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{{redirect|Roman architecture|the architecture of the city|Architecture of Rome}} |
{{redirect|Roman architecture|the architecture of the city|Architecture of Rome}} |
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[[File:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Colosseum]] in Rome, Italy]] |
[[File:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Colosseum]] in Rome, Italy]] |
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'''Ancient Roman architecture''' is |
'''Ancient Roman architecture''' is based on different aspects of [[Ancient Greek architecture]] and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to create a new [[architecture|architectural]] style. Roman architecture flourished throughout the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] during the [[Pax Romana]]. |
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Roman architecture flourished throughout the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] during the [[Pax Romana]]. |
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Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the [[Roman Republic]] in |
Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the [[Roman Republic]] in 509 BC, to about the 4th century, after which it becomes reclassified as [[Late Antique]] or [[Byzantine architecture]]. Most of the many survivals are from the later imperial period. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former empire for many centuries, and the style beginning in Western Europe about 1000 is called [[Romanesque architecture]] to reflect this dependence on basic Roman forms. |
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== |
== History == |
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=== Background === |
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Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] and [[arch]]es, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. |
Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] and [[arch]]es, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. |
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Examples include the [[aqueducts of Rome]], the [[Baths of Diocletian]] and the [[Baths of Caracalla]], the [[basilica]]s and [[Colosseum]]. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the [[town wall]]s of [[Lugo]] in [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], or northern Spain. |
Examples include the [[aqueducts of Rome]], the [[Baths of Diocletian]] and the [[Baths of Caracalla]], the [[basilica]]s and [[Colosseum]]. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the [[town wall]]s of [[Lugo]] in [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], or northern Spain. |
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The Ancient Romans intended that public buildings should be made to impress, as well as perform a public function. The Romans did not feel restricted by [[Culture of Greece|Greek]] [[aesthetic]] [[axioms]] alone in order to achieve these objectives.{{citation needed|date=May 2008}} The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] is an example of this, particularly in the version rebuilt by [[Hadrian]], which remains perfectly preserved, and which over the centuries has served, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, as the inspiration for countless public buildings.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chin|first1=Kaitlin|title=The Pantheon| |
The Ancient Romans intended that public buildings should be made to impress, as well as perform a public function. The Romans did not feel restricted by [[Culture of Greece|Greek]] [[aesthetic]] [[axioms]] alone in order to achieve these objectives.{{citation needed|date=May 2008}} The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] is an example of this, particularly in the version rebuilt by [[Hadrian]], which remains perfectly preserved, and which over the centuries has served, particularly in the Western Hemisphere, as the inspiration for countless public buildings.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chin|first1=Kaitlin|title=The Pantheon|url=http://people.umass.edu/latour/Italy/Pantheon/|website=Landscape Architecture Study Tour|accessdate=11 September 2014}}</ref> The same emperor left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in [[Scotland]], the [[Antonine Wall]] was built to replace [[Hadrian's Wall]]. |
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=== Influences === |
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The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] were indebted to their [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, such as [[hydraulics]] in the construction of arches. The Romans absorbed the Greek Architectural influence both directly (e.g. [[Magna Grecia]]) and indirectly (e.g. Etruscan Architecture was itself influenced by the Greeks). The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the [[Triclinium]] in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. The Romans were also known to employ Greek craftsmen and engineers to construct Roman buildings. |
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=== Roman Architectural Revolution === |
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[[File:Pantheon dome.jpg|thumb|The Roman [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] was the [[List of largest domes|largest dome in the world]] for more than a millennium,<ref name=PBSO>{{cite web|title=BUILDING BIG: Pantheon|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/wonder/structure/pantheon.html|website=[[PBS]]|accessdate=17 September 2014}}</ref> and is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome to this day<ref>{{cite web|title=The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete|url=http://www.romanconcrete.com/|website=Roman Concrete|accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref>]] |
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The [[Roman Architectural Revolution]], also known as the ''Concrete Revolution'',{{sfn|DeLaine|1990|p=407}}{{sfn|Rook|1992|pp=18f.}}{{sfn|Gardner|2005|p=170}} was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the [[arch]], [[Vault (architecture)|vault]], and [[dome]]. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included [[List of Roman amphitheatres|amphitheatres]], [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], [[Thermae|baths]], [[List of Roman bridges|bridges]], [[Circus (building)#List of Roman circuses|circuses]], [[List of Roman dams and reservoirs|dams]], [[List of Roman domes|domes]], [[Roman harbour|harbours]], and [[Roman temple|temples]]. |
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A crucial factor in this development that saw [[List of ancient architectural records|a trend to monumental architecture]] was the invention of [[Roman concrete]] (''opus caementicium''), which led to the liberation of the shape from the dictate of the traditional materials of stone and brick.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1956}} |
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== Architectural features == |
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==The arch and the dome== |
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[[File:Pantheon oculus.jpg|thumb|right|Dome of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], inner view]] |
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[[File:AcueductoSegovia edit1.jpg|thumb|The [[Aqueduct of Segovia]], Spain]] |
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{{Main|Roman aqueduct|Roman bridge|List of Roman domes}} |
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The Roman use of the [[arch]] and their improvements in the use of [[concrete]] and bricks facilitated the building of the many [[aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]] throughout the [[Roman Empire|empire]], such as the [[Aqueduct of Segovia]] and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Anio Novus]]. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the [[Puente Romano (Mérida)|Puente Romano]] at [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]] in Spain, and the [[Pont Julian]] and the bridge at [[Vaison-la-Romaine]], both in Provence, France. |
The Roman use of the [[arch]] and their improvements in the use of [[concrete]] and bricks facilitated the building of the many [[aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]] throughout the [[Roman Empire|empire]], such as the [[Aqueduct of Segovia]] and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Anio Novus]]. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the [[Puente Romano (Mérida)|Puente Romano]] at [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]] in Spain, and the [[Pont Julian]] and the bridge at [[Vaison-la-Romaine]], both in Provence, France. |
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The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented it in their own building. An arch transmits load evenly and is still commonly used in architecture today. |
The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented it in their own building. An arch transmits load evenly and is still commonly used in architecture today. |
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=== Mosaics === |
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On return from campaigns in Greece, the general [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early [[Roman Empire|imperial period]]: the [[mosaic]], a decoration of colourful chips of stone inserted into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known [[mural]] in decorating floors, walls, and [[grotto]]es in [[geometry|geometric]] and [[image|pictorial]] designs. |
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There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mosaic: ''[[opus vermiculatum]]'' used tiny ''[[tesserae]]'', typically cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in workshops in relatively small panels which were transported to the site glued to some temporary support. The tiny ''tesserae'' allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called ''emblemata'' were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique was ''[[opus tessellatum]]'', using larger tesserae, which was laid on site.{{sfn|Smith|1983|pp=116–119}} There was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work{{sfn|Smith|1983|pp=121–123}} (see the dog at the upper left). |
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A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name ''asaroton'' (Greek "unswept floor"). It represented optical illusion of the feast leftovers on the floor of reach houses.{{sfn|Miller|1972}} |
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=== Hypocaust === |
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A [[hypocaust]] was an ancient Roman system of [[underfloor heating]], used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century B.C., attributes their invention to [[Sergius Orata]]. Many remains of Roman hypocausts have survived throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of modern [[central heating]]. |
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Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths ([[thermae]]), houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called [[pilae stacks]], with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the [[furnace]] would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room. |
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=== Roman roofs === |
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{{see|List of ancient Greek and Roman roofs}} |
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In [[Magna Graecia|Sicily]] truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550 BC.{{sfn|Hodge|1960|p=38–44}}Their potential was fully realized in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] period which saw over 30 m wide trussed roofs spanning the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings such as [[Roman temple|temples]], [[basilica]]s, and later [[Church (building)|churches]]. Such spans were thrice as large as the widest prop-and-lintel roofs and only superseded by the largest [[List of Roman domes|Roman domes]]{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|pp=148f}} |
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The largest [[truss]] roof by span of Ancient Rome covered the [[Flavian Palace|Aula Regia]] (throne room) built for emperor [[Domitian]] (81–96 AD) on the [[Palatine Hill]], Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting: Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted [[Basilica of Maxentius]].{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|pp=148f}} |
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=== Spiral stairs === |
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{{see|List of ancient spiral stairs}} |
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The [[Stairway#Spiral and helical stairs|spiral stair]] is a type of [[stairway]] which, due to its complex [[helical]] structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC,{{sfn|Beckmann|2002}} it was only in the wake of the influential design of the [[Trajan's Column]] that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.{{sfn|Beckmann|2002|p=353–356}} |
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Apart from the [[triumphal column]]s in the imperial cities of [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]], other types of buildings such as [[Roman temple|temples]], [[thermae]], [[basilica]]s and tombs were also fitted with spiral stairways.{{sfn|Beckmann|2002|p=353–356}} Their notable absence in the towers of the [[Aurelian Wall]] indicates that they, unlike in [[medieval castle]]s, did not yet figure prominently in [[Roman military engineering]].{{sfn|Beckmann|2002|p=353–356}} By [[late antiquity]], separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to the main buildings, like in the [[Basilica of San Vitale]]. |
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The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to [[Church architecture|Christian]] and [[Islamic architecture]]. |
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== Modern influences == |
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{{See also|Romanesque architecture|Late Antique|Byzantine architecture}} |
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During the [[Baroque]] and the [[Renaissance]] periods, Roman and Greek architectural styles again became fashionable, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. |
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Roman influences may be found around us today, in [[bank]]s, government buildings, great houses, even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a [[mosaic]] shower floor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the [[New World]] too, where in [[Washington DC]] not only do we see the [[Capitol Building]], the [[White House]] and the [[Lincoln Memorial]], but there exists a Senate and the same (in name) Republican and Democrat parties, who ran the Roman Empire. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome. |
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In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great plantations of 18th and 19th century Louisiana, there too are the pillars and porticoes, the symmetrical façades with their pilasters, the domes and statuary that would have seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus. |
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In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being [[Buckingham Palace]]. |
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== Materials == |
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[[File:3223 - Roma - Santa Maria degli Angeli - Interno - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 17-June-2007.jpg|thumb|Frigidarium of [[Baths of Diocletian]], today [[Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri|Santa Maria degli Angeli]]]] |
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Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted [[marble]] as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad [[arch]]es and [[domes]] rather than dense lines of [[column]]s suspending flat [[architrave]]s. The freedom of concrete also inspired the [[colonnade]] screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the [[floor plan]] from [[Rectangle|rectangular]] cells to a more free-flowing environment.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} Most of these developments are described by [[Vitruvius]] writing in the first century AD in his work [[De Architectura]]. |
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=== Roman brick === |
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[[File:Gariannonum Burgh Castle south wall well preserved close up.jpg|thumb|right|Close-up view of the wall of the Roman [[Saxon Shore|shore fort]] at [[Burgh Castle Roman Site|Burgh Castle]], Norfolk, showing alternating courses of [[flint]] and brickwork.]] |
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The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] made [[Roman brick|fired clay bricks]], and the [[Roman legion]]s, which operated mobile [[kiln]]s, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production. The use of bricks in southern and western [[Germany]], for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]]. |
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Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of different shapes and sizes.{{sfn|Juracek|1996|p=310}} Shapes included square, rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks found have measured over three feet in length.{{sfn|Peet|1911|p=35–36}} Ancient Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ [[Foot (unit of length)#Historical origin|Roman feet]] by 1 Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 [[inch]]es existed. Other brick sizes in Ancient Rome included 24" x 12" x 4", and 15" x 8" x 10". Ancient Roman bricks found in [[France]] measured 8" x 8" x 3". The [[Aula Palatina|Constantine Basilica]] in [[Trier]] is constructed from Roman bricks 15" square by 1½" thick.{{sfn|Walters|Birch|1905|p=330–40}} There is often little obvious difference (particularly when only fragments survive) between Roman bricks used for walls on the one hand, and [[Imbrex and tegula|tiles]] used for roofing or flooring on the other, and so archaeologists sometimes prefer to employ the generic term [[Ceramic building material|Ceramic Building Material]] (or CBM). |
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The Romans perfected brick-making during the first century of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and private construction alike. The Romans took their brickmaking skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft to the local populations.{{sfn|Walters|Birch|1905|p=330–40}} In the [[British Isles]], the introduction of Roman brick by the Ancient Romans was followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick production. |
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=== Roman concrete === |
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{{Main|Roman concrete}} |
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Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected [[Roman concrete]] and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of [[Cosa]] sometime after 273 BCE. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of [[lime mortar]], sand with stone rubble, [[pozzolana]], water, and [[Rock (geology)|stones]], and stronger than previously-used concrete. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. |
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When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive [[stucco]] or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. |
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Though most would consider [[concrete]] the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many [[government]]al and [[religion|religious]] buildings<!--{{Citation needed}} begin-->{{fix |link=Wikipedia:Citation needed#Citation needed |text=citation needed |class=noprint Template-Fact }}<!--{{Citation needed}} end--> . |
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== City design == |
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{{see|Centuriation|Decumanus Maximus|Cardo}} |
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The [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies.{{sfn|Morris|1972| pp= 39-41, 51-60}}{{sfn|Kolb|1984|pp=169-238}} {{sfn|Benevolo|1993|pp=256-267}} They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] in Italy.{{sfn|Harris|1989|pp=375-392|ps=: "The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic culture."}} (see [[Marzabotto]]) |
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The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal.{{sfn|Vitrivius|1914}} Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as [[Turin]], preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked by four roads was called an ''insula,'' the Roman equivalent of a modern [[city block]]. |
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Each insula was {{convert|80|yd}} square, with the land within it divided. As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman city, but each person had to pay to construct his own house. |
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The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A [[portcullis]] covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls. |
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The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten, though, that there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of [[Celts|Celtic]] origin.{{sfn|Demandt|1998|ps=: "In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character."}} Among these, there are also cases that appear to have been newly planned, such as the Lusatian town of [[Biskupin]] in Poland. |
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== Building types == |
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=== Amphitheatre === |
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{{Main|Roman amphitheatre}} |
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{{see|List of Roman amphitheatres}} |
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[[File:Roman theater in Aspendos.jpg|thumb|[[Aspendos|Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey]]]] |
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Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the [[amphitheatre]]s, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at [[Arles]], as well as its progenitor, the [[Colosseum]] in Rome. They were used for [[gladiator]]ial contests, public displays, public meetings and [[bullfight]]s, the tradition of which still survives in Spain. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatres]], which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the [[Circus (building)|circuses]] (akin to [[hippodrome]]s) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller [[Stadium|stadia]], which were primarily designed for [[sport|athletics]] and footraces.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p=37}} |
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The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the [[Augustus|Augustan]] period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p=59}} Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with [[marble]], [[stucco]] and statuary.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p= 62}} After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of animal killings in the sixth, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p=201–223}} |
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=== Basilica === |
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[[File:Basilica of Constantine in the Roman Forum.JPG|thumb|right|Northern aisle of the [[Basilica of Maxentius]] in Rome]] |
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The Roman [[basilica]] was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. The first basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the time of [[Augustus]], a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set ''above'' the arcades, however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior [[colonnade]]s that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an [[apse]] at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised [[dais]]. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the [[clerestory]] windows. |
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The oldest known basilica, the [[Comitium#Basilica Porcia|Basilica Porcia]], was built in Rome in [[184 BC|184 BC]] by [[Cato the Elder]] during the time he was [[Censor (ancient Rome)|Censor]]. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). |
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=== Circus === |
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The [[Circus (building)|Roman circus]] was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient [[Roman Empire]]. The circuses were similar to the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[hippodrome]]s, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]] and [[amphitheatre]]s, Circuses were one of the main [[entertainment]] sites of the time. Circuses were venues for [[chariot racing|chariot races]], [[horse race]]s, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of [[naval battle]]s, the circus was flooded with water. |
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The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of [[race track]], separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the [[carceres]], thereby creating a circuit for the races. |
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=== Domes === |
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{{see|List of Roman domes}} |
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[[File:Pantheon oculus.jpg|thumb|right|Dome of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], inner view]] |
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The Romans were the first builders in the [[history of architecture]] to realize the potential of [[dome]]s for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.{{sfn|Rasch|1985|p=117}} Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as [[Roman temple|temples]], [[thermae]], [[palace]]s, [[mausoleum|mausolea]] and later also [[Church (building)|churches]]. Half-domes also became a favoured architectural element and were adopted as [[apse]]s in [[Christianity|Christian]] [[sacred architecture]]. |
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Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in [[Rome]] and the [[Roman province|provinces]] around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Along with [[vault (architecture)|vaults]], they gradually replaced the traditional [[post and lintel]] construction which makes use of the [[column]] and [[architrave]]. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of [[Roman concrete|concrete]], a process which has been termed the ''[[Roman Architectural Revolution]]''.{{{sfn|Lechtman|Hobbs|1986}} Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of structural [[steel]] frames in the late 19th century (see [[List of the world's largest domes]]).{{sfn|Rasch|1985|p=117}}{{sfn|Mark|Hutchinson|1986|p=24}}{{sfn|Heinle|Schlaich|1996|p=27}} |
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=== Forum === |
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{{see|Roman Forum|List of monuments of the Roman Forum}} |
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[[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Roman Forum]]]] |
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A [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] was a public square in a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[municipium]], or any [[civitas]], reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the [[stoa]]s used for open stalls. Many forums were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site and had its own name, such as [[Forlimpopoli|Forum Popili]] or [[Forlì|Forum Livi]].{{sfn|Abbott|Johnson|1926|p=12}} |
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Every city had a forum of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is probably in Rome, Italy,<ref>writer873. "The Roman Forum". Ancient Encyclopedia History. Web. 3/25/2012 {{unreliable source|date=September 2014}}</ref> and is the site of the earliest forum of the empire. |
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In new Roman towns the Forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and east-west streets (the [[Cardo]] and [[Decumanus Maximus|Decumanus]]). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the [[Basilica]]; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby. |
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{{wide image|Foro Traiano panorama.jpg|600px|<center>Panoramic view of the [[Forum Trajanum]] with the [[Trajan's Column]] on the far left.</center>}} |
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=== Horreum === |
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A [[horreum]] was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the [[Latin language|Latin]] term is often used to refer to [[granary|granaries]], Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant [[Horrea Galbae]] in [[Rome]] were used not only to store [[grain]] but also [[olive oil]], [[wine]], foodstuffs, clothing and even [[marble]].{{sfn|Richardson|1992|p=193}} By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.{{sfn|Lampe|2006|p=61}} The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m²).{{sfn|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=180}} |
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The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,{{sfn|Patrich|1996|p=149}} with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated [[tribune]] [[Gaius Gracchus]] in 123 BC.{{sfn|Métreaux|1998|p=14-15}} The word came to be applied any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars (''horrea subterranea''), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,<ref>[[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]], Epist. VIII.18</ref> or even to a library.<ref>[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], Epist. 45</ref> Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.{{sfn|Schmitz|1875|p=[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Horreum.html 618]}} |
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=== Insula === |
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[[File:OstianInsula.JPG|thumb|Insula in [[Ostia Antica]]]] |
[[File:OstianInsula.JPG|thumb|Insula in [[Ostia Antica]]]] |
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{{Main|Insula (building)}} |
{{Main|Insula (building)}} |
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To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows ([[trompe l'oeil]]) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined. |
To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows ([[trompe l'oeil]]) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined. |
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Ancient Rome is known to have had elaborated, massive and beautiful houses and buildings. These houses and buildings belonged to those in higher social status. The average house of a commoner or Plebe did not contain many luxuries. There were members of the upper class that attended to flash their wealth into their design and architecture of their house. Many Romans perceived this morally wrong and considered to be luxuria or vice to makes people squander their money (wealth).They showed more regard towards convenience than expense. Domus, or single-family residences, were rare, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 to 315 A.D. Rome had from 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.<ref>Hermansen, G. "The Medianum and the Roman Apartment", Phoenix, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Winter, 1970), pp. 342-347.</ref> |
Ancient Rome is known to have had elaborated, massive and beautiful houses and buildings. These houses and buildings belonged to those in higher social status. The average house of a commoner or Plebe did not contain many luxuries. There were members of the upper class that attended to flash their wealth into their design and architecture of their house. Many Romans perceived this morally wrong and considered to be luxuria or vice to makes people squander their money (wealth).They showed more regard towards convenience than expense. Domus, or single-family residences, were rare, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 to 315 A.D. Rome had from 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.<ref>Hermansen, G. "The Medianum and the Roman Apartment", Phoenix, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Winter, 1970), pp. 342-347.</ref> |
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Insula has been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture, as they argued over the various meanings of the word.<ref>Storey, Glenn R. “Regionaries-Type Insulae 2: Architectural/Residential Units at Rome”, American Journal of Archaeology 2002 pp.411-434.</ref> Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,<ref>Storey, Glenn R., “The Meaning of "Insula" in Roman Residential Terminology”, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome , Vol. 49, (2004), pp. 47-84</ref> meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum . Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities. |
Insula has been the subject of great debate for historians of Roman culture, as they argued over the various meanings of the word.<ref>Storey, Glenn R. “Regionaries-Type Insulae 2: Architectural/Residential Units at Rome”, American Journal of Archaeology 2002 pp.411-434.</ref> Insula was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,<ref>Storey, Glenn R., “The Meaning of "Insula" in Roman Residential Terminology”, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome , Vol. 49, (2004), pp. 47-84</ref> meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenacula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum . Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities. |
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<references/> |
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=== Light houses === |
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{{Main|Roman lighthouse}} |
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{{Main|Thermae|Roman temple|Amphitheatre|List of Roman amphitheatres|Roman theatre (structure)|Roman Forum|Forum (Roman)}} |
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[[File:A coruna torre de hercules sunset edit.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Tower of Hercules]]]] |
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Many [[lighthouses]] were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the [[Tower of Hercules]] at [[A Coruña]] in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at [[Dover]], England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the [[structure]]. |
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=== Thermae === |
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{{Main|Thermae}} |
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{{see|List of Roman public baths}} |
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All Roman cities had at least one [[Thermae]], a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a [[strigil]], a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now. |
All Roman cities had at least one [[Thermae]], a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a [[strigil]], a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now. |
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Roman bath-houses were also provided for private [[Roman villa|villas]], [[domus|town houses]] and [[castra|forts]]. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]]. The design of thermae is discussed by [[Vitruvius]] in [[De Architectura]]. |
Roman bath-houses were also provided for private [[Roman villa|villas]], [[domus|town houses]] and [[castra|forts]]. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]]. The design of thermae is discussed by [[Vitruvius]] in [[De Architectura]]. |
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=== Temples === |
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[[File:Roman theater in Aspendos.jpg|thumb|[[Aspendos|Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey]]]] |
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{{Main|Roman temple}} |
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Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and impressive when adapted to the needs of [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]]. The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome has survived structurally intact because it has been continuously used for worship since it was built, over 2000 years ago.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} Although its interiors were altered when worship changed from [[paganism]] to Christianity, it is the finest and largest example of a dome built in antiquity still surviving. |
Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and impressive when adapted to the needs of [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]]. The [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in Rome has survived structurally intact because it has been continuously used for worship since it was built, over 2000 years ago.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} Although its interiors were altered when worship changed from [[paganism]] to Christianity, it is the finest and largest example of a dome built in antiquity still surviving. |
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=== Theatres === |
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Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the [[amphitheatre]]s, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at [[Arles]], as well as its progenitor, the [[Colosseum]] in Rome. They were used for [[gladiator]]ial contests, public displays, public meetings and [[bullfight]]s, the tradition of which still survives in Spain. |
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[[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatres]] were built in all areas of the [[Roman Empire|empire]] from medieval-day Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.{{sfn|Wilson Jones|2000}} |
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Every city had a [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is probably in Rome, Italy,<ref>writer873. "The Roman Forum". Ancient Encyclopedia History. Web. 3/25/2012</ref> and is the site of the earliest forum of the empire. |
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These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The ''[[scaenae frons]]'' was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The ''[[Proscenium|proscaenium]]'' was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the ''[[proscenium|proscaenium]]''. The Roman theatre also had a ''[[podium]]'', which sometimes supported the columns of the ''scaenae frons''. The ''scaenae'' was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage ([[orchestra]]) and the seating section ([[auditorium]]). ''[[Vomitorium|Vomitoria]]'' or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.{{sfn|Ros|1996}} |
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{{wide image|Foro Traiano panorama.jpg|600px|<center>Panoramic view of the [[Forum Trajanum]] with the [[Trajan's Column]] on the far left.</center>}} |
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[[File:A coruna torre de hercules sunset edit.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Tower of Hercules]]]] |
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=== Villa === |
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Many [[lighthouses]] were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the [[Tower of Hercules]] at [[A Coruña]] in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at [[Dover]], England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the [[structure]]. |
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{{see|Villa rustica}} |
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{{See also|List of Roman villas in England|List of Roman villas in Belgium}} |
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A [[Roman villa]] was a [[Rome|Roman]] [[country house]] built for the upper class during the [[Roman republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with [[mosaic]] floors and [[fresco]]es. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars.<ref>The Cambridge Ancient History volume XIV. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425-600. Edited by Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins, and Michael Whitby. Cambridge University Press 2000. ISBN 978-0-52132912. Part III East and West: Economy and Society. Chapter 12. Land, labour, and settlement, by Bryan Ward-Perkins. Page 333.</ref> Some were pleasure houses such as those— like [[Hadrian's Villa]] at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]]— that were sited in the cool hills within easy reach of [[Rome]] or— like the [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]]— on picturesque sites overlooking the [[Bay of Naples]]. Some villas were more like the [[country house]]s of England or [[Poland]], the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at [[Fishbourne Roman Palace|Fishbourne]] in [[Sussex]]. |
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==Materials== |
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[[File:3223 - Roma - Santa Maria degli Angeli - Interno - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 17-June-2007.jpg|thumb|Frigidarium of [[Baths of Diocletian]], today [[Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri|Santa Maria degli Angeli]]]] |
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Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted [[marble]] as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad [[arch]]es and [[domes]] rather than dense lines of [[column]]s suspending flat [[architrave]]s. The freedom of concrete also inspired the [[colonnade]] screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the [[floor plan]] from [[Rectangle|rectangular]] cells to a more free-flowing environment.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} Most of these developments are described by [[Vitruvius]] writing in the first century AD in his work [[De Architectura]]. |
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Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the [[Campus Martius]], at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of [[Pompeii]]. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Auditorium site<ref>[http://wayback.archive.org/web/20070704130906/http://www2.comune.roma.it/auditorium/auditorium.htmlLa Villa Romana dell'Auditorium]</ref> or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the ''villa suburbana'' in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (''gentes''). |
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Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected [[Roman concrete]] and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of [[Cosa]] sometime after 273 BCE. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of [[lime mortar]], sand with stone rubble, [[pozzolana]], water, and [[Rock (geology)|stones]], and stronger than previously-used concrete. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. |
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A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large holdings called [[latifundia]], that produced and exported agricultural produce; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, ''villa'' could simply connote an agricultural holding: [[Jerome]] translated the [[Gospel of Mark]] (xiv, 32) ''chorion'', describing the olive grove of [[Gethsemane]], with ''villa'', without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all (''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Gethsemane"). |
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When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive [[stucco]] or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. |
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=== Watermills === |
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On return from campaigns in Greece, the general [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early [[Roman Empire|imperial period]]: the [[mosaic]], a decoration of colourful chips of stone inset into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well known [[mural]] in decorating floors, walls, and [[grotto]]es in [[geometry|geometric]] and [[image|pictorial]] designs. |
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{{see|List of ancient watermills}} |
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The initial invention of the [[watermill]] appears to have occurred in the [[Hellenistic civilization|hellenized eastern Mediterranean]] in the wake of the [[conquests of Alexander the Great]] and the rise of [[History of science in Classical Antiquity#Hellenistic period|Hellenistic science and technology]].{{sfn|Wikander|2000a|pp=396f.}}{{sfn|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=11}}{{sfn|Wilson|2002|pp=7f.}} In the subsequent [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical [[water wheel]] as well as the horizontal water wheel.{{sfn|Wikander|2000a|pp=373–378}}{{sfn|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|pp=12–15}} Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,{{sfn|Wikander|1985|p=158}}{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|p=403}}{{sfn|Wilson|2002|p=16}} crushing ore,{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|p=407}} sawing stones{{sfn|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007}} and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|pp=406f.}} |
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Though most would consider [[concrete]] the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many [[government]]al and [[religion|religious]] buildings<!--{{Citation needed}} begin-->{{fix |link=Wikipedia:Citation needed#Citation needed |text=citation needed |class=noprint Template-Fact }}<!--{{Citation needed}} end--> . |
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== Infrastructure == |
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==Modern influence== |
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During the [[Baroque]] and the [[Renaissance]] periods, Roman and Greek architectural styles again became fashionable, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. |
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=== Roads === |
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Roman influences may be found around us today, in [[bank]]s, government buildings, great houses, even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a [[mosaic]] shower floor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the [[New World]] too, where in [[Washington DC]] not only do we see the [[Capitol Building]], the [[White House]] and the [[Lincoln Memorial]], but there exists a Senate and the same (in name) Republican and Democrat parties, who ran the Roman Empire. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome. |
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[[Roman road]]s were vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Forbes|1993|page=146}} They provided efficient means for the overland movement of [[Military history of ancient Rome|armies]], officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and [[Roman commerce|trade]] goods.{{sfn|Kaszynski|2000|p=9}} At the peak of Rome's development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Empire's 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great road links.{{sfn|Bunson|2009|p=195}}{{sfn|O'flaherty|2002|p=2}} |
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Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see [[#Laws and standards|Laws and standards]] above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and more than {{convert|23|ft|m|abbr=on}}. Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat. |
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=== Aqueduct === |
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In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great plantations of 18th and 19th century Louisiana, there too are the pillars and porticoes, the symmetrical façades with their pilasters, the domes and statuary that would have seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus. |
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{{Main|Roman aqueduct}} |
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{{see|List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire}} |
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[[File:AcueductoSegovia edit1.jpg|thumb|The [[Aqueduct of Segovia]], Spain]] |
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The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] constructed numerous [[aqueduct (watercourse)|aqueducts]] in order to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying [[Thermae|public baths]], [[latrine]]s, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex [[Sanitation in ancient Rome|sewage systems]] and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aqueducts also provided water for mining operations, milling, farms and gardens. |
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Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, [[sluice]]s and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need. |
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In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being [[Buckingham Palace]]. |
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[[Rome]]'s first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle market. By the third century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the [[Roman Empire]] emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire."<ref>Gargarin, M. and Fantham, E. (editors). ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1''. p. 145.</ref> |
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==List of buildings, features and types of buildings== |
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[[File:Basilica of Constantine in the Roman Forum.JPG|thumb|right|Northern aisle of the [[Basilica of Maxentius]] in Rome]] |
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Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the [[early modern]] era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by [[Vitruvius]] in his work ''[[De Architectura]]'' (1st century BC). The general [[Frontinus]] gives more detail in his [[De aquaeductu|official report]] on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the [[Aqueduct of Segovia]], and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of [[Constantinople]]. |
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[[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Roman Forum]]]] |
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=== Bridges === |
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{{Main|Roman bridge}} |
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{{see|List of Roman bridges}} |
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Roman bridges, built by [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]], were the first large and lasting bridges built.<ref>{{harvnb|O’Connor|1993|p=1}}</ref> Roman bridges were built with stone and had the [[arch]] as the basic structure (see [[arch bridge]]). Most utilized [[Roman concrete|concrete]] as well, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. |
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Roman arch bridges were usually [[semicircle|semicircular]], although a few were [[circular segment|segmental]] (such as [[Alconétar Bridge]]). A segmental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.<ref>{{cite web|url=ftp://imgs.ebuild.com/woc/M880252.pdf|title=Designing the segmental arch|last=Beall|first=Christine|year=1988|publisher=ebuild.com|accessdate=8 May 2010}}</ref> The advantages of the [[circular segment|segmental]] arch bridge were that it allowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which would prevent the bridge from being swept away during floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight. Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones ([[voussoir]]s) of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch [[Roman aqueducts|aqueducts]], such as the [[Pont du Gard]] and [[Aqueduct of Segovia|Segovia Aqueduct]]. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the [[Pons Fabricius]] in Rome (62 BC), one of the world's oldest major bridges still standing. |
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Roman engineers were the first and until the [[industrial revolution]] the only ones to construct bridges with [[Roman concrete|concrete]], which they called [[Opus caementicium]]. The outside was usually covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge. |
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The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction. The 330 m long [[Limyra Bridge]] in southwestern [[Turkey]] features 26 segmental arches with an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,<ref>Colin O'Connor: "Roman Bridges", Cambridge University Press 1993, p. 126 ISBN 0-521-39326-4</ref> giving the bridge an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a millennium. [[Trajan's bridge]] over the [[Danube]] featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40 m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long [[Puente Romano (Mérida)|Puente Romano]] at [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]]. |
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=== Canals === |
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{{see|List of Roman canals}} |
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=== Cisterns === |
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{{see|List of Roman cisterns}} |
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=== Dams === |
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{{see|List of Roman dams and reservoirs}} |
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== Artistic structures == |
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=== Monoliths === |
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{{see|List of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths}} |
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=== Obelisks === |
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{{see|List of obelisks in Rome}} |
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[[File:RomaObeliscoSallustiano.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.5|''Obelisco Sallustiano'' in front of the church of [[Trinità dei Monti]] in Rome]] |
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An [[obelisk]] is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These were originally called "tekhenu" by the builders, the Ancient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the Greek 'obeliskos' to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and then English.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baker|first=Rosalie F.|title=Ancient Egyptians: People of the Pyramids|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512221-3|page=69|url=http://books.google.com/?id=gw5prEJQq10C&pg=PA69&dq=%22Tekhenu+%22+egyptian#v=onepage&q=%22Tekhenu%20%22%20egyptian&f=false|author2=Charles Baker |accessdate=10 March 2014}}</ref> The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include: |
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*Arles, France —the [[Arles Obelisk]], in Place de la République, a 4th-century obelisk of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] origin |
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*[[Benevento]], Italy — three Roman obelisks<ref>[http://www.museodelsannio.com/museo/sezioni/iside/obelisco.htm Museo del Sannio]</ref><ref>[http://highskyblue.web.fc2.com/benevento.htm Three Obelisks in Benevento]</ref> |
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*Munich — obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, [[:de:Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst|Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst]], [[Kunstareal]], 1st century AD, 5.80 m |
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*Rome — there are five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome. |
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=== Roman gardens === |
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{{Main|Roman gardens}} |
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[[File:P1080474 Mosaico Conimbriga (Condeixa-a-Nova).jpg|thumb|right|Gardens in [[Conimbriga]], [[Portugal]]]] |
[[File:P1080474 Mosaico Conimbriga (Condeixa-a-Nova).jpg|thumb|right|Gardens in [[Conimbriga]], [[Portugal]]]] |
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[[File:Hadrian's Wall and path, section near Crag Lough.jpg|thumb|[[Hadrian's Wall]]]] |
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=== Triumphal arch === |
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'''Public architecture''' |
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{{see|List of Roman triumphal arches}} |
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* [[Amphitheatre]] |
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* [[Basilica]] |
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=== Victory columns === |
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* [[Circus (building)]] |
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{{see|List of Roman victory columns}} |
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* [[Forum (Roman)]] |
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* [[Horreum]] |
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== Significant buildings and areas == |
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* [[Insulae]] |
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[[File:Hadrian's Wall and path, section near Crag Lough.jpg|right|thumb|Hadrian's Wall]] |
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* [[Temple (Roman)]] |
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* [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatre]] |
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* [[Thermae]] |
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* [[Triumphal arch]] |
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'''Public buildings''' |
'''Public buildings''' |
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* [[List of Roman amphitheatres]] |
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* [[Baths of Trajan]] |
* [[Baths of Trajan]] |
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* [[Baths of Diocletian]] |
* [[Baths of Diocletian]] |
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* [[Curia Hostilia]] (Senate House), in Rome |
* [[Curia Hostilia]] (Senate House), in Rome |
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* [[Domus Aurea]] (former building) |
* [[Domus Aurea]] (former building) |
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* [[Roman Forum]] |
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* [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] |
* [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] |
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* [[Tower of Hercules]] |
* [[Tower of Hercules]] |
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Line 119: | Line 302: | ||
'''Private architecture''' |
'''Private architecture''' |
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* [[Roman gardens]] |
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* [[Alyscamps]], a [[necropolis]] in [[Arles]], France |
* [[Alyscamps]], a [[necropolis]] in [[Arles]], France |
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* [[Domus]] |
* [[Domus]] |
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'''Civil engineering''' |
'''Civil engineering''' |
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* [[Roman engineering]] |
* [[Roman engineering]] |
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* [[Roman aqueduct]] |
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* [[Roman bridge]] |
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* [[Roman lighthouse]] |
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* [[Roman road]] |
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* [[Roman watermill]] |
* [[Roman watermill]] |
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* [[Limes Germanicus]] |
* [[Limes Germanicus]] |
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== See also == |
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'''Architectural elements''' |
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* [[ |
* [[Outline of architecture]] |
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{{portalbar|Ancient Rome|Italy|History|Architecture}} |
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* [[Mosaics]] |
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* [[Roman brick]] |
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* [[List of Roman roofs|Roman roofs]] |
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* [[List of ancient spiral stairs|Roman spiral stairs]] |
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== |
== References == |
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=== Footnotes === |
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* Adam, Jean-Pierre, ''Roman Building: Materials and Techniques'', Indiana University Press, 1994 |
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{{refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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* Adam, Jean-Pierre (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=xZVe8teAUkQC&printsec=frontcover ''Roman Building: Materials and Techniques'']. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-61870-0 |
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* [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC&printsec=frontcover ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture''], Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 10. |
* [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC&printsec=frontcover ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture''], Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 10. |
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* Lancaster, Lynne C., ''Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome'', Cambridge University Press, 2005 |
* Lancaster, Lynne C., ''Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome'', Cambridge University Press, 2005 |
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* MacDonald, William L. |
* MacDonald, William L. (1982). [http://books.google.com/books?id=jEjyGQretfgC&printsec=frontcover ''The Architecture of the Roman Empire: An Introductory Study'']. Volume 1. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02819-9 |
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* MacDonald, William L. |
* MacDonald, William L. (1986). [http://books.google.com/books?id=XJrTBa4p4sIC&printsec=frontcover ''The Architecture of the Roman Empire Volume II: An Urban Appraisal'']. Volume II. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03470-9 |
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* Rowland, Ingrid D.; Howe, Thomas Noble, ''Vitruvius: Ten Books on Architecture'', Cambridge University Press, 1999 |
* Rowland, Ingrid D.; Howe, Thomas Noble, ''Vitruvius: Ten Books on Architecture'', Cambridge University Press, 1999 |
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* Sear, Frank |
* Sear, Frank (2002). [http://books.google.com/books?id=NiaEAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover ''Roman Architecture'']. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-63578-8 |
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* [[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533 Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', pp. 109–123 and nos. 263-268 350-364, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, ISBN |
* [[Kurt Weitzmann|Weitzmann, Kurt]], ed., ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533 Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century]'', pp. 109–123 and nos. 263-268 350-364, 1979, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries |
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* Wilson-Jones, Mark, ''Principles of Roman Architecture'', Yale University Press, 2000 |
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== External links == |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons category|Ancient Roman architecture}} |
{{Commons category|Ancient Roman architecture}} |
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{{Wikibooks}} |
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* [http://traianus.rediris.es/ Traianus] - Technical investigation of Roman public works |
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* [http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/ancient_roman_homes.htm Housing and apartments in Rome] |
* [http://traianus.rediris.es/ Traianus] – Technical investigation of Roman public works |
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* [http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/ancient_roman_homes.htm Housing and apartments in Rome] – A look at various aspects of housing in ancient Rome, apartments and villas. |
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* [http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/gallery-current.php#videos_2_1 Rome Reborn − A Video Tour through Ancient Rome based on a digital model] |
* [http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/gallery-current.php#videos_2_1 Rome Reborn − A Video Tour through Ancient Rome based on a digital model] |
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* [http://clubjoxerra.es.tl/Inicio.htm ROMAX] |
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{{Ancient Rome topics}} |
{{Ancient Rome topics}} |
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{{Ancient Roman architecture lists}} |
{{Ancient Roman architecture lists}} |