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==Historical Background of Sinophobic Sentiments== |
==Historical Background of Sinophobic Sentiments== |
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Largely drawn to the Chinese empire's persistent existence over a vast (somewhat overreaching) territory in East Asia employing a system of bureaucracy relying on self-efficiency (Confucianism) from plebeian, Chinese society has shown sign of declining vitality in both military ambition and individual creativity in the last two millennia. Even as Han as highly heterogeneous and ever-evolving ethnic identity, however its major cultural identity was defined in its classic time before 3rd century B.C., thus casting a long shadow for other ethnic cultures within the territory to fertilize. A few major military success in subduing China proper by [[Mongol]] (1271), [[Manchu]] (1644) and Japan (1937) powers further consolidated subconscious fear in the modern Chinese society. Industrial revolution has brought shocking impact for Chinese society under Manchu rule to find reasons to be perceived as a society living in the remote past. Growing resentment from outside world against general values of Chinese society since the successful western colonization or westernization in the surrounding countries has left the large empire unconquered but deeply isolated. The pan-Chinese [[Sinosphere]] including Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Burma had successively taken opportunities to wean from Chinese influence as sign of their own national maturity, some nations including Japan had employed cultural repellent sentiments to quicken their own cultural advancement. By the end of 19th century, internal chaos of China in both civil life and the Manchu regime reached the point of dysfunction, giving rise to quick popularization of negative images of Chinese as representation of a corrupt and undesirable state of living. That was done both overseas by Chinese export of coastal farmers as labours, and in China proper by quick adaptation of western elitism. |
Largely drawn to the Chinese empire's persistent existence over a vast (somewhat overreaching) territory in East Asia employing a system of bureaucracy relying on self-efficiency ([[Confucianism]]) from plebeian, Chinese society has shown sign of declining vitality in both military ambition and individual creativity in the last two millennia. Even as Han as highly heterogeneous and ever-evolving ethnic identity, however its major cultural identity was defined in its classic time before 3rd century B.C., thus casting a long shadow for other ethnic cultures within the territory to fertilize. A few major military success in subduing China proper by [[Mongol]] (1271), [[Manchu]] (1644) and Japan (1937) powers further consolidated subconscious fear in the modern Chinese society. Industrial revolution has brought shocking impact for Chinese society under Manchu rule to find reasons to be perceived as a society living in the remote past. Growing resentment from outside world against general values of Chinese society since the successful western colonization or westernization in the surrounding countries has left the large empire unconquered but deeply isolated. The pan-Chinese [[Sinosphere]] including Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Burma had successively taken opportunities to wean from Chinese influence as sign of their own national maturity, some nations including Japan had employed cultural repellent sentiments to quicken their own cultural advancement. By the end of 19th century, internal chaos of China in both civil life and the Manchu regime reached the point of dysfunction, giving rise to quick popularization of negative images of Chinese as representation of a corrupt and undesirable state of living. That was done both overseas by Chinese export of coastal farmers as labours, and in China proper by quick adaptation of western elitism. |
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20th Century has seen China struggling to define itself in successive panic reactions to its social dysfunction and world isolation. Communism gained a stronger foothold in a series of nationalistic panic in mid 1930s. With crumbling down of communism ideologies, social dysfunction resurfaced in 1980s, giving rise to another wave of negative sentiments in China-bashing. This time, it took the double-effect |
20th Century has seen China struggling to define itself in successive panic reactions to its social dysfunction and world isolation. Communism gained a stronger foothold in a series of nationalistic panic in mid 1930s. With crumbling down of communism ideologies, social dysfunction resurfaced in 1980s, giving rise to another wave of negative sentiments in China-bashing. This time, it took the double-effect: communism bashing along with the tradition of Yellow Peril complex. |
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==Southeast Asia== |
==Southeast Asia== |
Revision as of 06:48, 3 July 2006
Sinophobia is a consistent hostility toward people of Chinese origin, and may also refer to hostility towards China's culture or history and government. The term describes the actions and attitudes of individuals as well as the policies and pronouncements of governments and other organizations.
Sinophobic attitudes often have Chinese minorities outside of China proper as their target. This is true both in Asia (historically and in the modern era) and in the West. In this sense, the term essentially denotes an ethnic bigotry, often complicated by the economic and political exigencies of immigration and majority-minority relations. Where it is directed at the country itself, anti-Chinese sentiment may or may not qualify as an ethnic or racial prejudice, as criticisms of the Communist Party of China are not necessarily meant to impugn the Chinese population per se. One obvious example is protests against the PRC government by supporters of Taiwan independence.
Historical Background of Sinophobic Sentiments
Largely drawn to the Chinese empire's persistent existence over a vast (somewhat overreaching) territory in East Asia employing a system of bureaucracy relying on self-efficiency (Confucianism) from plebeian, Chinese society has shown sign of declining vitality in both military ambition and individual creativity in the last two millennia. Even as Han as highly heterogeneous and ever-evolving ethnic identity, however its major cultural identity was defined in its classic time before 3rd century B.C., thus casting a long shadow for other ethnic cultures within the territory to fertilize. A few major military success in subduing China proper by Mongol (1271), Manchu (1644) and Japan (1937) powers further consolidated subconscious fear in the modern Chinese society. Industrial revolution has brought shocking impact for Chinese society under Manchu rule to find reasons to be perceived as a society living in the remote past. Growing resentment from outside world against general values of Chinese society since the successful western colonization or westernization in the surrounding countries has left the large empire unconquered but deeply isolated. The pan-Chinese Sinosphere including Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Burma had successively taken opportunities to wean from Chinese influence as sign of their own national maturity, some nations including Japan had employed cultural repellent sentiments to quicken their own cultural advancement. By the end of 19th century, internal chaos of China in both civil life and the Manchu regime reached the point of dysfunction, giving rise to quick popularization of negative images of Chinese as representation of a corrupt and undesirable state of living. That was done both overseas by Chinese export of coastal farmers as labours, and in China proper by quick adaptation of western elitism.
20th Century has seen China struggling to define itself in successive panic reactions to its social dysfunction and world isolation. Communism gained a stronger foothold in a series of nationalistic panic in mid 1930s. With crumbling down of communism ideologies, social dysfunction resurfaced in 1980s, giving rise to another wave of negative sentiments in China-bashing. This time, it took the double-effect: communism bashing along with the tradition of Yellow Peril complex.
Southeast Asia
Beyond Sinosphere countries, in tradition China Empire had maintained little interest or influence over. However a small portion of Chinese population from the trading coastal provinces and Hakka Clan Wars refugees had made huge impact on the Southeastern economies. Populations wise they reached a majority in Singapore, a large minority in Malaysia, and minorities of less than 5% in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand amongst others. The stronge tradition of trading and clan-style self-reliance did bring them into a tradition of controlling much capital and general economic activity in these countries, often compared to Jews in Europe, and in a similar sense encouraging a different kind of Sinophobic sentiments. One study of Chinese as a "market-dominant minority" notes that: "Chinese market dominance and intense resentment amongst the indigenous majority is characteristic of virtually every country in Southeast Asia." (Chua, 2003, pg. 61)[Full citation needed] In the countries with small Chinese minorities, the economic disparity is remarkable: with 1% of the population in the Philippines and 3% in Indonesia, Chinese controlled 60% and 70% of the nations' private economy, respectively, in 1998 (Chua, pg. 3, pg. 43)[Full citation needed]. Similar statistics hold in Vietnam and Burma.
This radically asymmetrical economic position has often created explosive anti-Chinese sentiment amongst the poorer majorities. This has led to violence, such as in 1969 in Malaysia and in 1998 in Indonesia, where more than 2000 people died in rioting [1]. In the Philippines hundreds of Chinese are kidnapped every year and often killed regardless of a ransom—a problem the poor, ethnic Filipino, police are often indifferent to (Chua, pp. 1-5)[Full citation needed]. The government of Malaysia is constitutionally obliged to uphold the privileged status of the Bumiputra, at the expense of but not limited to ethnic Chinese.
Japan
Sinophobia is especially common in Japan. While Japan was maturing under Tokugawa shogunate into a modern aristocracy society, a belief in superiority over Chinese was promoted, theorized as the contemporary Chinese society was not made of the Chinese blood of the classic time, from which Japan had founded the base of own culture.
Meiji Restoration (1866 – 1869) has made Japan an industrial power ready for colonization abroad, timely enough, China was sinking into the deepest state of dysfunction. That has provided further ground for Japanese education system depicting Chinese as sub-specie, encouraging Nazism and racism among Japanese citizens. While Japan finally embraced Nazism in 1930s, the planned military attacks on China proper were meant to be as brutal as the Mongol attacks. These Sinophobic sentiments helped to materialize the Imperial soldiers commit atrocities in massive scale against the Chinese, officially began with the Nanking Massacre.
In the post-war Japan under American protection, occupier's policy was general tolerance and encouragement for Japan's cultural integrity. Unlike Germany, Japan government had oppotunity to retain the tradition in education system a culture of anti-Sino sentiments, inclining to the western sinophobia, though deprived of the world Yellow, often referring Chinese in borrowed word “Chino” instead of the high classic name of ‘Chiugo’.
The persistent Sinophobia in Japan society has shaken considerably Chinese national's confidence in establishing peace with Japanese citizens, resulting considerable uproar of nationalism sentiments. See Fenqing
In the West
China has figured in the Western imagination for more than two millennia in a variety of ways: positively, as an inventive, well-organized alternative civilization and negatively as a monolithic and repressive society.
The dramatic change of western imagination towards China from the flamboyant Marco Polo's Travel (which was written under the deep traumatic time of Mongol conquer) to universal resentments happened during the unsuccessful expansion of East Indian Company in China Empire under the Manchu rule. Later successful attempts in exporting opium into China Empire and a series of other commercial success had shone light to Europeans that behind the glory of classics of Chinese culture, a dysfunctional state was completely exposed for manipulation for commercial and cultural gain. As it shows until late 20th century, China had failed to come back from the cultural disintegration and lack of originality and articulation in its plebeian level.
The Sinophobic sentiments populated in the west further, with the presence of China as the outstandingly ambivalent immigration source for the west. The largest volume of immigrants to North America were attracted by western wages, offered by large railway companies. Sinophobic policies (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy) and pronouncements on the "yellow peril" were in evidence as late as the mid-20th century in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
For white Sinophobic resentments please see Sinophobes.
Central Asia
In Russia’s Siberia and the Russian Far East, a tradition of dispute over territorial rights is thinly woven under the conflicts between two largely competing heterogeneous cultures over the limited resources. Further than that, there is a fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas [2] [3].
In Central Asia muslin states where Han culture has taken little foothold, growing resentment towards Chinese culture is used politically for own cultural maturation. In some cases, to encourage independence of ethnic states from the vast territory of China, most prominently, Eastern Turkistan and Tibet (more leaning towards Indian subcontinent cultural support).
International Phenomena
Internationally, China's booming economy and tremendous growth in power has been the subject of much speculation and apprehension with many believing that China could soon be in a position to challenge the United States as the sole superpower. Many are uneasy with the prospect of burgeoning Chinese hegemony as a country controlled by an unelected, single-party communist state.
There is a new level of resentments from the other victim countries of globalization in competition of labour intensive manufacturing base. Many countries have experienced drastic loss of competitiveness as more manufacturing facilities are being relocated into China for its self-reliance, stable labour supply and favourable government lameness.
Meanwhile China’s increasing encouragement of immigration drives waves of immigrant into developing countries in Latin America and Eastern Block, as well as major industrial nations. Their apparent difference from local cultures as result of isolated cultural malnutrition and underdeveloped communication skills has encouraged local Sinophobic sentiments often to violence. A number of massive ransacking of Chinese business and personal attacks have been reported, causing Chinese government increasingly aware of its nationals unsettling state abroad. However, much blame on political situation of China itself is adding more flavour into the Sinophobia in popular western culture.