, but there are also Sunni Muslims, Jews, Zoroastrians, Christians and Bahá'ís. While only a small minority of Azeris in Iran are Sunni Muslim, between 25-40% of Azeris in the Republic of Azerbaijan are identified as nominal Sunni Muslims according to various reports.[13][54] In the Republic of Azerbaijan traditions and holidays from other religions are also celebrated in addition to Islamic holidays, including Norouz (Zoroastrianism) and Christmas (Christian).
Performance art
- See also Music of Azerbaijan and Music of Iran
Azeris express themselves in a variety of unique ways including local dance, music, and the media. Azeri folk dances are ancient and similar to that of their neighbors in the Caucasus and northwestern Iran. The group dance is a common form found in a wide ranging area from southeastern Europe to the Caspian basin. In the group dance the performers come together in a semi-circular or circular formation as, "The leader of these dances often executes special figures as well as signaling and changes in the foot patterns, movements, or direction in which the group is moving, often by gesturing with his or her hand, in which a kerchief is held."[55] Solitary dances are performed by both men and women and involve subtle hand motions in addition to sequenced steps.
Azeri music has a long tradition that can be traced back to singing bards known as Ashiqs, who make use of the saz (lute), which is common in other Turkic regions, and sing dastans (historical ballads).[56][57] Other musical instruments include the tar (another form of the lute), duduk (wind instrument), Kamancha (fiddle), dhol (drums) and others. Azeri classical music is known as mugham, an emotional singing performance. Notable composers Uzeyir Hajibeyov, Gara Garayev and Fikret Amirov created a hybrid style that combined Western classical music with mugham. Other Azeris, notably Vagif Mustafa Zadeh and Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, mixed jazz with mugham. Some Azeri musicians have received international status including Rashid Behbudov (who could sing in over eight languages) and Muslim Magomayev (pop star from the Soviet era). Meanwhile in Iran, Azeri music has taken a different course. According to Iranian Azeri singer Hossein Alizadeh, "Historically in Iran, music faced strong opposition from the religious establishment, forcing it to go underground."[58] For this reason, most Iranian Azeri music is performed outside of Iran amongst exile communities.
Azeri film and television is largely broadcast in Azerbaijan with some limited media in Iran. Some Azeris have been prominent film-makers, such as Rustam Ibragimbekov, who wrote Burnt by the Sun, which received the Grand Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1994. In addition, many Iranian Azeris have been prominent in the cinematic tradition of Iran, which has received a great deal of critical praise since the 1980s.
Sports
There are a wide variety of sports and pass-times in Azerbaijan (again part of the Soviet legacy) as Azeris have competed in nearly every sport, many at the Olympic level.[59] Football (soccer) is very popular in both Azerbaijan and Iranian Azarbayjan, while Azeri athletes have particularly excelled in weight lifting, gymnastics, karate, boxing, and wrestling.[60] In addition, chess is very popular pass-time in Azerbaijan as notable players, such as Teimour Radjabov and Shakhriyar Mamedyarov rank near the top in world rankings.
Institutions
Azerbaijan and Iranian Azerbaijan have developed somewhat distinct institutions as a result of divergent socio-political evolution. Azerbaijan began the 20th century institutions based upon those of Russia and the Soviet Union, with strict state control over most aspects of society, but had moved towards the adoption of western models as of the late 20 century, with relaxed state controls that have allowed local civil society to develop independent of the government. In contrast, in Iranian Azerbaijan Islamic theocratic institutions dominate nearly all aspects of society, with most political power in the hands of the Supreme Leader of Iran and the Council of Guardians. Yet both societies are in a state of change. In Azerbaijan there is a secular democratic system that is mired by political corruption and charges of election fraud. Azerbaijan's civil society is a work in-progress:
"The lack of more 'modern' forms of self-organization and the experience of liberal democratic rule is the main reason why the building of civil society and the process of democratization in Azerbaijan takes place in a parallel rather than linear way. In the result, today Azerbaijan society may be characterized mostly as quasi civil and quasi democratic society the structures and institutions of which having signs of civil and democratic society from the standpoint of their level of development do not correspond to the modern criteria of the modern democratic society."[61]
Due to these current shortcomings, Azerbaijan falls short of being universally regarded as a democracy, but does show signs of positive change such as an active political opposition. Azeris in Iran remain intertwined with the Islamic republic's theocratic regime and lack any significant civil society of a secular nature that can pose a major challenge to the status quo. There are signs of civil unrest due to the policies of the Islamic government in Iranian Azarbaijan and increased interaction with fellow Azeris in Azerbaijan and satellite broadcasts from Turkey has revived Azeri nationalism in recent years.[62] This resurgence in nationalism escalated into riots over the publication of a cartoon, in May 2006 (ironically drawn by an ethnic Azeri), that many Azeris found offensive.[63][64] While some view these demonstrations as signs of ethnic unrest others see these pressures as indications of the clerical regime's overall diminishing hold on power in Iran.
Women
- See also Iranian women
Azeri females have had to overcome a historical legacy of male domination, but have made great strides since the 20th century. In Azerbaijan, women have attained what amounts to western-style equality in major cities such as Baku, while in rural areas there are signs of more traditional views towards women.[65][66] Some problems that are especially prevalent include violence against women which remains high in rural areas and while rape is severely punished in Azerbaijan, it is rarely reported, not unlike other parts of the former Soviet Union.[67] Azeri women were forced to, "give up the veil," and this lax sense of religious duty remains the norm in Azerbaijan, in sharp contrast with Iranian Azarbayjan.[11] Not unlike western countries, women are underrepresented in elective office, but have attained high positions in parliament and a woman is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in Azerbaijan.
In Iran there are significant indications of the continued inequal treatment of women, which has been met with increasingly vocal protests, including that of Shirin Ebadi, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2003 for her strong advocacy for women's rights, and a groundswell of grassroots movements have emerged seeking gender equality.[68][69][10] Regular protests take place in defiance of government bans, but are sometimes met with violent repression as with, "20 women [who] sat on the grass in Haft-e Tir Square in central Teheran and began to sing a feminist song," in June 2006.[70] As of June 2006, wider protests were being reported by defiant women seeking gender equality in Iran.[71] Previous Iranian leaders such as Muhammad Khatami promised women greater rights, but the government remains opposed to changes that they interpret as contrary to Islamic doctrine. Nine women have been elected to the parliament (Majlis), as of 2004, and while most are committed to social change, some represent conservative positions regarding gender issues.[72] The social fate of Azeri women largely mirrors that of other women in Iran and remains uncertain given the strong resistance to change by the government.
Notes
- ^ Iran: People - CIA: The World Factbook (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ a b Azerbaijani, South: A language of Iran - Ethnologue report (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ Azerbaijan Republic
- ^ Turkey: Religions & Peoples - Encyclopedia of the Orient (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ Azerbaijanis in Russia - 2002 Russian Census (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ Ethnodemographic situation in Kazakhstan - (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ "About number and composition population of Ukraine by data All-Ukrainian census of the population 2001" - Ukraine Census 2001 (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ "Canada 2001 census" (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ a b Azerbaijan - Columbia Encyclopedia (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ a b c d e Iran - US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "Library of Congress Iran" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan by Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins, ISBN 0810835509 (retrieved 07 June 2006). Cite error: The named reference "ISBN2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c d The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule by Audrey Altstadt, ISBN 0817991824 (retrieved 07 June 2006).
- ^ a b c d Azerbaijan - US Library of Congress Country Studies (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "Library of Congress Azerbaijan" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ [1] UN document, HRI/CORE/1/Add.117, 27 February 2002
- ^ Voices of the Ancients: Heyerdahl Intrigued by Rare Caucasus Albanian Text by Dr. Zaza Alexidze - Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ [2] Chronology of Azerbaijan History, (retrieved 15 June 2006)
- ^ a b c A History of Islamic Societies by Ira Lapidus, p. 48, ISBN 0521779332 (retrieved 07 June 2006) Cite error: The named reference "ISBN3" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates by Hugh Kennedy, p. 166, ISBN 0582405254 (retrieved 07 June 2006).
- ^ The Safavid Empire - University of Calgary (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Shi'a: The Safavids - Washington State University (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Azerbaijan: People - Encyclopedia Britannica (retrieved 11 June 2006)
- ^ a b An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples by Peter B. Golden, ISBN 344703274X (retrieved 08 June 2006). Cite error: The named reference "ISBN5" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "Turkic Peoples", Encyclopedia Americana, volume 27, page 276, ISBN 0717201309 (retrieved 08 June 2006).
- ^ Azerbaijani - Encyclopedia Britannica (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ a b c Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the Caucasus: evidence from the Y-chromosome — Human Genetics (2003) 112 : 255–261 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
- ^ "The spread of Turkish in Azerbaijan" - Encyclopedia Iranica, (retrieved 11 June 2006)
- ^ 1300th Anniversary of Kitab-i Dede Qorqud - UNESCO (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ a b "x. Azeri Literature in Iran" - Encyclopedia Iranica, (retrieved 10 June 2006)
- ^ Ancient Persia - Encyclopedia Americana (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Various Fire-Temples - University of Calgary (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Iranian Peoples: Azaris, Language of Azeri People and Pan-Turkism by Mohammad Taghi Sabokdel - The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Tabriz (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ "Report for Talysh" — Ethnologue. (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ "Report for Tats" — Ethnologue. (retrieved 08 June 2006)
- ^ Media — Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume V18, Page 22 (retrieved 08 June 2006).
- ^ A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia — American Journal of Human Genetics, 71:466-482, 2002 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
- ^ Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor — American Journal of Human Genetics, 74:827-845, 2004 (retrieved 09 June 2006)
- ^ Genetic Structure of Iranian-Speaking Populations from Azerbaijan Inferred from the Frequencies of Immunological and Biochemical Gene Markers — Russian Journal of Genetics, Volume 39, Number 11, November 2003, pp. 1334-1342(9) (retrieved 09 June 2006)
- ^ a b c d The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics edited by Ali Banuazizi and Myron Weiner, Part II: Iran, ISBN 0815622484 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
- ^ Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran: Clergy-State Relations in the Pahlavi Period by Shahrough Akhavi, ISBN 0873954564 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
- ^ Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution by Nikki Keddie, ISBN 0300098561 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
- ^ Report for Azerbaijani, North — Ethnologue (retrieved 09 June 2006)
- ^ Peace Talks at Key West between Armenia and Azerbaijan — US State Department, April 3, 2001 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
- ^ "Human Development Index, 12. Literacy and enrolment" - Human Development Reports (retrieved 10 June 2006)
- ^ "Caspian Country Rich in Petroleum" - The Korea Times (retrieved 10 June 2006)
- ^ Report on corruption in Azerbaijan oil industry prepared for EBRD & IFC investigation arms - The Committee of Oil Industry Workers’ Rights Protection, October 2003 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ "Azerbaijan: A New Muslim Ally for the U.S.?" - FrontPageMagazine.com, May 22, 2006 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ "The Crude Doctrine" - Mother Jones, July/August, 2004 (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ Civil Society, Azerbaijan: Opposition parties prepare to vigorously contest parliamentary election - Eurasia.net, 3/28/05 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ a b The Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity by Brenda Shaffer, ISBN 0262194775 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ Iran between Two Revolutions by Ervand Abrahamian, p. 131, ISBN 0691101345 (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ "Shi'ite Leadership: In the Shadow of Conflicting Ideologies," by David Menashri, Iranian Studies, 13:1-4 (1980) (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ "Contemporary Literature" - Azerbaijan International, Spring 1996, (4.1) (retrieved 10 June 2006).
- ^ Azerbaijan — US State Department, October 26, 2001 (retrieved 09 June 2006).
- ^ Avaz — Stanford University Persian Student Association (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ "Music of the Turkic-Speaking World, Performance and the Master-Apprentice System of Oral Transmission" — Report by Razia Sultanova, SOAS, University of London, February, 2006 (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ "Guba" — Azerbaijan: The Land of the Arts (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ "Hossein Alizadeh Personal Reflections on Playing Tar" — Azerbaijan International, Winter 1997 (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ "Azerbaijan" — Eurolympic.org (retrieved 12 June 2006).
- ^ "The Ministry of Youth and Sports" — Azerbaijan International, Winter 1996 (retrieved 11 June 2006).
- ^ "Civil Society, Democratization & Development in Azerbaijan" - The Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University, 4.28.05 (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Iranian Azeris: A Giant Minority" - Policy Watch/Policy Peace, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy (retrieved 07 June 2006)
- ^ "Ethnic Tensions Over Cartoon Set Off Riots in Northwest Iran" - The New York Times (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Iran Azeris protest over cartoon" - BBC (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Azerbaijan: Women" - OnlineWomen (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Azerbaijan-The Role of Women" - US Library of Congress Country Studies: Azerbaijan (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Women's rights in Azerbaijan" - OneWomen (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ Iran: "Amnesty International calls for action to end discrimination against women" - Amnesty International (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ Iran: "Iranian Women" - IranDokht (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ Iran: "Iranian Women" - IranDokht (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ "Hundreds of Women Protest Sex Discrimination in Iran" - New York Times (retrieved 12 June 2006)
- ^ Iran: "Women's Gains at Risk in Iran's New Parliament" - Women'senews (retrieved 12 June 2006)
Important note: population statistics for Azerbaijanis (including those without a notation) in foreign countries were derived from various census counts, the UN, the CIA Factbook, Ethnologue, and the Joshua Project.
References and further reading
- Altstadt, Audrey. The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule (Hoover Institution Press 1992).
- Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples (Otto Harrasowitz 1992).
- Swietochowski, Tadeusz. Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920 (Cambridge 1985).
External links
- A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 71:466-482, 2002
- Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 74:827-845, 2004
- Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus, Annals of Human Genetics, Volume 68, Page 205, May 2004
- Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the Caucasus: evidence from the Y-chromosome, Hum Genet (2003) 112, 255–261