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'''''Aipysurus apraefrontalis''''', commonly known as the '''short-nosed sea snake''' or '''Sahul reef snake''', is a [[critically endangered]] species of venomous [[sea snake]] in the family [[Elapidae]], which occurs on reefs off the northern [[Coastal regions of Western Australia|coast of Western Australia]]. English herpetologist [[Malcolm Arthur Smith]] described the species in 1926 from a specimen collected on the [[Ashmore Reef]]. |
'''''Aipysurus apraefrontalis''''', commonly known as the '''short-nosed sea snake''' or '''Sahul reef snake''', is a [[critically endangered]] species of venomous [[sea snake]] in the family [[Elapidae]], which occurs on reefs off the northern [[Coastal regions of Western Australia|coast of Western Australia]]. English herpetologist [[Malcolm Arthur Smith]] described the species in 1926 from a specimen collected on the [[Ashmore Reef]]. |
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==Description and behaviour== |
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[[File:Aipysurus apraefrontalis specimen (SAMA R68142) head.jpg|thumb|left|The head is distinctively small and pointed]] |
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The mainly brown, slender snakes grow up to {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. Their head is distinctively small and pointed, and there are darker purplish-brown bands over its body.<ref name=cogg2000>{{cite book |last1=Cogger |first1=H.G. |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia |date=2000 |publisher=Reed New Holland |location=Sydney, NSW |edition=6}}</ref> They are long-lived and slow-growing, and their age of sexual maturity is not known.<ref name=2008b>{{cite web|title=North-West Marine Bioregional Plan: Bioregional Profile: A Description of the Ecosystems, Conservation Values and Uses of the North-West Marine Region |date=2008 |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/north-west/bioregional-profile.html |website=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA)|publisher=Canberra: DEWHA |accessdate=24 December 2015}}</ref> They prefer water more than {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=off}} deep, but rest during the day under coral overhangs in water less than {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=off}} deep.<ref name=mcc1975>{{cite book|last1=McCosker|first1=J. E.|editor=Dunson, W. A.|chapter=Feeding behaviour of Indo-Australian Hydrophiidae | title=The Biology of Sea Snakes |date=1975 |publisher=University Park Press |location=Baltimore |pages=217–232}}</ref><ref name = geo>{{cite web |title=Short-nosed sea snake |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/australian-endangered-species/2015/06/short-nosed-sea-snake |website=[[Australian Geographic]] |accessdate=22 December 2015|date=2015-06-12 }}</ref> They forage on [[reef flat]]s and have strong venom which they use on their prey. It is thought that the short-nosed sea snakes mostly prey upon eels,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sanders |first1=Kate |author-link= Kate Sanders|title=Australian endangered species: Sea snakes |url=https://theconversation.com/australian-endangered-species-sea-snakes-12054 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |accessdate=22 December 2015}}</ref> and besides on [[Eviota|gobies]].<ref name=voris>{{cite journal|last1=Voris|first1=H.K.|title=The role of sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) in the trophic structure of coastal oceanic communities |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India|date=1972|volume=14|issue=2|pages=429–442}}</ref> |
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They breathe at the surface, and close the nostril valves during dives which may last as much as two hours. They have only one lung, which is cylindrical and almost as long as the body.<ref name=sprat/> Oxygen is however also absorbed through their skin, which is shed more regularly than land snakes, to rid them from attached marine organisms.<ref name=heat1999/> They are [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] like all in their family, and the whole reproductive cycle takes place at sea.<ref name=2008b/><ref name=sprat/> Male sea snakes have two penises (or [[hemipenes]]), of which only one is employed in the prolonged mating act.<ref name=heat1999>{{cite book |last1=Heatwole |first1=H. |title=Sea Snakes. In: Australian Natural History Series |date=1999 |publisher=UNSW Press |location=Sydney, NSW |page=148}}</ref> A salt excreting gland is located under the tongue. |
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==Range and status== |
==Range and status== |
Revision as of 23:45, 17 July 2019
Short-nosed sea snake | |
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Museum specimen | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Serpentes |
Family: | Elapidae |
Genus: | Aipysurus |
Species: | A. apraefrontalis
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Binomial name | |
Aipysurus apraefrontalis Smith, 1926
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Aipysurus apraefrontalis, commonly known as the short-nosed sea snake or Sahul reef snake, is a critically endangered species of venomous sea snake in the family Elapidae, which occurs on reefs off the northern coast of Western Australia. English herpetologist Malcolm Arthur Smith described the species in 1926 from a specimen collected on the Ashmore Reef.
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Range and status
It is found in the Ashmore and Cartier Islands[1] and the Ningaloo Reef off the coast of Northwestern Australia. It was thought to only breed on Ashmore Reef, where it had not been recorded for fifteen years and hence was feared extinct.[2] A 2015 study found that samples from the short-nosed sea snake, found in Exmouth Gulf, offshore from Roebourne and Broome, and from the Arafura Sea indicated that these represented distinct breeding populations, and not vagrants from elsewhere.[3] A courting pair was observed at the Ningaloo Reef in December 2015, suggesting that a breeding population may be extant there.[4][5]
Threats
Warmer sea temperatures and commercial prawn trawling activities have been highlighted as factors which may negatively impact their numbers.[6] A fair proportion that are caught in trawler nets die from injuries or drowning.[7] Oil spills, water contamination, dredging activities and disturbance or harm caused by increased boat traffic may be additional factors.[8][9] The reason for their decline is however complex, and likely related to a decline in the whole ecosystem.[10] Their reproduction is slow due to their small broods and high rate of juvenile mortality. Females are also unlikely to breed every year.[10]
References
- ^ a b "Aipysurus apraefrontalis: Lukoschek, V., Guinea, M. & Milton, D". 2009. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T176770A7301138.en.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ D'Anastasi, B.R.; van Herwerden, L.; Hobbs, J.A.; Simpfendorfer, C.A.; Lukoschek, V. (2016). "New range and habitat records for threatened Australian sea snakes raise challenges for conservation". Biological Conservation. 194: 66–70. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2015.11.032.
- ^ Sanders, Kate L.; Schroeder, Tina; Guinea, Michael L.; Rasmussen, Arne R. (2015). "Molecules and morphology reveal overlooked populations of two presumed extinct Australian sea snakes (Aipysurus: Hydrophiinae)". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0115679. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115679. PMC 4324969. PMID 25671608.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ "Scientists discover rare sea snakes, previously thought extinct, off Western Australia". phys.org. December 21, 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
- ^ Kagi, Jacob (22 December 2015). "Sea snakes feared extinct found at Ningaloo Reef". ABC News. ABC. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
geo
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Wassenberg, T. J.; Milton, D. A.; Burridge, C. Y. (2001). "Survival rates of sea snakes caught by demersal trawlers in northern and eastern Australia". Biological Conservation. 100 (3): 271–280. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(01)00031-3.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
cogg2000
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Hobday, A. J.; Okey, T. A.; Poloczanska, E. S .; Kunz, T. J.; Richardson, A. J. (2006). Impacts of climate change on Australian Marine Life. Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of the Environment and Heritage.
- ^ a b "Aipysurus apraefrontalis in Species Profile and Threats Database". www.environment.gov.au/sprat. Department of the Environment, Canberra. 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.