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{{Infobox art movement |
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| name = Ancient Egyptian architecture |
| name = Ancient Egyptian architecture |
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| caption = Top: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] ({{circa}} |
| caption = Top: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] ({{circa}} 2589–2566 BC); Centre: [[Column]]s of the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] from the [[Karnak|Temple of Karnak]] ({{circa}} 1294–1213 BC); Bottom: Temple of Isis from [[Philae]] ({{circa}} 380 BC-117 AD) |
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| yearsactive = {{circa}} 3100 BC-300 AD |
| yearsactive = {{circa}} 3100 BC-300 AD |
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|countries = [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] |
|countries = [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] |
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Spanning over three thousand years, [[ancient Egypt]] was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly [[History of ancient Egypt|split into periods]] by historians. Likewise, '''ancient Egyptian architecture''' is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. |
Spanning over three thousand years, [[ancient Egypt]] was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly [[History of ancient Egypt|split into periods]] by historians. Likewise, '''ancient Egyptian architecture''' is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. |
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The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the [[Egyptian pyramids]] and [[Sphinx]], while excavated temples, palaces, tombs, and fortresses have also been studied. Most buildings were built of locally available [[mud brick]] and [[limestone]] by paid laborers and craftsmen.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date= |
The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the [[Egyptian pyramids]] and [[Sphinx]], while excavated temples, palaces, tombs, and fortresses have also been studied. Most buildings were built of locally available [[mud brick]] and [[limestone]] by paid laborers and craftsmen.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=21 January 2017 |title=Pyramids of Giza {{!}} National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/giza-pyramids |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219171930/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/giza-pyramids |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2021 |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=History |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lesko |first=Leonard H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6JhDwAAQBAJ&q=ancient+egypt+workers+new+kingdom |title=Pharaoh's Workers: The Villagers of Deir el Medina |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5017-2761-0 |pages= |language=en |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121600/https://books.google.com/books?id=X6JhDwAAQBAJ&q=ancient+egypt+workers+new+kingdom |url-status=live}}</ref> Monumental buildings were built using the [[post and lintel]] method of construction. Many buildings were [[Egyptian astronomy|aligned astronomically]]. Columns were typically adorned with [[Capital (architecture)#Pre-classical capitals|capitals]] decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the [[Cyperus papyrus|papyrus plant]]. |
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Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the [[Orientalizing period]] and again during the nineteenth-century [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]]. |
Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the [[Orientalizing period]] and again during the nineteenth-century [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]]. |
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==Characteristics== |
==Characteristics== |
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{{More citations needed|section|date=May 2024}} |
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=== Materials and construction methods === |
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Due to the scarcity of wood,<ref>R. G. Blakemore, ''History of Interior Design and Furniture: From Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-Century Europe'', John Wiley and Sons 1996, p.100</ref> the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked [[mud brick]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]], mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.<ref>Blakemore, 1996, p.107</ref> From the [[Old Kingdom]] onward, stone was generally reserved for [[tomb]]s and [[Egyptian temple|temples]], while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes. The core of the [[pyramid]]s consisted of locally quarried stone, mud bricks, sand or gravel. For the casing, stones were used that had to be transported from farther away, predominantly white limestone from [[Tura, Egypt|Tura]] and red granite from upper Egypt. |
Due to the scarcity of wood,<ref>R. G. Blakemore, ''History of Interior Design and Furniture: From Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-Century Europe'', John Wiley and Sons 1996, p.100</ref> the two predominant building materials used in ancient Egypt were sun-baked [[mud brick]] and [[Rock (geology)|stone]], mainly limestone, but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.<ref>Blakemore, 1996, p.107</ref> From the [[Old Kingdom]] onward, stone was generally reserved for [[tomb]]s and [[Egyptian temple|temples]], while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple complexes. The core of the [[pyramid]]s consisted of locally quarried stone, mud bricks, sand or gravel. For the casing, stones were used that had to be transported from farther away, predominantly white limestone from [[Tura, Egypt|Tura]] and red granite from upper Egypt. |
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Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks and sun-dried brick of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. However, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village [[Deir al-Madinah]], the Middle Kingdom town at [[El-Lahun|Kahun]],<ref>W. M. Flinders Petrie, ''Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara'', Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, and Co., London 1890</ref> and the fortresses at [[Buhen]]<ref>Charles Gates, ''Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome'', Routledge 2003, p.101</ref> and [[Mirgissa]]. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone. |
Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks and sun-dried brick of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. However, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the village [[Deir al-Madinah]], the Middle Kingdom town at [[El-Lahun|Kahun]],<ref>W. M. Flinders Petrie, ''Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara'', Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, and Co., London 1890</ref> and the fortresses at [[Buhen]]<ref>Charles Gates, ''Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome'', Routledge 2003, p.101</ref> and [[Mirgissa]]. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone. |
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Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,<ref>Dieter Arnold, Byron Esely Shafer ''Temples of Ancient Egypt'', I.B.Tauris, 2005</ref> massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the [[arch]] was developed during the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|fourth dynasty]], all monumental buildings are [[post and lintel]] constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns. |
Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious monuments,<ref>Dieter Arnold, Byron Esely Shafer ''Temples of Ancient Egypt'', I.B.Tauris, 2005</ref> massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings, possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the [[arch]] was developed during the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|fourth dynasty]], all monumental buildings are [[post and lintel]] constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external walls and the closely spaced columns.<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> |
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=== Decoration and motifs === |
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Exterior and interior walls, as well as the [[column]]s and [[pier (architecture)|piers]], were covered with [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.<ref>Blakemore, 1996, pp.107ff.</ref> Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are [[symbol]]ic, such as the [[Dung beetle#Scarab in ancient Egypt|scarab]], or sacred beetle, the [[solar disk]], and the [[vulture]]. Other common motifs include [[palm tree|palm]] leaves, the [[papyrus]] plant, and the buds and flowers of the [[Nymphaea caerulea|lotus]].<ref>Arnold, 2005, pp.204ff</ref> [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphs]] were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes and carvings allow us to understand how the Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses, wars that were fought, and their beliefs. This was especially true in recent years when exploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials. |
Exterior and interior walls, as well as the [[column]]s and [[pier (architecture)|piers]], were covered with [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.<ref>Blakemore, 1996, pp.107ff.</ref> Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are [[symbol]]ic, such as the [[Dung beetle#Scarab in ancient Egypt|scarab]], or sacred beetle, the [[solar disk]], and the [[vulture]]. Other common motifs include [[palm tree|palm]] leaves, the [[papyrus]] plant, and the buds and flowers of the [[Nymphaea caerulea|lotus]].<ref>Arnold, 2005, pp.204ff</ref> [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphs]] were inscribed for decorative purposes as well as to record historic events or spells. In addition, these pictorial frescoes and carvings allow us to understand how the Ancient Egyptians lived, statuses, wars that were fought, and their beliefs. This was especially true in recent years when exploring the tombs of Ancient Egyptian officials. |
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Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the [[Pharaoh]] himself.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ancient Egyptian temples aligned with astronomical events |journal=New Scientist |date=September 2009 |volume=203 |issue=2724 |pages=7 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(09)62307-1 |
Ancient Egyptian temples were aligned with astronomically significant events, such as [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es, requiring precise measurements at the moment of the particular event. Measurements at the most significant temples may have been ceremonially undertaken by the [[Pharaoh]] himself.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ancient Egyptian temples aligned with astronomical events |journal=New Scientist |date=September 2009 |volume=203 |issue=2724 |pages=7 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(09)62307-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Belmonte |first1=Juan Antonio |last2=Shaltout |first2=Mosalam |title=Keeping Ma'at: An astronomical approach to the orientation of the temples in ancient Egypt |journal=Advances in Space Research |date=August 2010 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=532–539 |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2009.03.033 |bibcode=2010AdSpR..46..532B}}</ref> |
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==Columns== |
=== Columns === |
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⚫ | As early as 2600 BC the architect [[Imhotep]] made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like [[papyrus]], [[Nymphaea|lotus]] and [[Palm tree|palm]]; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]], texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of Karnak ({{circa|1224 BC}}), where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. |
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<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> |
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⚫ | One of the most important type are the papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the [[5th Dynasty]]. They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower, swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which tapers to take the shape of a half-sphere like the stem of the lotus, has a continuously recurring decoration of [[stipule]]s. At the [[Luxor Temple]], the columns are reminiscent of papyrus bundles, perhaps symbolic of the marsh from which the ancient Egyptians believed the creation of the world to have unfolded.<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> |
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File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustrations of various types of [[capital (architecture)|capitals]], {{Circa|1849}}–1859, drawn by the egyptologist [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] |
File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustrations of various types of [[capital (architecture)|capitals]], {{Circa|1849}}–1859, drawn by the egyptologist [[Karl Richard Lepsius]] |
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Luxor-Tempel Hof Amenophis III. 02.jpg|Papyriform columns in the [[Luxor Temple]] |
Luxor-Tempel Hof Amenophis III. 02.jpg|Papyriform columns in the [[Luxor Temple]] |
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</gallery> |
</gallery> |
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⚫ | As early as 2600 BC the architect [[Imhotep]] made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds, like [[papyrus]], [[Nymphaea|lotus]] and [[Palm tree|palm]]; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Their form is thought to derive from archaic reed-built shrines. Carved from stone, the columns were highly decorated with carved and painted [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]], texts, ritual imagery and natural motifs. Egyptian columns are famously present in the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of Karnak ({{circa|1224 BC}}), where 134 columns are lined up in 16 rows, with some columns reaching heights of 24 metres. |
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⚫ | One of the most important type are the papyriform columns. The origin of these columns goes back to the [[5th Dynasty]]. They are composed of lotus (papyrus) stems which are drawn together into a bundle decorated with bands: the capital, instead of opening out into the shape of a bellflower, swells out and then narrows again like a flower in bud. The base, which tapers to take the shape of a half-sphere like the stem of the lotus, has a continuously recurring decoration of [[stipule]]s. At the [[Luxor Temple]], the columns are reminiscent of papyrus bundles, perhaps symbolic of the marsh from which the ancient Egyptians believed the creation of the world to have unfolded. |
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⚫ | Three types of gardens are attested from ancient Egypt: temple gardens, private gardens, and vegetable gardens. Some temples, such as those at [[Deir el-Bahri]], were provided with groves and trees, especially the sacred Ished Tree (''[[Persea]]''). Private pleasure gardens are known from an [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|11th Dynasty]] tomb model of Meketra, and from tomb decoration of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. They were typically surrounded by a high wall, planted with trees and flowers, and provided with shady areas. Plants were cultivated for fruits and fragrance. Flowers included [[cornflower]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/stories/gardens-ancient-egypt |title=Gardens in Ancient Egypt |website=National Museums Liverpool |access-date=27 March 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120160056/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/stories/gardens-ancient-egypt |url-status=live}}</ref> [[poppie]]s and [[Asteraceae|daisies]], while the pomegranate, introduced in the New Kingdom, became a popular shrub. The gardens of wealthier individuals were arranged around an ornamental pool for fish, waterfowl and [[Nelumbo|water-lilies]]. Vegetable plots, whether privately owned or belonging to temples, were laid out in squares divided by water channels, and located close to the [[Nile]]. They were irrigated by hand, or (from the late [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]]) by means of the [[shaduf]]. |
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⚫ | Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350592.jpg|Model of Meketra's house and garden from his tomb at [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], which consists of a shady grove of trees surrounding a central garden; {{circa|1981}}–1975 BC; painted wood and copper; height: 39.5 cm (15{{fraction|9|16}} in.); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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==Old Kingdom== |
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⚫ | [[Mastaba]]s are burial tombs that hold royal significance. As chosen by Egyptian rulers, many of the tombs found throughout time were located along the Nile river.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910">{{cite journal |last1=R. |first1=L. E. |title=Two Mastaba Chambers |journal=Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin |date=1910 |volume=8 |issue=45 |pages=19–20 |jstor=4423469}}</ref> The structural exterior regarding Mastabas varies throughout history but there is a noticeable evolution in successive Egyptian dynasties. The mastabas of the First Egyptian Dynasty would be created through the use of stepped bricks.<ref name="Badawy 1956">{{cite journal |last1=Badawy |first1=Alexander |title=The Ideology of the Superstructure of the Mastaba-Tomb in Egypt |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=1956 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=180–183 |doi=10.1086/371334 |jstor=542310 |s2cid=162106005}}</ref> The design evolved so that by the time of the Fourth Dynasty the structural exterior had been changed from brick to stone.<ref name="Badawy 1956" /> The reasoning behind the stepped designs of mastabas is connected to the idea of "accession".<ref name="Badawy 1956" /> Lateral penetration was a concern in when constructing tombs. In order to prevent damage to the structure, [[brickwork]] layers were placed around the base of structure.<ref name="Badawy 1956" /> Mastabas from the old empire took on a pyramidal design structure.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910" /> This design was largely reserved for rulers, such as the king and his family as a means for burial.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910" /> Other design characteristics regarding mastabas from the Old Kingdom include having rectangular outlines, walls that were slanted, the use of stone and brick materials, and having the axis of the structure run North-South.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910" /> Multiple elements make up the interior of a mastaba such as an offering chamber, statues for the dead, and a vault beneath which held the sarcophagus.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910" /> By the end of the Old Kingdom, the use of these tombs had been abandoned. |
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==Giza pyramid complex== |
=== Giza pyramid complex === |
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{{Main|Giza pyramid complex}} |
{{Main|Giza pyramid complex}} |
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The Giza Necropolis stands on the [[Giza Plateau]], on the outskirts of [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. This complex of ancient monuments is located some {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} inland into the desert from the old town of [[Giza]] on the Nile, some {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} southwest of Cairo city center. This [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[necropolis]] consists of the [[Pyramid of Khufu]] (also known as the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] or the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]] (or Kephren/Chefren), and the relatively modest-sized [[Pyramid of Menkaure]] (or Mykerinus/Mycerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, the [[Great Sphinx]], as well as a few hundred mastabas and chapels.<ref>{{cite web|last=Winston|first=Alan|title=An overview of the Giza Plateau in Egypt|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/giza.htm|access-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> |
The Giza Necropolis stands on the [[Giza Plateau]], on the outskirts of [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. This complex of ancient monuments is located some {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} inland into the desert from the old town of [[Giza]] on the Nile, some {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} southwest of Cairo city center. This [[ancient Egypt]]ian [[necropolis]] consists of the [[Pyramid of Khufu]] (also known as the [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid]] or the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]] (or Kephren/Chefren), and the relatively modest-sized [[Pyramid of Menkaure]] (or Mykerinus/Mycerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, the [[Great Sphinx]], as well as a few hundred mastabas and chapels.<ref>{{cite web |last=Winston |first=Alan |title=An overview of the Giza Plateau in Egypt |url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/giza.htm |access-date=26 July 2011 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810191317/http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/giza.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The three main pyramids at Giza, together with subsidiary pyramids and the remains of other structures at the [[Giza pyramid complex]]]] |
[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The three main pyramids at Giza, together with subsidiary pyramids and the remains of other structures at the [[Giza pyramid complex]]]] |
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The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and also as a way to make their names last forever.<ref name="Reich 2010">{{cite book|last=Reich|first=Lawrence S. Cunningham, John J.|title=Culture and values : a survey of the humanities|year=2010|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-495-56877-3|edition=7th}}</ref> The size and simple design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], which was probably completed {{circa|2580 BC}}, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The 7 Wonders of the Ancient World |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C0123829/ |access-date=26 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808170642/http://library.thinkquest.org/C0123829/ |archive-date=8 August 2011 |
The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. They were built to serve both as grave sites and also as a way to make their names last forever.<ref name="Reich 2010">{{cite book |last=Reich |first=Lawrence S. Cunningham, John J. |title=Culture and values : a survey of the humanities |year=2010 |publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-0-495-56877-3 |edition=7th}}</ref> The size and simple design show the high skill level of Egyptian design and engineering on a large scale.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], which was probably completed {{circa|2580 BC}}, is the oldest of the Giza pyramids and the largest pyramid in the world, and is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The 7 Wonders of the Ancient World |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C0123829/ |access-date=26 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808170642/http://library.thinkquest.org/C0123829/ |archive-date=8 August 2011}}</ref> |
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The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last=Lehner|first=Mark|title=The Pyramid of Khafre|url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/cohagan/giza_khafre.htm|work=The Complete Pyramids|access-date=26 July 2011| |
The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |last=Lehner |first=Mark |title=The Pyramid of Khafre |url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/cohagan/giza_khafre.htm |work=The Complete Pyramids |access-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728213057/http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/cohagan/giza_khafre.htm |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Khafre ambitiously placed his pyramid next to his father's. It is not as tall as his father's pyramid but he was able to give it the impression of appearing taller by building it on a site with a foundation {{convert|33|ft|m}} higher than his father's.<ref name="auto"/> Along with building his pyramid, Chefren commissioned the sculpting of the giant Sphinx as guardian over his tomb. The face of a human, possibly a depiction of the pharaoh, on a lion's body was seen as a symbol of [[divinity]] among the Greeks fifteen hundred years later.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> The Great Sphinx is carved out of the limestone bedrock and stands about {{convert|65|ft|m}} tall.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> Menkaure's pyramid dates to circa 2490 BC and stands {{convert|213|ft|m}} high making it the smallest of the Great Pyramids.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pyramid of Mankaure |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pyramids/menkaure.html |work=National Geographic: Egypt |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002191314/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pyramids/menkaure.html |archive-date=2 October 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Popular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after they were sealed in some cases.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the Earth. Also, it is popularly thought that due to grave robbers, future kings were buried in the [[Valley of the Kings]] to help keep them hidden. This is also false, as the pyramid construction continued for many dynasties, just on a smaller scale. Finally, the pyramid construction was stopped due to economic factors, not theft. |
Popular culture leads people to believe that Pyramids are highly confusing, with many tunnels within the pyramid to create confusion for grave robbers. This is not true. The shafts of pyramids are quite simple, mostly leading directly to the tomb. The immense size of the pyramids attracted robbers to the wealth that lay inside which caused the tombs to be robbed relatively soon after they were sealed in some cases.<ref name="Reich 2010"/> There are sometimes additional tunnels, but these were used for the builders to understand how far they could dig the tomb into the crust of the Earth. Also, it is popularly thought that due to grave robbers, future kings were buried in the [[Valley of the Kings]] to help keep them hidden. This is also false, as the pyramid construction continued for many dynasties, just on a smaller scale. Finally, the pyramid construction was stopped due to economic factors, not theft. |
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==New Kingdom |
==New Kingdom temples== |
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=== Luxor Temple === |
=== Luxor Temple === |
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=== Temple of Karnak === |
=== Temple of Karnak === |
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{{Main|Karnak}} |
{{Main|Karnak}} |
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[[File:Luxor Karnak-Tempel 2016-03-21 Große Säulenhalle 04.jpg|thumb|Example of inscriptions present throughout the complex. The upper regions are painted, suggesting (in canon with other such temples) that the remaining columns and ceilings would have been brightly painted. The temple roof, representing the heavens,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred Landscape in Ancient Egypt|last=Giulio|first=Magli|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013}}</ref> often bore images of stars and birds, while the columns often bore images of palms, lotuses, and people.]] |
[[File:Luxor Karnak-Tempel 2016-03-21 Große Säulenhalle 04.jpg|thumb|Example of inscriptions present throughout the complex. The upper regions are painted, suggesting (in canon with other such temples) that the remaining columns and ceilings would have been brightly painted. The temple roof, representing the heavens,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Architecture, Astronomy and Sacred Landscape in Ancient Egypt |last=Giulio |first=Magli |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013}}</ref> often bore images of stars and birds, while the columns often bore images of palms, lotuses, and people.]] |
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The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Nile River some {{convert|2.5|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} north of [[Luxor]]. It consists of four main parts, [[Precinct of Amon-Re]], the [[Precinct of Montu]], the [[Precinct of Mut]], and the [[Temple of Amenhotep IV]] (dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re, and Luxor Temple. This temple complex is particularly significant, for many rulers (notably every ruler of the New Kingdom) have added to it. The site covers over {{convert|80|ha|acre|abbr=off}} and consists of a series of pylons, leading into courtyards, halls, chapels, obelisks, and smaller temples. The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the 16th century BC, and was originally quite modest in size, but eventually, in the main precinct alone, as many as twenty temples and chapels would be constructed.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/completetemplesa00wilk_507|url-access=limited|last=Wilkinson|first=R.|publisher=New York, Thames & Hudson|year=2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/completetemplesa00wilk_507/page/n154 154]|isbn=978-0-500-05100-9 |
The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the Nile River some {{convert|2.5|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} north of [[Luxor]]. It consists of four main parts, [[Precinct of Amon-Re]], the [[Precinct of Montu]], the [[Precinct of Mut]], and the [[Temple of Amenhotep IV]] (dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re, and Luxor Temple. This temple complex is particularly significant, for many rulers (notably every ruler of the New Kingdom) have added to it. The site covers over {{convert|80|ha|acre|abbr=off}} and consists of a series of pylons, leading into courtyards, halls, chapels, obelisks, and smaller temples. The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the 16th century BC, and was originally quite modest in size, but eventually, in the main precinct alone, as many as twenty temples and chapels would be constructed.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt |url=https://archive.org/details/completetemplesa00wilk_507 |url-access=limited |last=Wilkinson |first=R. |publisher=New York, Thames & Hudson |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/completetemplesa00wilk_507/page/n154 154] |isbn=978-0-500-05100-9}}</ref> Approximately 30 pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to reach a size, complexity and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of those features are overwhelming. |
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[[File:KarnakVisitorCenterModel.jpg|thumb|left|Recreation of the temple complex, at Karnak visitor center]] |
[[File:KarnakVisitorCenterModel.jpg|thumb|left|Recreation of the temple complex, at Karnak visitor center]] |
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{{Main|Ramesseum}} |
{{Main|Ramesseum}} |
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[[File:Egypt.Ramesseum.02.jpg|thumb|Ramesses' mortuary temple adheres to standard [[New Kingdom]] temple-architecture style. Oriented northwest to southeast, the temple entrance comprises a number of stone figures, one located horizontally to the next. At center of the complex was a covered 48-column [[hypostyle]] hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.]] |
[[File:Egypt.Ramesseum.02.jpg|thumb|Ramesses' mortuary temple adheres to standard [[New Kingdom]] temple-architecture style. Oriented northwest to southeast, the temple entrance comprises a number of stone figures, one located horizontally to the next. At center of the complex was a covered 48-column [[hypostyle]] hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.]] |
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[[Ramesses II]], a [[19th Dynasty]] pharaoh, ruled Egypt from around 1279 to 1213 BCE. Among his many accomplishments, such as the expansion of Egypt's borders, he constructed a massive temple called the Ramesseum, located near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], then the capital of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. The Ramesseum was a magnificent temple, complete with monumental statues to guard its entrance. The most impressive was a 62- foot-tall statue of Ramses himself.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture|last=Dieter|first=Arnold|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2003|isbn=1-86064-465-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/196 196]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/196}}</ref> The base and torso are all that remain of this impressive statue of the enthroned pharaoh, thus its original dimensions and weight (approximately 1,000 tons) are based on estimates. The temple features impressive reliefs, many detailing a number of Ramses' military victories, such as the [[Battle of Kadesh]] (ca. 1274 BCE) and the pillaging of the city of "Shalem". |
[[Ramesses II]], a [[19th Dynasty]] pharaoh, ruled Egypt from around 1279 to 1213 BCE. Among his many accomplishments, such as the expansion of Egypt's borders, he constructed a massive temple called the Ramesseum, located near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], then the capital of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. The Ramesseum was a magnificent temple, complete with monumental statues to guard its entrance. The most impressive was a 62- foot-tall statue of Ramses himself.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture |last=Dieter |first=Arnold |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2003 |isbn=1-86064-465-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/196 196] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofa00diet/page/196}}</ref> The base and torso are all that remain of this impressive statue of the enthroned pharaoh, thus its original dimensions and weight (approximately 1,000 tons) are based on estimates. The temple features impressive reliefs, many detailing a number of Ramses' military victories, such as the [[Battle of Kadesh]] (ca. 1274 BCE) and the pillaging of the city of "Shalem". |
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The Ramesseum was built to be a place of worship for Ramesses II.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Quibell |first=James Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ElApqGmbm8C&dq=Ramesseum&pg=PA1 |title=The Ramesseum |date=1898 |publisher=B. Quaritch |language=en}}</ref> Although there are only traces left of its former structure, the Ramesseum was not only a temple, but it included a palace, too.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date= |
The Ramesseum was built to be a place of worship for Ramesses II.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Quibell |first=James Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ElApqGmbm8C&dq=Ramesseum&pg=PA1 |title=The Ramesseum |date=1898 |publisher=B. Quaritch |language=en |access-date=29 October 2023 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111001203/https://books.google.com/books?id=-ElApqGmbm8C&dq=Ramesseum&pg=PA1 |url-status=live}}</ref> Although there are only traces left of its former structure, the Ramesseum was not only a temple, but it included a palace, too.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2023 |title=Ancient Egyptian architecture {{!}} Tombs, Temples, & Significance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930093216/https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture |url-status=live}}</ref> The Ramesseum was more than those, however. Not only was it a place of worship, but it also had other rooms used for catering to the needs of the people, such as, bakeries, kitchens, and supply rooms, which were found in the southern part of the temple during an excavation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Research, Development and Management of Heritage on the Left Bank of the Nile: Ramesseum and its environs |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000140918 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=unesdoc.unesco.org |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116004833/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000140918 |url-status=live}}</ref> There was also a school where boys were taught to become scribes, which was located in the area between the kitchen and palace.<ref name=":3" /> There were other burials that were built in the Ramesseum after it was ruined as well.<ref name=":0" /> The Ramesseum was originally built for Ramesses II, but after it was ruined, the Ramesseum was given to certain families of the 22nd dynasty, who then placed the second burials in the chambers and used it as a cemetery of sort.<ref name=":0" /> There have been many restorations done to the Ramesseum as well, with one being the installation of a Ramesses II's colossus head on a plinth and bracing it after it was found lying on the ground.<ref name=":3" /> Another was for areas that were made out of mud bricks. These areas were restored by covering them with modern bricks that were made of the same material but are stronger than the mud bricks so they would be able to hold against natural elements, such as torrential rain.<ref name=":3" /> |
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=== Temple of Malkata === |
=== Temple of Malkata === |
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{{Main|Malkata}} |
{{Main|Malkata}} |
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Under the tenure of [[Amenhotep III]] workers constructed over 250 buildings and monuments. One of the most impressive building projects was the temple complex of Malkata, known among the ancient Egyptians as the |
Under the tenure of [[Amenhotep III]] workers constructed over 250 buildings and monuments. One of the most impressive building projects was the temple complex of Malkata, known among the ancient Egyptians as the "house of rejoicing", was constructed to serve his royal residence on the west bank of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], just south of the Theban necropolis. The site is approximately 226,000 square meters (or 2,432,643 square feet).<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot">{{cite journal |last1=Koltsida |first1=Aikaterini |title=A Dark Spot in Ancient Egyptian Architecture: The Temple of Malkata |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |date=2007 |volume=43 |pages=43–57 |jstor=27801605}}</ref> Given the immense size of the site, along with its many buildings, courts, parade grounds, and housing, it is considered to have served not just as a temple and dwelling of the Pharaoh but a town. |
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The central area of the complex consisted in the Pharaoh's apartments that were made up of a number of rooms and courts, all of which were oriented around a columned banquet hall. Accompanying the apartments, that presumably housed the royal cohort and foreign guests, was a large throne room connected to smaller chambers, for storage, waiting, and smaller audiences. The greater elements of this area of the complex are what have been come to be called the West Villas (just west of the King's Palace), the North Palace and Village, and Temple. |
The central area of the complex consisted in the Pharaoh's apartments that were made up of a number of rooms and courts, all of which were oriented around a columned banquet hall. Accompanying the apartments, that presumably housed the royal cohort and foreign guests, was a large throne room connected to smaller chambers, for storage, waiting, and smaller audiences. The greater elements of this area of the complex are what have been come to be called the West Villas (just west of the King's Palace), the North Palace and Village, and Temple. |
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[[File:Reconstruction of Wall Decoration from the Temple of Amun at Malqata MET 17.10.1a.jpg|thumb|The faience (glazed ceramic earthenware) tile (above) is a reconstruction of wall decoration fragments found at the Temple of Malkata in stacks at the southwest corner.<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/551605|title=Reconstruction of Geometric Decoration|website=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> The gold spirals here were painted with gold paint, whereas the originals would have probably been covered by gold foil. Notably, similar patterns are found in the Pharaoh's Palace.<ref name="metmuseum.org"/>]] |
[[File:Reconstruction of Wall Decoration from the Temple of Amun at Malqata MET 17.10.1a.jpg|thumb|The faience (glazed ceramic earthenware) tile (above) is a reconstruction of wall decoration fragments found at the Temple of Malkata in stacks at the southwest corner.<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/551605 |title=Reconstruction of Geometric Decoration |website=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510175732/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/551605 |url-status=live}}</ref> The gold spirals here were painted with gold paint, whereas the originals would have probably been covered by gold foil. Notably, similar patterns are found in the Pharaoh's Palace.<ref name="metmuseum.org"/>]] |
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The temple's external dimensions are approximately 183.5 by 110.5 m, and consists of two parts: the large forecourt and the temple proper.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The large front court is 131.5 by 105.5 m, oriented on the east–west axis, and occupies the east part of the temple complex.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The western part of the court is on a higher level and is divided from the rest of the court by a low retaining wall. The lower court is almost square, whereas the upper terrace was rectangular in shape. The upper section of the court was paved with mud bricks and has a 4 m wide entrance to it from the lower part of the fore-court, connecting the base to the upper landing was a ramp enclosed by walls.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> This ramp and entrance were both at the center of the temple, with the same orientation as the front court entrance and the temple proper. |
The temple's external dimensions are approximately 183.5 by 110.5 m, and consists of two parts: the large forecourt and the temple proper.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The large front court is 131.5 by 105.5 m, oriented on the east–west axis, and occupies the east part of the temple complex.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The western part of the court is on a higher level and is divided from the rest of the court by a low retaining wall. The lower court is almost square, whereas the upper terrace was rectangular in shape. The upper section of the court was paved with mud bricks and has a 4 m wide entrance to it from the lower part of the fore-court, connecting the base to the upper landing was a ramp enclosed by walls.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> This ramp and entrance were both at the center of the temple, with the same orientation as the front court entrance and the temple proper. |
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The temple proper might be seen as divided in to three distinct parts: central, north, and south. The central part is indicated by a small rectangular anteroom (6.5 by 3.5 m), many of the door jambs including those of the antechamber include inscriptions, such as 'given life like Ra forever'.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> A 12.5 by 14.5 m hall follows the anteroom from which is entered via a 3.5 m wide door in the center of the front wall of the hall. There is evidence the ceiling of this chamber was decorated with yellow stars on blue background, whereas the walls today show only the appearance of a white stucco over mud plaster.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> Notwithstanding, we might speculate given the numerous decorative plaster fragments found within the room's deposit that these too were ornately decorated with various images and patterns. Supporting the ceiling are six columns arranged in two rows with east–west axis. Only small fragments of the column bases have survived, though they suggest the diameter of these columns to have been about 2.25 m.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The columns are placed 2.5 m away from the walls and in each row the columns are approximately 1.4 m away from the next, while the space between the two rows is 3 m.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> |
The temple proper might be seen as divided in to three distinct parts: central, north, and south. The central part is indicated by a small rectangular anteroom (6.5 by 3.5 m), many of the door jambs including those of the antechamber include inscriptions, such as 'given life like Ra forever'.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> A 12.5 by 14.5 m hall follows the anteroom from which is entered via a 3.5 m wide door in the center of the front wall of the hall. There is evidence the ceiling of this chamber was decorated with yellow stars on blue background, whereas the walls today show only the appearance of a white stucco over mud plaster.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> Notwithstanding, we might speculate given the numerous decorative plaster fragments found within the room's deposit that these too were ornately decorated with various images and patterns. Supporting the ceiling are six columns arranged in two rows with east–west axis. Only small fragments of the column bases have survived, though they suggest the diameter of these columns to have been about 2.25 m.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The columns are placed 2.5 m away from the walls and in each row the columns are approximately 1.4 m away from the next, while the space between the two rows is 3 m.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> |
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A second hall (12.5 by 10 m<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" />) is accessed by a 3 m door at the center of the back wall of the first. The second hall is similar to the first, first its ceiling seems to have been decorated with similar if not identical patterns and images as the first. Second, in the same way the ceiling is supported by columns, four to be precise, ordered in two rows on the same axis as those of the first hall, with a 3 m wide space between them. In hall two, at-least one of the rooms appears to have been dedicated to the cult of Maat, which suggests the other three in this area might have likewise served such a religious purpose.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> |
A second hall (12.5 by 10 m<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" />) is accessed by a 3 m door at the center of the back wall of the first. The second hall is similar to the first, first its ceiling seems to have been decorated with similar if not identical patterns and images as the first. Second, in the same way the ceiling is supported by columns, four to be precise, ordered in two rows on the same axis as those of the first hall, with a 3 m wide space between them. In hall two, at-least one of the rooms appears to have been dedicated to the cult of Maat, which suggests the other three in this area might have likewise served such a religious purpose.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> |
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The southern part of the temple may be divided into two sections: western and southern. The western section consists of 6 rooms, whereas the southern area given its size (19.5 by 17.2 m) suggests it might have served as another open court. In many of these rooms were found blue ceramic tiles inlaid with gold around their edge.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The Northern part of the temple proper consists of ten rooms, similar in style to those of the southern. |
The southern part of the temple may be divided into two sections: western and southern. The western section consists of 6 rooms, whereas the southern area given its size (19.5 by 17.2 m) suggests it might have served as another open court. In many of these rooms were found blue ceramic tiles inlaid with gold around their edge.<ref name="Koltsida - A Dark Spot" /> The Northern part of the temple proper consists of ten rooms, similar in style to those of the southern. |
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The temple itself seems to have been dedicated to the Egyptian deity Amun, given the number of bricks stamped with various inscriptions, such as "the temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing" or "Nebmaarta in the Temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing". Overall the temple of Malakata shares many with other cult temples of the New Kingdom, with magnificent halls and religiously oriented rooms with many others more closely resemble store rooms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lansing|first=Ambrose|date=1918|title=Excavations at the Palace of Amenhotep III at Thebes|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=13|issue=3|pages=8–14|doi=10.2307/3254041|jstor=3254041}}</ref> |
The temple itself seems to have been dedicated to the Egyptian deity Amun, given the number of bricks stamped with various inscriptions, such as "the temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing" or "Nebmaarta in the Temple of Amun in the house of Rejoicing". Overall the temple of Malakata shares many with other cult temples of the New Kingdom, with magnificent halls and religiously oriented rooms with many others more closely resemble store rooms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lansing |first=Ambrose |date=1918 |title=Excavations at the Palace of Amenhotep III at Thebes |journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=8–14 |doi=10.2307/3254041 |jstor=3254041}}</ref> |
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== Fortresses == |
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== Ancient Egyptian fortresses == |
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[[File:Mirgissa-fort-Pl.8.jpg|thumb|Ramparts at [[Mirgissa]], [[Nubia]]]] |
[[File:Mirgissa-fort-Pl.8.jpg|thumb|Ramparts at [[Mirgissa]], [[Nubia]]]] |
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Fortifications within Ancient Egypt were built in times of conflict between rival principalities.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965">{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=A. W. |title=Ancient Egyptian Fortifications |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |date=1965 |volume=51 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1177/030751336505100109 |jstor=3855621 |s2cid=192286747 |
Fortifications within Ancient Egypt were built in times of conflict between rival principalities.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965">{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=A. W. |title=Ancient Egyptian Fortifications |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |date=1965 |volume=51 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1177/030751336505100109 |jstor=3855621 |s2cid=192286747}}</ref> Out of all fortresses analyzed within this time frame, most (if not all) were built of the same materials. The only exception to the rule were some fortresses from the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] as fortresses such as the fort of [[Buhen]] utilized stone with the creation of its walls. The main walls were mainly built with mud brick but were reinforced with other materials such as timber. Rocks were also utilized to not only preserve them from erosion as well as paving.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> Secondary walls would be built outside of fortresses main walls and were relatively close to one another. As a result, this would prove to be a challenge to invaders as they were forced to destroy this fortification before they could reach the main walls of the fort.<ref name="Clarke 1916">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Somers |title=Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |date=1916 |volume=3 |issue=2/3 |pages=155–179 |doi=10.1177/030751331600300137 |jstor=3853753 |s2cid=220261423 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2515448 |access-date=15 June 2022 |archive-date=6 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506034709/https://zenodo.org/records/2515448 |url-status=live}}</ref> Another strategy was utilized if the enemy managed to break through the first barrier. Upon making it to the main wall, a ditch would be constructed that would be positioned between the secondary and first walls. The purpose of this was to place the enemy in a position that would leave them exposed to the enemy, making the invaders susceptible to arrow fire.<ref name="Clarke 1916" /> The position of this ditch walls within the interior of fortresses would become demilitarized during times of unity; leading to them being demolished. The parts that were used to construct said walls could then be reused, making the overall design extremely beneficial. |
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Fortresses within ancient Egypt held multiple functions. During the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] Period, the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt]] would establish means of control throughout the Nubian Riverside by creating fortified stations. The location of Egyptian fortresses were not exclusive to just the riverside. Sites within both Egypt and Nubia would be placed on terrain that was either rocky or sandy.<ref name="Clarke 1916" /> The purpose behind this method was to spread its influence throughout the region as well as discourage rival groups from raiding the sites.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> Inspections of these forts in Nubia have led to the discovery of copper smelting materials, which suggest a relationship with miners in the region.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> The occupation of these Nubian forts suggests a trade relationship between the two parties. Miners would collect the materials and would transfer them to these forts in exchange for food and water. Up until the Thirteenth dynasty, Egypt would maintain control of Nubia through the use of these fortresses.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> |
Fortresses within ancient Egypt held multiple functions. During the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] Period, the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt]] would establish means of control throughout the Nubian Riverside by creating fortified stations. The location of Egyptian fortresses were not exclusive to just the riverside. Sites within both Egypt and Nubia would be placed on terrain that was either rocky or sandy.<ref name="Clarke 1916" /> The purpose behind this method was to spread its influence throughout the region as well as discourage rival groups from raiding the sites.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> Inspections of these forts in Nubia have led to the discovery of copper smelting materials, which suggest a relationship with miners in the region.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> The occupation of these Nubian forts suggests a trade relationship between the two parties. Miners would collect the materials and would transfer them to these forts in exchange for food and water. Up until the Thirteenth dynasty, Egypt would maintain control of Nubia through the use of these fortresses.<ref name="A Lawrence, 1965" /> |
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=== Pelusium Fortress === |
=== Pelusium Fortress === |
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The Pelusium fortress served as means of protection for the Nile Delta from invaders.<ref name="Stanley, 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Jean-Daniel |last2=Bernasconi |first2=Maria Pia |last3=Jorstad |first3=Thomas F. |title=Pelusium, an Ancient Port Fortress on Egypt's Nile Delta Coast: Its Evolving Environmental Setting from Foundation to Demise |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |date=2008 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=451–462 |doi=10.2112/07A-0021.1 |jstor=30137849 |s2cid=129465794 |
The Pelusium fortress served as means of protection for the Nile Delta from invaders.<ref name="Stanley, 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Jean-Daniel |last2=Bernasconi |first2=Maria Pia |last3=Jorstad |first3=Thomas F. |title=Pelusium, an Ancient Port Fortress on Egypt's Nile Delta Coast: Its Evolving Environmental Setting from Foundation to Demise |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |date=2008 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=451–462 |doi=10.2112/07A-0021.1 |jstor=30137849 |s2cid=129465794}}</ref> While the site served this role for more than a millennium, [[Pelusium]] was also known for being a center of trade (both land and maritime). Trade was primarily conducted between Egypt and the [[Levant]].<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> While information is not concrete in terms of the fortress's establishment, it is suggested that Pelusium was erected during either the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] period or during the Saite and Persian periods from the 8th to 6th century BC.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> Pelusium is also seen as an integral part of the Nile as other ruins were found outside its borders, indicating that the area was large in occupation. Architecturally, structures of Pelusium (such as its gates and towers) appear to be built from limestone. A metallurgy industry is also indicated to have taken place at this site due to the discovery of copper-ore.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> Excavations of the site have also discovered older materials that date back to some of the early dynasties, and include basalt, granite, diorite, marble, and quartzite.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> These materials may, however, have been of more recent origin.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> The fortress was constructed in close proximity to the [[Nile|Nile River]], and was largely surrounded by both dunes and coastlines.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> |
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There are multiple reasons that caused the decline of the Pelusium fortress. During its existence, events such as the Bubonic Plague appeared in the Mediterranean for the first time and multiple fires within the fortress occurred.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> Conquest by the Persians as well as a decrease in trade also may have led to an increase in abandonment. Officially, natural reasons are what led to Pelusium falling apart such as tectonic motions.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> The official desertion of the site is attributed to the time of the crusades.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> |
There are multiple reasons that caused the decline of the Pelusium fortress. During its existence, events such as the Bubonic Plague appeared in the Mediterranean for the first time and multiple fires within the fortress occurred.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> Conquest by the Persians as well as a decrease in trade also may have led to an increase in abandonment. Officially, natural reasons are what led to Pelusium falling apart such as tectonic motions.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> The official desertion of the site is attributed to the time of the crusades.<ref name="Stanley, 2008" /> |
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=== Fortress of Jaffa === |
=== Fortress of Jaffa === |
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Jaffa Fortress was prominent during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] period of Egypt. It served as both a fortress and a port on the Mediterranean coast. To this day, [[Jaffa]] serves as a primary Israeli port.<ref name="Burke 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=Aaron A. |last2=Peilstöcker |first2=Martin |last3=Karoll |first3=Amy |last4=Pierce |first4=George A. |last5=Kowalski |first5=Krister |last6=Marzouk |first6=Nadia Ben- |last7=Damm |first7=Jacob C. |last8=Danielson |first8=Andrew J. |last9=Fessler |first9=Heidi D. |last10=Kaufman |first10=Brett |last11=Pierce |first11=Krystal V.L. |last12=Höflmayer |first12=Felix |last13=Damiata |first13=Brian N. |last14=Dee |first14=Michael |title=Excavations of the New Kingdom Fortress in Jaffa, 2011–2014: Traces of Resistance to Egyptian Rule in Canaan |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=1 January 2017 |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=85–133 |doi=10.3764/aja.121.1.0085 |s2cid=193757757 |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/e3a28986-d312-435b-8ba2-c83ea84dbd9b }}</ref> Originally under the control of the Canaanites, the site fell under the control of the Egyptian Empire.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> During the [[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]], the site was successfully used as a base for campaigns of 18th dynasty Pharaohs.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> In terms of its functions, the site held multiple roles. It is suggested that Jaffa's primary function was to serve as a granary for the Egyptian Army. |
Jaffa Fortress was prominent during the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] period of Egypt. It served as both a fortress and a port on the Mediterranean coast. To this day, [[Jaffa]] serves as a primary Israeli port.<ref name="Burke 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Burke |first1=Aaron A. |last2=Peilstöcker |first2=Martin |last3=Karoll |first3=Amy |last4=Pierce |first4=George A. |last5=Kowalski |first5=Krister |last6=Marzouk |first6=Nadia Ben- |last7=Damm |first7=Jacob C. |last8=Danielson |first8=Andrew J. |last9=Fessler |first9=Heidi D. |last10=Kaufman |first10=Brett |last11=Pierce |first11=Krystal V.L. |last12=Höflmayer |first12=Felix |last13=Damiata |first13=Brian N. |last14=Dee |first14=Michael |title=Excavations of the New Kingdom Fortress in Jaffa, 2011–2014: Traces of Resistance to Egyptian Rule in Canaan |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=1 January 2017 |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=85–133 |doi=10.3764/aja.121.1.0085 |s2cid=193757757 |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/e3a28986-d312-435b-8ba2-c83ea84dbd9b |access-date=15 June 2022 |archive-date=6 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506034725/https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/excavations-of-the-new-kingdom-fortress-in-jaffa-20112014-traces- |url-status=live}}</ref> Originally under the control of the Canaanites, the site fell under the control of the Egyptian Empire.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> During the [[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]], the site was successfully used as a base for campaigns of 18th dynasty Pharaohs.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> In terms of its functions, the site held multiple roles. It is suggested that Jaffa's primary function was to serve as a granary for the Egyptian Army. |
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Rameses gate, which is dated to the [[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]], serves as a connection to the fortress. Ramparts were also discovered with the fortress. Upon excavation, the site hosted multiple items such as bowls, imported jars, pot stands, and beer and bread which further emphasizes the importance of these items to the area.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> The discovery of these objects show a close connection between the storing of food and the creation of ceramic items.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> |
Rameses gate, which is dated to the [[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]], serves as a connection to the fortress. Ramparts were also discovered with the fortress. Upon excavation, the site hosted multiple items such as bowls, imported jars, pot stands, and beer and bread which further emphasizes the importance of these items to the area.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> The discovery of these objects show a close connection between the storing of food and the creation of ceramic items.<ref name="Burke 2017" /> |
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⚫ | [[Mastaba]]s are burial tombs that hold royal significance. As chosen by Egyptian rulers, many of the tombs found throughout time were located along the Nile river.<ref name="Two Mastaba 1910">{{cite journal |last1=R. |first1=L. E. |title=Two Mastaba Chambers |journal=Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin |date=1910 |volume=8 |issue=45 |pages=19–20 |jstor=4423469 |
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{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2022}} |
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⚫ | Three types of gardens are attested from ancient Egypt: temple gardens, private gardens, and vegetable gardens. Some temples, such as those at [[Deir el-Bahri]], were provided with groves and trees, especially the sacred Ished Tree (''[[Persea]]''). Private pleasure gardens are known from an [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|11th Dynasty]] tomb model of Meketra, and from tomb decoration of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. They were typically surrounded by a high wall, planted with trees and flowers, and provided with shady areas. Plants were cultivated for fruits and fragrance. Flowers included [[cornflower]]s,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/stories/gardens-ancient-egypt|title=Gardens in Ancient Egypt|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref> [[poppie]]s and [[Asteraceae|daisies]], while the pomegranate, introduced in the New Kingdom, became a popular shrub. The gardens of wealthier individuals were arranged around an ornamental pool for fish, waterfowl and [[Nelumbo|water-lilies]]. Vegetable plots, whether privately owned or belonging to temples, were laid out in squares divided by water channels, and located close to the [[Nile]]. They were irrigated by hand, or (from the late [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]]) by means of the [[shaduf]]. |
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<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px"> |
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⚫ | Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350592.jpg|Model of Meketra's house and garden from his tomb at [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], which consists of a shady grove of trees surrounding a central garden; {{circa|1981}}–1975 BC; painted wood and copper; height: 39.5 cm (15{{fraction|9|16}} in.); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) |
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==Transformation and later use== |
==Transformation and later use== |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Portal|Architecture|Ancient Egypt}} |
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* [[Art of ancient Egypt]] |
* [[Art of ancient Egypt]] |
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* [[Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage]] |
* [[Center for Documentation of Cultural and Natural Heritage]] |
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* [[Coptic architecture]] |
* [[Coptic architecture]] |
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==References== |
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==Notes and references== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
{{Reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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* Arnold, Dieter |
* {{cite book |author=Arnold, Dieter |title=The encyclopedia of ancient Egyptian architecture |location=Cairo |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |date=2003 |isbn=9781860644658}} |
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* [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, ''[[Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture]]'', Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). {{ISBN|0-7506-2267-9}}. Cf. Part One, Chapter 3. |
* [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, ''[[Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture]]'', Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). {{ISBN|0-7506-2267-9}}. Cf. Part One, Chapter 3. |
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*{{cite book |author=Hill, Marsha | |
*{{cite book |author=Hill, Marsha |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/74020 |title=Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples |location=New York |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58839-231-2}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Belmonte |first1=Juan Antonio |last2=Shaltout |first2=Mosalam |last3=Fekri |first3=Magdi |chapter=Astronomy, landscape and symbolism: a study of the orientation of ancient Egyptian temples |pages=213–284 |bibcode=2009iscc.book..213B |editor1-last=Belmonte |editor1-first=Juan Antonio |editor2-last=Shaltout |editor2-first=M. A. Mosalam |title=In Search of Cosmic Order: Selected Essays on Egyptian Archaeoastronomy |date=2009 |publisher=Supreme Council of Antiquities Press |isbn=978-977-479-483-4 |
* {{cite book |last1=Belmonte |first1=Juan Antonio |last2=Shaltout |first2=Mosalam |last3=Fekri |first3=Magdi |chapter=Astronomy, landscape and symbolism: a study of the orientation of ancient Egyptian temples |pages=213–284 |bibcode=2009iscc.book..213B |editor1-last=Belmonte |editor1-first=Juan Antonio |editor2-last=Shaltout |editor2-first=M. A. Mosalam |title=In Search of Cosmic Order: Selected Essays on Egyptian Archaeoastronomy |date=2009 |publisher=Supreme Council of Antiquities Press |isbn=978-977-479-483-4}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |