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{{Infobox deity |
{{Infobox deity |
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| type = Egyptian |
| type = Egyptian |
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| alt = |
| alt = |
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| caption = The [[Egyptian pantheon|Egyptian god]] Anubis (a modern rendition inspired by New Kingdom tomb paintings) |
| caption = The [[Egyptian pantheon|Egyptian god]] Anubis (a modern rendition inspired by New Kingdom tomb paintings) |
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| god_of = '''Protector of the dead and embalming |
| god_of = '''Protector of the dead and embalming'''{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=21}} |
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| hiro = <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero> |
| hiro = <hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero> |
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| cult_center = [[Asyut|Lycopolis]], [[Cynopolis]] |
| cult_center = [[Asyut|Lycopolis]], [[Cynopolis]] |
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| symbol = the [[Imiut fetish|fetish]], the [[flail]] |
| symbol = the [[Imiut fetish|fetish]], the [[crook and flail|flail]] |
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| parents = [[Nephthys]] and [[Set (mythology)|Set]] ([[Ra]] or [[Osiris]]) |
| parents = [[Nephthys]] and [[Set (mythology)|Set]] ([[Ra]] or [[Osiris]]) |
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| siblings = [[Horus]] (in some accounts) |
| siblings = [[Horus]] (in some accounts) |
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| offspring = [[Kebechet]] and sometimes [[Ammut]] |
| offspring = [[Kebechet]] and sometimes [[Ammut]] |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Anubis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|'|n|uː|b|ə|s}} or {{IPAc-en|ə|'|n|j|uː|b|ə|s}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{lang-grc|Ἄνουβις}}) is the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] name |
'''Anubis''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|'|n|uː|b|ə|s}} or {{IPAc-en|ə|'|n|j|uː|b|ə|s}};<ref>''Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition''. Merriam-Webster, 2007. p. 56</ref> {{lang-grc|Ἄνουβις}}) is the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] name of a [[Cynocephaly|jackal-headed]] god associated with [[mummy|mummification]] and the [[Afterlife#Ancient Egypt|afterlife]] in [[ancient Egyptian religion]]. |
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Like many ancient [[List of Egyptian gods|Egyptian deities]], Anubis assumes different roles in various contexts - however, his primary role was as a [[psychopomp|god who ushered soul into the afterlife]]. Anubis attends the [[weighing scale]] in the [[Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife|afterlife]] during the "Weighing of the Heart," where it is determined whether or not a soul can enter the realm of the dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_image.aspx?image=ps343850.jpg&retpage=15522 |title=Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Ani |publisher=Britishmuseum.org |accessdate=2012-06-15}}</ref> In this manner, he was a Lord of the [[Underworld]], a role in which he was later replaced by [[Osiris]]. Despite being "one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods" in the [[Egyptian pantheon]], he played almost no role in [[Egyptian myths]].{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}} |
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Anubis' wife is a goddess called [[Anput]]. His daughter is the goddess [[Kebechet]]. |
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Anubis was associated with the mummification and protection of the dead for their journey into the afterlife. |
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He was usually portrayed as a half human – half [[jackal]], or in full jackal form wearing a ribbon and holding a [[flail]] in the crook of its arm.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |title=Ancient Egypt: the Mythology - Anubis |publisher=Egyptianmyths.net |accessdate=2012-06-15}}</ref> The jackal [Note: recent genetic studies show that the Egyptian jackal is actually a form of the grey wolf and it has thus been renamed the "Egyptian Wolf"<ref name="http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/anubis-not-egyptian-jackal-but-african.html#.UVdZ_TfNs1c |title=Anubis Not Egyptian Jackal but African Wolf |publisher=archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk |accessdate=2011-01-26}}</ref>] was strongly associated with cemeteries in ancient Egypt, since it was a scavenger which threatened to uncover human bodies and eat their flesh.<ref name="Freeman, op. cit., p.91">Freeman, op. cit., p.91.</ref> The distinctive black color of Anubis "did not have to do with the jackal [per se] but with the color of rotting flesh and with the black soil of the Nile valley, symbolizing rebirth."<ref name="Freeman, op. cit., p.91"/> The only known depiction of him in fully human form is in the tomb of [[Ramesses II]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].<ref>[http://www.ancient-egypt.org/index.html Ancient Egypt]</ref> |
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Anubis is associated with [[Wepwawet]], another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form. As opposed to Anubis, Wepwawet (also called Upuaut) had grey or white fur. Anubis, being a representative of the underworld, is depicted in black. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined.{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=145}} |
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Anubis is depicted in funerary contexts where he is shown attending to the [[mummies]] of the deceased or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. In fact, during embalming, the "head embalmer" wore an Anubis costume. The critical weighing of the heart scene in the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' also shows Anubis performing the measurement that determined the worthiness of the deceased to enter the realm of the dead (the [[underworld]], known as ''[[Duat]]''). [[New Kingdom]] tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the [[nine bows]] that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.<ref name=Wilkinson /> |
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== |
==Name== |
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"Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's Egyptian name.{{sfn|Coulter|Turner|2000|p=58}}<ref name="AE.net"/> In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] (c. 2686 BC – c. 2181 BC), the standard way of writing his name in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] was composed of the sound '''''inpw''''' followed by a jackal over a ''[[Hotep|ḥtp]]'' sign:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} |
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One of the roles of Anubis was "Guardian of the Scales".<ref>{{cite book|last=Faulkner|first=Raymond O.|title=The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day|date=1 April 2008|edition=Reprint|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-0-8118-6489-3|page=155|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=La9K8fp-BcMC&pg=PA155&dq=anubis+scales#v=onepage&q=anubis%20scales&f=false|author2=arol Andrews |author3=James Wasserman }}</ref> Deciding the weight of "truth" by weighing the heart against [[Ma'at]], who was often depicted as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. In this manner, he was a Lord of the Underworld, only usurped by Osiris. |
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<hiero>i-n:p-w-C6</hiero> |
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A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter:{{sfn|Leprohon|1990|p=164, citing {{harvnb|Fischer|1968|p=84}} and {{harvnb|Lapp|1986|pp=8–9}}}} |
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<hiero>i-n:p-w-E16</hiero> |
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According to the [[Akkadian]] transcription in the [[Amarna letters]], Anubis' name (''inpw'') was vocalized in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] as '''Anapa'''.{{sfn|Conder|1894|p=[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=anubis++%22anapa%22&source=bl&ots=5nBsMefFwm&sig=KZhSVYhr1i3OuilTPhobRHmLDZ8&hl=en&ei=PgPATZq0JcHVgQey_5SnBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=anubis%20%20%22anapa%22&f=false 85]}} |
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⚫ | In the [[Osiris myth]], Anubis helped Isis |
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==History== |
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==Perceptions outside Egypt== |
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{{Ancient Egyptian religion}} |
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In Egypt's [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic period]] (c. 3100 – c. 2686 BC), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a jackal head and body.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=262}} A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of [[Hor-Aha]], [[Djer]], and other pharaohs of the [[First Dynasty]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|pp=280–81}} Since [[Predynastic Egypt]], when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh.{{sfnm|Wilkinson|1999|1p=262 (burials in shallow graves in Predynastic Egypt)|Freeman|1997|2p=91 (rest of the information)}} In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=262 ("fighting like with like")}} |
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The oldest known textual mention of Anubis is in the [[Pyramid Texts]] of the [[Old Kingdom]] (c. 2686 – c. 2181 BC), where he is associated with the [[Ancient Egyptian burial customs|burial]] of the [[pharaoh]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|pp=188–90}} |
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⚫ | Although the Greeks and [[Ancient Romans|Romans]] typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was |
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In the [[Old Kingdom]], Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by [[Osiris]] during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2000–1700 BC).{{sfn|Freeman|1997|p=91}} In the [[History of Roman Egypt|Roman era]], which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=166–67}} |
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In early mythology, Anubis was portrayed as a son of [[Ra]]. Anubis' parentage changes over time, [[Nephthys]] becomes his mother in later myths, while his father is said to be either [[Set (mythology)|Set]] or Osiris. |
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The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of [[Ra]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} In the [[Coffin Texts]], which were written in the [[First Intermediate Period]] (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess [[Hesat]] or the cat-headed [[Bastet]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} Another tradition depicted him as the son of his father Ra and mother [[Nephthys]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=25}} The Greek [[Plutarch]] (c. 40–120 AD) stated that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and [[Osiris]], but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife [[Isis]]:{{sfn|Gryglewski|2002|p=146}} |
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The weighing of the heart ceremony was an important factor of the Egyptian mythology. In this ceremony, the heart was weighed by Anubis, against an ostrich feather representing [[Maat]] or truth. If the heart was heavier than the feather the soul would be devoured by [[Ammit]].<ref>http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx</ref> |
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==Misconceptions in popular media== |
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{{centered pull quote|''For when Isis found out that Osiris loved her sister and had sexual relations with her in mistaking her sister for herself, and when she saw a proof of it in the form of a garland of clover that he had left to Nephthys - she was looking for a baby, because Nephthys abandoned it at once after it had been born for fear of Seth; and when Isis found the baby helped by the dogs which with great difficulties lead her there, she raised him and he became her guard and ally by the name of Anubis.''|author=}} |
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The 2008 comic documentary [[Religulous]] refers to Anubis as "Anup the Baptizer", and says that he performed baptisms in Egyptian mythology. There is no evidence for baptism, and it is widely held by [[Egyptologist]]s that Anubis' role was associated with the mummification and protection of the dead for their journey into the afterlife. Anubis and [[Wepwawet]] (Upuaut) led the deceased to the halls of [[Maat]] where they would be judged. Anubis oversaw the process and ensured that the weighing of the heart was conducted correctly. He then led the innocent on to a heavenly existence and abandoned the guilty to [[Ammit]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_image.aspx?image=ps343850.jpg&retpage=15522 |title=Gods of Ancient Egypt: Anubis |publisher=Britishmuseum.org |accessdate=2012-06-15}}<!-- Bot generated title --></ref> |
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George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the [[Osiris myth|Osirian pantheon]]."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} An Egyptian papyrus from the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]] (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis."{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=26}} |
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⚫ | In the [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic]] period (350–30 BC), when Egypt became a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdom ruled by Greek pharaohs, Anubis was merged with the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]].{{sfn|Peacock|2000|pp=437–38 (Hellenistic kingdom)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.babylon.com/definition/Hermanubis/English |title=Hermanubis | English | Dictionary & Translation by Babylon |publisher=Babylon.com |accessdate=2012-06-15}}</ref> The two gods were considered similar because they both [[psychopomp|guided souls]] to the afterlife.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|p=166}} The center of this [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/ [[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of "[[The Golden Ass]]" by [[Apuleius]], there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. |
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⚫ | Although the Greeks and [[Ancient Romans|Romans]] typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with [[Sirius]] in the heavens and [[Cerberus]] in [[Hades]].{{sfn|Hoerber|1963|p=269 (for Cerberus in Hades)}} In his dialogues, [[Plato]] often has [[Socrates]] utter [[oath]]s "by the dog" (''kai me ton kuna''), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld.<ref>E.g., ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'', 482b ({{harvnb|Blackwood|Crossett|Long|1962|p=318}}), or ''[[The Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]'', 399e, 567e, 592a ({{harvnb|Hoerber|1963|p=268}}).</ref> |
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===Protector of tombs=== |
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In contrast to real jackals, Anubis was a protector of [[grave]]s and [[cemeteries]]. Several epithets attached to his name in [[Ancient Egyptian literature|Egyptian texts and inscriptions]] referred to that role. ''Khenty-imentiu'', which means "foremost of the westerners" and later became the name of a [[Khenti-Amentiu|different jackal god]], alluded to his protecting function because the dead were usually buried on the west bank of the Nile.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=23}} He took other names in connection with his funerary role, such as "He who is upon his mountain" (''tepy-dju-ef'') – keeping guard over tombs from above – and "Lord of the sacred land" (''neb-ta-djeser''), which designates him as a god of the desert [[necropolis]].{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1pp=23–24|Wilkinson|2003|2pp=188–90}} |
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Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Gods of Ancient Egypt – Anubis|url=http://www.touregypt.net/godsofegypt/anubis.htm|publisher=touregypt.net|accessdate=2014-06-29}}</ref> |
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===Embalmer=== |
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As "He who is in the place of [[embalming]]" (''imy-ut''), Anubis was associated with [[mummification]]. He was also called "He who presides over the god's pavilion" (''khanty-she-netjer''), in which "pavilion" could be refer either to the place where embalming was carried out, or the pharaoh's burial chamber.{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1pp=23–24|Wilkinson|2003|2pp=188–90}} |
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⚫ | In the [[Osiris myth]], Anubis helped Isis to embalm Osiris.{{sfn|Freeman|1997|p=91}} Indeed, when the Osiris myth emerged, it was said that after Osiris had been killed by Set, Osiris's organs were given to Anubis as a gift. With this connection, Anubis became the patron god of embalmers; during the rites of mummification, illustrations from the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' often show a jackal-mask-wearing priest supporting the upright mummy. |
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[[File:BD Hunefer cropped 1.jpg|thumb|The "weighing of the heart," from the book of the dead of [[Hunefer]]. Anubis is portrayed as both guiding the deceased forward and manipulating the scales, under the scrutiny of the ibis-headed [[Thoth]].]] |
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One of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales."{{sfn|Faulkner|Andrews|Wasserman|2008|p=[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=La9K8fp-BcMC&pg=PA155&dq=anubis+scales#v=onepage&q=anubis%20scales&f=false 155]}} The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'', shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the [[underworld]], known as ''[[Duat]]''). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against [[Ma'at]] (or "truth"), who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by [[Ammit]], but souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Museum Explorer / Death in Ancient Egypt – Weighing the heart|publisher=[[British Museum]]|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/young_explorers/discover/museum_explorer/ancient_egypt/death/weighing_the_heart.aspx|accessdate=2014-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aes/p/book_of_the_dead_of_ani.aspx|title=Gods of Ancient Egypt: Anubis |publisher=Britishmuseum.org |accessdate=2012-06-15}}<!-- Bot generated title --></ref> |
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===Guide of souls=== |
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By the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|late pharaonic era]] (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the [[Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife|afterlife]].{{sfnm|Kinsley|1989|1p=178|Riggs|2005|2p=166 ("The motif of Anubis, or less frequently Hathor, leading the deceased to the afterlife was well-established in Egyptian art and thought by the end of the pharaonic era.")}} Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed [[Hathor]], Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=127 and 166}} Greek writers from the [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman period]] of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "[[psychopomp]]", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god [[Hermes]], who also played that role in [[ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]].{{sfn|Riggs|2005|p=166}} [[Funerary art#Ancient Egypt and Nubia|Funerary art]] from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the present of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld.{{sfn|Riggs|2005|pp=127–28 and 166–67}} |
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[[File:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|thumb|A crouching or "recumbent" [[Anubis Shrine|statue of Anubis]] as a black-coated jackal (from the [[KV62|Tomb of Tutankhamun]])]] |
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Anubis was one of the most frequently represented gods in [[Art of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian art]].{{sfn|Johnston|2004|p=579}} In the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|early dynastic period]], he was depicted in animal form, as a black jackal.{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=263}} Recent genetic studies show that the [[Egyptian jackal]] is actually a subspecies of the grey wolf, and it has thus been renamed the "Egyptian wolf".<ref name="http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk/2011/01/anubis-not-egyptian-jackal-but-african.html#.UVdZ_TfNs1c |title=Anubis Not Egyptian Jackal but African Wolf |publisher=archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.co.uk |accessdate=2011-01-26}}</ref> Anubis' distinctive black color did not represent the coat of real jackals or wolves, but it had several symbolic meanings.{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} First it represented "the discolouration of the corpse after its treatment with [[natron]] and the smearing of the wrappings with a resinous substance during mummification".{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}} Being the color of the fertile [[silt]] of the [[Nile|River Nile]], to Egyptians black also symbolized fertility and the possibility of rebirth in the afterlife.{{sfnm|Hart|1986|1p=22|Freeman|1997|2p=91}} |
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Later{{when|date=June 2014}} Anubis was often portrayed as a jackal-headed human.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptianmyths.net/anubis.htm |title=Ancient Egypt: the Mythology – Anubis |publisher=Egyptianmyths.net |accessdate=2012-06-15}}</ref> An extremely rare depiction of him in [[anthropomorphism|fully human form]] was found in the tomb of [[Ramesses II]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]].{{sfn|Hart|1986|p=22}}<ref name="AE.net">{{cite web|title=Gods and Religion in Ancient Egypt – Anubis|publisher=|url=http://www.ancient-egypt.org/religion/gods/anubis.html|accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref> |
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Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a ''nekhakha'' "[[crook and flail|flail]]" in the crook of his arm.<ref name="Egyptianmyths.net"/> Another of Anubis's attributes was the [[Imiut fetish]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1999|p=281}} |
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In funerary contexts, Anubis is shown either attending to a deceased person's mummy or sitting atop a tomb protecting it. [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] tomb-seals also depict Anubis sitting atop the [[nine bows]] that symbolize his domination over the enemies of Egypt.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|pp=188–90}} |
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==Gallery== |
==Gallery== |
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<center><gallery> |
<center><gallery caption="" widths="200px" heights="170px" perrow="5"> |
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File: |
File:RPM Ägypten 186.jpg|Anubis mask<br>([[Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim]]) |
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File:RPM Ägypten 186.jpg|Anubis mask, [[Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim]] |
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</gallery></center> |
</gallery></center> |
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==See also== |
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* [[Anubis Shrine]] |
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* [[Egyptian jackal]] |
* [[Egyptian jackal]] |
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* [[Egyptian mythology in popular culture]] |
* [[Egyptian mythology in popular culture]] |
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* Other Egyptian deities with canine features: [[Khentyimentiu]], [[Sed festival|Sed]], [[Wepwawet]] |
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{{Portal bar|Ancient Egypt|Death|Mythology|Religion}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==Bibliography== |
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*{{citation|last1=Blackwood|first1=Russell|last2=Crossett|first2=John|last3=Long|first3=Herbert|year=1962|title=Gorgias 482b|journal=The Classical Journal|volume=57|issue=7|pages=318–19|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3295283|others={{subscription required|via=[[JSTOR]]}}|postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Conder|first=Claude Reignier (trans.)|author-link=Claude Reignier Conder|year=1894|origyear=1893|title=The Tell Amarna Tablets|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=OzIB5P77q8UC|location=London|publisher=Published for the Committee of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]] by A.P. Watt|postscript=.|edition=Second}} |
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*{{citation |last1=Coulter|first1=Charles Russell|last2=Turner|first2=Patricia|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |location=Jefferson (NC) and London|publisher= McFarland |year=2000 |ISBN= 0-7864-0317-9 |postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Faulkner|first=Raymond O.|title=The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day|year=2008|publisher=Chronicle Books|isbn=978-0-8118-6489-3|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=La9K8fp-BcMC|first2=Carol|last2=Andrews |first3=James|last3=Wasserman|postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Fischer|first=Henry George|year=1968|title=[[Dendera Temple complex|Dendera]] in the Third Millennium B. C., Down to the Theban Domination of Upper Egypt|location=London|publisher=J.J. Augustin|isbn=|url=|postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Freeman|first=Charles|year=1997|title=The Legacy of Ancient Egypt|location=New York|publisher=Facts on File|isbn=0-816-03656-X|postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Johnston|first=Sarah Iles (general ed.)|year=2004|title=Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=Belknap Press|url=http://www.questia.com/read/117774855/religions-of-the-ancient-world-a-guide|others={{subscription required|via=[[Questia]]}}|isbn=0-674-01517-7|postscript=.}} |
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*{{citation|last=Lapp|first=Günther|year=1986|title=Die Opferformel des Alten Reiches: unter Berücksichtigung einiger späterer Formen|trans-title=The offering formula of the Old Kingdom: considering a few later forms|location=Mainz am Rhein|url=http://books.google.cn/books?id=e1crAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Zabern|isbn=3805308728|postscript=.}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{commons|Anubis|Anubis}} |
{{commons|Anubis|Anubis}} |
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{{wiktionary|Anubis}} |
{{wiktionary|Anubis}} |
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*[http://www.archaeowiki.org/Anubis Anubis |
*[http://www.archaeowiki.org/Anubis Anubis – Archaeowiki.org] |
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{{Ancient Egyptian religion footer}} |
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