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{{short description|Landslide east of Oso, Washington, United States}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2014}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2019}} |
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{{Infobox event |
{{Infobox event |
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| title = <!-- Title to display, if different from page name --> |
| title = <!-- Title to display, if different from page name --> |
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| image = Oso Mudslide 29 March 2014 aerial view 1.jpg |
| image = Oso Mudslide 29 March 2014 aerial view 1.jpg |
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| image_size = 300 |
| image_size = 300 |
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| caption = Oso |
| caption = Oso Mudslide on March 29, 2014, view to the northeast |
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| date = {{start date|2014|3|22}} |
| date = {{start date|2014|3|22}} |
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| time = 10: |
| time = 10:36 a.m. |
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| place = [[Oso, Washington]] |
| place = [[Oso, Washington]] |
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| coordinates = {{Coord|48.28256|-121.84800|format=dms|display=inline,title|type:event_region:US-WA_scale:50000}} |
| coordinates = {{Coord|48.28256|-121.84800|format=dms|display=inline,title|type:event_region:US-WA_scale:50000}} |
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| reported deaths = 43<ref name="OfficialCount"> |
| reported deaths = 43<ref name="OfficialCount"> |
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{{cite web |
{{cite web |
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| title=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update |
| title=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update |
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| url=http://www.snohomishcountywa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3913 |
| url=http://www.snohomishcountywa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3913 |
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| author= Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |
| author= Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |
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| date=July 23, 2014 |
| date=July 23, 2014 |
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| |
| access-date=July 27, 2014 |
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}}</ref> |
}}</ref> |
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| reported injuries = 4 serious<ref name="BermWork">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 7, 2014}}.</ref> |
| reported injuries = 12 total (4 serious)<ref name="BermWork">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 7, 2014}}.</ref> |
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| reported missing = 0<ref name="SheriffMissing"> |
| reported missing = 0<ref name="SheriffMissing">{{cite web |
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| title = SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List |
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{{cite web |
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| title = SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List |
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| url = http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3866 |
| url = http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3866 |
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| author = |
| author = Snohomish County Sheriff's Office |
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| date = May 28, 2014 |
| date = May 28, 2014 |
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| access-date = June 7, 2014 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714205517/http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3866 |
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| archive-date = July 14, 2014 |
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| url-status = dead |
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}}</ref> |
}}</ref> |
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| reported property damage = |
| reported property damage = $60 million (2014 USD) <ref>[https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/stormevents/eventdetails.jsp?id=505782 Storm Events Database], NOAA</ref> |
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{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014c}} |
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</ref> |
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| burial = |
| burial = |
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| inquiries = |
| inquiries = |
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| notes = |
| notes = |
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}} |
}} |
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<!-- Per MOS:BOLDTITLE and WP:SBE, neither the article's title nor related text appears in bold. -->A major [[landslide]] occurred {{convert|4|mi}} east of [[Oso, Washington]], United States, on March 22, 2014, at 10:37 |
<!-- Per MOS:BOLDTITLE and WP:SBE, neither the article's title nor related text appears in bold. -->A major [[landslide]] occurred {{convert|4|mi}} east of [[Oso, Washington]], United States, on March 22, 2014, at 10:37 a.m. local time. A portion of an unstable hill collapsed, sending mud and debris to the south across the North Fork of the [[Stillaguamish River]], engulfing a rural neighborhood, and covering an area of approximately {{convert|1|sqmi|adj=off}}. Forty-three people were killed and 49 homes and other structures destroyed.<ref name="OfficialCount" /> The landslide has been described as one of, if not the most, deadly landslide in American history.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-20 |title=Friday marks 10 years since 43 killed in Oso landslide |url=https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/friday-marks-10-years-since-43-killed-oso-landslide/EIB7MLP3KJEN3HZXHYJQTKGPWI/ |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=[[KIRO 7 News Seattle]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bernhard |first=Jimmy |date=2022-03-22 |title=Remembering the Oso landslide, deadliest in US history, 8 years later |url=https://www.king5.com/article/news/local/oso-landslide/oso-landslide-memorial-steelhead-haven-community-snohomish-county/281-1e91f51d-8f5c-440a-b1fc-5d535f41f067 |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=[[king5.com]] |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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==Overview== |
==Overview== |
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[[File:Stillaguamish River 1198.JPG|left|thumb|2009 view to the southwest overlooking the slide site (on the left) and the Steelhead Haven plat across the Stillaguamish River. The unstable area is the area of lighter green trees to the right and beneath the river section that is visible. The mudslide flowed towards the upper left, across the river. All of the houses visible in the image were destroyed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 3, 2014}}</ref>]] |
[[File:Stillaguamish River 1198.JPG|left|thumb|2009 view to the southwest overlooking the slide site (on the left) and the Steelhead Haven plat across the Stillaguamish River. The unstable area is the area of lighter green trees to the right and beneath the river section that is visible. The mudslide flowed towards the upper left, across the river. All of the houses visible in the image were destroyed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 3, 2014}}</ref>]] |
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The March 2014 landslide engulfed 49 homes and other structures in an unincorporated neighborhood known as "Steelhead Haven" |
The March 2014 landslide engulfed 49 homes and other structures in an unincorporated neighborhood known as "Steelhead Haven" on the south side of the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, approximately {{convert|4|mi|km}} east of [[Oso, Washington]].<ref name="structures"> |
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{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014c}} |
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</ref> It also dammed the river, causing extensive flooding upstream as well as blocking [[Washington State Route 530|State Route 530]], the main route to the town of [[Darrington, Washington|Darrington]] (population 1,347), {{convert|16|mi|km}} east of Oso.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 26, 2014 |title=A brief history of Darrington and Oso |url=https://www.king5.com/article/news/local/oso-landslide/a-brief-history-of-darrington-and-oso/246924308 |publisher=[[KING-TV|KING 5 News]] |access-date=March 20, 2019}}</ref> |
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The natural rock and mineral formation (referred to |
The natural rock and mineral formation (referred to as a "[[geological feature]]") with the most recent activity in the area of Oso is known as the Hazel Landslide; the most recent landslide event was referred to in the media as "The Oso Mudslide".<ref>{{Harvnb|Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Leberfinger| 2014}}; {{Harvnb|NBC News, March 24, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 22, 2014}}.</ref> Excluding landslides caused by [[Volcano|volcanic eruptions]], earthquakes or [[Dam failure|dam collapses]], the Oso slide is the deadliest single landslide event in United States history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Worst Landslides in U.S. History|url=https://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/worst-landslides-in-us-history.html|publisher=Weather Underground| access-date=March 31, 2014}}</ref> |
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The Hazel Landslide has a history of instability dating to 1937.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}; {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}}. <!-- Needs another ref for 1937. -JJ --></ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}; {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}}.</ref> Prior to the March 2014 mudslide, the Oso area |
The Hazel Landslide has a history of instability dating to 1937.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}; {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}}. <!-- Needs another ref for 1937. -JJ --></ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}; {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}}.</ref> Prior to the March 2014 mudslide, the Oso area had heavy rainfall during the previous 45 days, up to 200 percent of normal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leberfinger|2014}}.</ref> The slide, described by witnesses as a "fast-moving wall of mud", contained trees and other debris; it cut through homes directly beneath the hill on the south side of the Stillaguamish River. A firefighter at the scene stated, "When the slide hit the river, it was like a [[tsunami]]." A Washington state geologist stated the slide was one of the largest landslides he had personally seen. The mud, soil and rock debris left from the mudslide covered an area {{convert|1500|ft|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|4400|ft|abbr=on}} wide and deposited debris {{convert|30|to|70|ft|abbr=on}} deep.<ref>[http://q13fox.com/2014/04/03/father-keeps-searching-for-missing-son/#axzz2zMkskjLv Tina Patel, "The mud and debris are 70 feet deep in some places"], Q13 Fox News</ref><ref> |
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* [http://www.historicaerials.com/aerials.php?scale=6&lon=-121.85849656687999&lat=48.283683958846765&year=2006 Fresh landslide tailings depicted in aerial photograph dated 2006], with topology map comparisons (1901–1977), NETROnline.com. {{citation needed|date=April 2014}} |
* [http://www.historicaerials.com/aerials.php?scale=6&lon=-121.85849656687999&lat=48.283683958846765&year=2006 Fresh landslide tailings depicted in aerial photograph dated 2006], with topology map comparisons (1901–1977), NETROnline.com. {{citation needed|date=April 2014}} |
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* {{Harvnb|KING5 News Online, March 23, 2014}}. |
* {{Harvnb|KING5 News Online, March 23, 2014}}. |
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* {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014b}}. |
* {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014b}}. |
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* {{cite web|title=Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide|publisher=KING 5 News and Associated Press|url=http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html| |
* {{cite web|title=Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide|publisher=KING 5 News and Associated Press|url=http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html|access-date=March 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325045513/http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html|archive-date=March 25, 2014|url-status=dead}} {{verify source|date=April 2014}}<!-- ** Incomplete, and title does not match url. ** --> |
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A national geologist stated the flow of the landslide was extreme because of the extraordinary run-out of mud and debris. While the landslide was well documented, a research team from the Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance (GEER) announced in April 2014 that it would investigate the factors contributing to the slide.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilcox|first=Kevin|title=Team Seeks to Learn From Fatal Landslide|journal=Civil Engineering|date=April 22, 2014|url=http://www.asce.org/cemagazine/Article.aspx?id=23622330614#.U10YjfPn90h| |
</ref> A national geologist stated the flow of the landslide was extreme because of the extraordinary run-out of mud and debris. While the landslide was well documented, a research team from the Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance (GEER) announced in April 2014 that it would investigate the factors contributing to the slide.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilcox|first=Kevin|title=Team Seeks to Learn From Fatal Landslide|journal=Civil Engineering|date=April 22, 2014|url=http://www.asce.org/cemagazine/Article.aspx?id=23622330614#.U10YjfPn90h|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428172038/http://www.asce.org/cemagazine/Article.aspx?id=23622330614#.U10YjfPn90h|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 28, 2014|access-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref> |
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==Casualties and damage== |
==Casualties and damage== |
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More than 100 [[first responder]]s from [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish County]] and other surrounding counties were dispatched to assist with emergency medical and search-and-rescue efforts, including the Navy's search and rescue unit stationed at nearby [[Naval Air Station Whidbey Island]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whidbey News-Times, March 26, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Leberfinger| 2014}}; {{Harvnb|NBC News, March 24, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 22, 2014}}.</ref> Over 600 personnel, including more than 160 volunteers, worked on landslide recovery operations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sunday night 530 landslide update|url=http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181|author= |
More than 100 [[first responder]]s from [[Snohomish County, Washington|Snohomish County]] and other surrounding counties were dispatched to assist with emergency medical and search-and-rescue efforts, including the Navy's search and rescue unit stationed at nearby [[Naval Air Station Whidbey Island]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Whidbey News-Times, March 26, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Leberfinger| 2014}}; {{Harvnb|NBC News, March 24, 2014}}; {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 22, 2014}}.</ref> Over 600 personnel, including more than 160 volunteers, worked on landslide recovery operations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sunday night 530 landslide update|url=http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181|author=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office|date=April 1, 2014|access-date=April 1, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407193345/http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181|archive-date=April 7, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Late in the evening of March 22, 2014, Washington's Lieutenant Governor [[Brad Owen]] declared a [[state of emergency]] in Snohomish County. Washington state Governor [[Jay Inslee]] toured the area by air the following day before joining county officials at a news conference.<ref>{{cite |
Late in the evening of March 22, 2014, Washington's Lieutenant Governor [[Brad Owen]] declared a [[state of emergency]] in Snohomish County. Washington state Governor [[Jay Inslee]] toured the area by air the following day before joining county officials at a news conference.<ref>{{cite news|title=Landslide kills three, injures others in Washington state|date=March 23, 2014|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-mudslide-washingtonstate-idUSBREA2L0R020140323|access-date=March 23, 2014|last1=Kaminsky|first1=Jonathan}}</ref> |
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On |
On the day of the slide, eight people were rescued and taken to regional hospitals.<ref name="Berman Washington Post" /> While the official search for victims ended in April 2014, workers and volunteers continued to screen debris and look for one victim still unaccounted for. On July 22, 2014 the Snohomish County Sheriff's Office confirmed 43 fatalities after remains of the final victim had been located and identified.<ref>{{cite web |agency=Associated Press |title=Last body found in Washington mudslide |url=http://mynorthwest.com/174/2570325/Last-body-found-in-Washington-mudslide |website=MYNorthwest.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808051439/http://mynorthwest.com/174/2570325/Last-body-found-in-Washington-mudslide |archive-date=August 8, 2014 |language=English |date=July 22, 2014 |url-status=dead |access-date=July 22, 2014 }}</ref> |
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The slide blocked the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, causing it to back up eastward. Because of concerns that the mud and [[debris dam]] could fail and cause downstream flooding, the [[National Weather Service]] (NWS) issued a [[flash flood watch]]. On April 2, with the river flowing in a new channel at the north end of the debris dam, the service lifted the flash flood watch. Flooding due to the partially obstructed river continued to occur upstream of the debris dam.<ref>{{cite web|title=Flash Flood Watch|url=http://forecast.weather.gov/showsigwx.php?warnzone=WAZ518&warncounty=WAC061&firewxzone=WAZ656&local_place1=&product1=Flash+Flood+Watch#.UzDXWVxrpzQ|publisher =National Weather Service| |
The slide blocked the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, causing it to back up eastward. Because of concerns that the mud and [[debris dam]] could fail and cause downstream flooding, the [[National Weather Service]] (NWS) issued a [[flash flood watch]]. On April 2, 2014, with the river flowing in a new channel at the north end of the debris dam, the service lifted the flash flood watch. Flooding due to the partially obstructed river continued to occur upstream of the debris dam.<ref>{{cite web|title=Flash Flood Watch|url=http://forecast.weather.gov/showsigwx.php?warnzone=WAZ518&warncounty=WAC061&firewxzone=WAZ656&local_place1=&product1=Flash+Flood+Watch#.UzDXWVxrpzQ|publisher =National Weather Service|access-date=March 27, 2014}}</ref> As a result, the NWS continued to issue flood warnings for the Stillaguamish one month after the March 2014 slide.<ref>[http://forecast.weather.gov/showsigwx.php?warnzone=WAZ505&warncounty=WAC061#.U1MhY6LGBAI National Weather Service Watches, Warnings & Advisories; Flood Statement National Weather Service, Seattle, WA 327 PM PDT Sat Apr 19 2014]</ref> |
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State Route 530 was indefinitely closed after the slide by the [[Washington State Department of Transportation]] (WSDOT), with an alternative local route opened the following week after snow was cleared from the unpaved portion of [[Mountain Loop Highway]] south of Darrington.<ref>{{cite web|title=SR 530 Landslide|url=http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR530/Landslide/|publisher=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]]| |
State Route 530 was indefinitely closed after the slide by the [[Washington State Department of Transportation]] (WSDOT), with an alternative local route opened the following week after snow was cleared from the unpaved portion of [[Mountain Loop Highway]] south of Darrington.<ref>{{cite web|title=SR 530 Landslide|url=http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR530/Landslide/|publisher=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]]|access-date=March 26, 2014}}</ref> The highway was cleared enough by May 31 to open one lane of escorted traffic. Because the highway was badly damaged, and because the topography of the area had been altered by the landslide, WSDOT decided to elevate that section of the highway when it was rebuilt. The new roadway was opened September 22,<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.arlingtontimes.com/news/276497641.html|title = Highway 530 reopens 6 months after Oso slide|date = September 23, 2014|work = Arlington Times|access-date = September 23, 2014}}</ref> ahead of schedule of the projected completion date of early October 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rebuilding SR 530|url=http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR530/Landslide/|publisher=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]]|access-date=July 28, 2014}}</ref> |
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==Federal aid== |
==Federal aid== |
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On April 3, the mudslide was declared a major disaster by President [[Barack Obama]]. The declaration was requested on April 1 by Governor Inslee, who stated that approximately 30 families needed help with housing and other needs. Inslee said that financial loss estimates had reached $10 |
On April 3, the mudslide was declared a major disaster by President [[Barack Obama]]. The declaration was requested on April 1 by Governor Inslee, who stated that approximately 30 families needed help with housing and other needs. Inslee said that financial loss estimates had reached $10 million. Snohomish County Emergency Management Director John Pennington advised residents to register with [[Federal Emergency Management Agency|FEMA]].<ref>[http://www.kvue.com/news/253727261.html "Obama declares major disaster for Oso landslide"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073456/http://www.kvue.com/news/253727261.html |date=April 7, 2014 }}, KING 5 News and Associated Press via KVUE, April 3, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.</ref> Four days later, during passage of the [[Green Mountain Lookout Heritage Protection Act]], Senator [[Patty Murray]] (D-WA) mentioned the landslide, saying the bill would "provide a glimmer of hope for the long-term recovery of this area."<ref name=SenateApprovesAp3>{{cite news|last=Cox|first=Ramsey|title=Senate approves small bill to help Oso recovery|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/floor-action/senate/202617-senate-approves-small-bill-to-aid-oso-landslide-victims/|access-date=April 8, 2014|work=The Hill|date=April 3, 2014}}</ref> |
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On April 22, President Obama visited the west side of the slide area. After arriving in [[Air Force One]] at [[Paine Field]] in [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], he met with officials and boarded [[Marine One]]. There, he was joined by Governor Inslee and Senators Patty Murray and [[Maria Cantwell]] as well as Rep. [[Suzan DelBene]] for a flyover of the slide and debris field. After viewing the site, the president met privately with survivors, families of the victims, and some of the scene's first responders and rescuers at |
On April 22, President Obama visited the west side of the slide area. After arriving in [[Air Force One]] at [[Paine Field]] in [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], he met with officials and boarded [[Marine One]]. There, he was joined by Governor Inslee and Senators Patty Murray and [[Maria Cantwell]] as well as Rep. [[Suzan DelBene]] for a flyover of the slide and debris field. After viewing the site, the president met privately with survivors, families of the victims, and some of the scene's first responders and rescuers at the Oso fire hall.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 22, 2014}}</ref> |
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== Controversy == |
== Controversy == |
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=== "Completely unforeseen" === |
=== "Completely unforeseen" remark === |
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[[File:Oso Mudslide 22 March 2014 Mountain view.jpg|thumbnail|right|Top view of slide area]] |
[[File:Oso Mudslide 22 March 2014 Mountain view.jpg|thumbnail|right|Top view of slide area]] |
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On March 24, two days after the slide, John Pennington, Director of Snohomish County's Department of Emergency Management, stated at a news conference, "This was a completely unforeseen slide. This came out of nowhere."<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a}}.</ref> The same day ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' published an article<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}.</ref> about previous slides at the same location, as well as the likelihood of future slides. The article contained comments from geologists, engineers, and local residents, and stated that the area was known among locals as "Slide Hill". On the next day, ''The Times'' followed up with a full page article, "'Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Snohomish County Public Works Director Steve Thomsen was quoted as saying, "A slide of this magnitude is very difficult to predict. There was no indication, no indication at all." |
On March 24, two days after the slide, John Pennington, Director of Snohomish County's Department of Emergency Management, stated at a news conference, "This was a completely unforeseen slide. This came out of nowhere."<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a}}.</ref> The same day ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' published an article<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}}.</ref> about previous slides at the same location, as well as the likelihood of future slides. The article contained comments from geologists, engineers, and local residents, and stated that the area was known among locals as "Slide Hill". On the next day, ''The Times'' followed up with a full page article, {{" '}}Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Snohomish County Public Works Director Steve Thomsen was quoted as saying, "A slide of this magnitude is very difficult to predict. There was no indication, no indication at all." |
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[[File:Oso Mudslide 29 March 2014 aerial view 3.jpg|thumbnail|left|Aerial view of slide ridge]] |
[[File:Oso Mudslide 29 March 2014 aerial view 3.jpg|thumbnail|left|Aerial view of slide ridge]] |
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On March 27, 2014, ''The Seattle Times'' reported<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 27, 2014}}.</ref> that a 2010 study, commissioned by the county, warned the hillside above Steelhead Drive was one of the most dangerous in the county. According to Rob Flaner, one of the authors of the 2010 report, "For someone to say that this plan did not warn that this was a risk is a falsity."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In the days following the slide, criticism of Snohomish County officials received national attention in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' editorial.<ref>{{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014b}}.</ref> ''The Seattle Times'' further reported that in 2004, county officials became concerned about the possibility of a dangerous landslide in the Steelhead Haven area, and considered buying out the homes of that area's residents. The idea was rejected with the county building a new wall in an attempt to stabilize the slope. Some disaster experts criticized this decision as a serious mistake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Christian Science Monitor, April 5, 2014}}</ref> According to environmental engineer and applied geomorphologist Tracy Drury, "[after the 2006 slide they] didn't even stop pounding nails." As to any kind of buy-out program, Drury further stated, "I think we did the best we could under the constraints that nobody wanted to sell their property and move elsewhere."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> |
On March 27, 2014, ''The Seattle Times'' reported<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 27, 2014}}.</ref> that a 2010 study, commissioned by the county, warned the hillside above Steelhead Drive was one of the most dangerous in the county. According to Rob Flaner, one of the authors of the 2010 report, "For someone to say that this plan did not warn that this was a risk is a falsity."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> In the days following the slide, criticism of Snohomish County officials received national attention in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' editorial.<ref>{{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014b}}.</ref> ''The Seattle Times'' further reported that in 2004, county officials became concerned about the possibility of a dangerous landslide in the Steelhead Haven area, and considered buying out the homes of that area's residents. The idea was rejected with the county building a new wall in an attempt to stabilize the slope. Some disaster experts criticized this decision as a serious mistake.<ref>{{Harvnb|Christian Science Monitor, April 5, 2014}}</ref> According to environmental engineer and applied [[geomorphologist]] Tracy Drury, "[after the 2006 slide they] didn't even stop pounding nails." As to any kind of buy-out program, Drury further stated, "I think we did the best we could under the constraints that nobody wanted to sell their property and move elsewhere."<ref name="ReferenceA"/> |
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Repairs to the slide area extend back several decades prior to the March 2014 slide. A rock [[revetment]] installed in 1962 to protect the toe of the slide area from erosion from the river was overrun by a slide two years later. An effort in 2006 to move the river 430 feet (130 m) south of the erosion area failed when another landslide moved the river a total of 730 |
Repairs to the slide area extend back several decades prior to the March 2014 slide. A rock [[revetment]] installed in 1962 to protect the toe of the slide area from erosion from the river was overrun by a slide two years later. An effort in 2006 to move the river 430 feet (130 m) south of the erosion area failed when another landslide moved the river a total of 730{{nbsp}}feet (220{{nbsp}}m).<ref><!-- ** Please, WE DO NOT NEED 'CONVERT' here; this is a comparison between values. --> {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a}}.</ref> |
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=== Logging === |
=== Logging === |
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In the days following the slide, scientists questioned whether logging in the area could have been a factor contributing to the hillside collapse.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2014/04/02/Logging-may-have-contributed-to-deadly-Washington-landslide/6281396450706/ UPI Science News; "Logging may have contributed to deadly Washington landslide"]</ref><ref name="Stranger, March 27, 2014">{{Harvnb|Stranger, March 27, 2014}}</ref> Grandy Lake Forest Associates of [[Mount Vernon, Washington]]<ref>[http://earthfix.opb.org/land/article/concern-over-landslide-logging-connection-near-oso/ Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old]</ref> proposed a 15-acre (6 ha) clearcut at the upper edge of the Oso landslide zone in 2004. Washington state forester Aaron Everett stated in an interview with [[KUOW-FM|KUOW]] that the application was rejected and "The one that was approved in the end eliminated the part of the harvest that would have been inside the groundwater recharge area." Everett further stated the resulting 7-acre (2.8 ha) clearcut operation reached to the edge of the groundwater danger zone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |title=Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone | Northwest Public Radio |publisher=Nwpr.org |date |
In the days following the slide, scientists questioned whether logging in the area could have been a factor contributing to the hillside collapse.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2014/04/02/Logging-may-have-contributed-to-deadly-Washington-landslide/6281396450706/ UPI Science News; "Logging may have contributed to deadly Washington landslide"]</ref><ref name="Stranger, March 27, 2014">{{Harvnb|Stranger, March 27, 2014}}</ref> Grandy Lake Forest Associates of [[Mount Vernon, Washington]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140330144327/http://earthfix.opb.org/land/article/concern-over-landslide-logging-connection-near-oso/ Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old]</ref> proposed a 15-acre (6 ha) clearcut at the upper edge of the Oso landslide zone in 2004. Washington state forester Aaron Everett stated in an interview with [[KUOW-FM|KUOW]] that the application was rejected and "The one that was approved in the end eliminated the part of the harvest that would have been inside the groundwater recharge area." Everett further stated the resulting 7-acre (2.8 ha) clearcut operation reached to the edge of the groundwater danger zone.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331112759/http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 31, 2014 |title=Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone | Northwest Public Radio |publisher=Nwpr.org |access-date=March 31, 2014 }}</ref> An investigation is being conducted to determine whether Grandy Lake crossed into the restricted area that could theoretically feed groundwater into the landslide zone, affecting it for 16 to 27 years.<ref>{{cite news|title=Logging OK'd in 2004 may have exceeded approved boundary |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023235343_mudslideovercutxml.html|newspaper=The Seattle Times|author= Mike Baker and Justin Mayo|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref> |
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== Aftermath == |
== Aftermath == |
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Two years after the mudslide, about 11,000 tons of wreckage had been removed from the slide area. |
Two years after the mudslide, about 11,000 tons of wreckage had been removed from the slide area. Thirty-four parcels of land had been purchased by Snohomish County from owners of property too dangerous for residences. Properties in the area bordering State Route 530 and across from the slide area remained salable.<ref name="Lacitis2016">{{cite web|last1=Lacitis|first1=Erik|title=2 years since Oso slide, a quiet renewal amid the sorrow|url=http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/northwest/2-years-since-oso-slide-a-quiet-renewal-amid-the-sorrow/|publisher=Seattle Times|access-date=September 9, 2016|date=March 21, 2016}}</ref> |
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In October 2016, survivors and the victims' families reached settlements with the State of Washington and a timber company, Grandy Lake Forest Associates, for $50 |
In October 2016, survivors and the victims' families reached settlements with the State of Washington and a timber company, Grandy Lake Forest Associates, for $50 million and $10 million respectively.<ref name="CBS2016">{{cite news|title=Families reach $10 million settlement with Grandy Lake Forest Associates over deadly 2014 landslide|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/families-10-million-settlement-grandy-lake-forest-associates-deadly-2014-landslide/|access-date=October 10, 2016|agency=CBS News|date=October 10, 2016}}</ref> |
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== |
== Site memorials == |
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Alongside State Route 530, the entrance to what was Steelhead Drive is closed by a gate that |
Alongside State Route 530, the entrance to what was Steelhead Drive is closed by a gate that was decorated by impromptu memorials. Alongside, three rows of 43 cedar trees were planted, one for each of the victims.<ref name="Lacitis2016"/> At the time of the planting, each tree was decorated with mementos specific to each person.<ref name="Lacitis2016"/> |
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In September 2017, one of the few trees in the path of the slide that remained standing near Highway 530 and was seen by locals as a memorial was cut down as a [[danger tree]]. County officials decided to cut the [[Sitka spruce]] tree down after it was determined its roots had sustained enough damage that it could no longer be considered stable and not a hazard to both the Whitehorse Trail parallel to the highway as well as the highway itself. Following the slide, a memorial sign carved out of cedar and reading, "Oso. 10:45 a.m. 3/22/14", was placed on the spruce and remained until the tree was removed.<ref name="tree spokesmanreview">{{Cite web |url=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/sep/17/massive-tree-that-withstood-deadly-oso-mudslide-co/ |title=Massive tree that withstood deadly Oso mudslide comes down |last=King |first=Rikki |date=September 17, 2017 |website=spokesman.com |access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref><ref name="tree kiro7">{{Cite web |url=https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/tree-that-withstood-oso-slide-comes-down/610439472 |title=Tree that withstood Oso slide comes down |last=Bhoolsuwan |first=Patranya |date=September 16, 2017 |access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref><ref name="tree king5">{{Cite web |url=https://www.king5.com/article/news/local/oso-tree-cut-down-but-not-communitys-strength/475612108 |title=Oso tree cut down, but not community's strength |last=Tan |first=LiLi |date=September 17, 2017 |website=king5.com |access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref> The Snohomish County Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism announced on March 22, 2018, that plans had begun for the [[Oso Landslide Memorial]], a permanent memorial commemorating the victims. The tribute is set to be built at the location of the slide and fundraising efforts are underway with wood from the formerly standing memorial tree to be repurposed and used for the permanent display.<ref name="memorial planned">{{Cite web |url=https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/plans-underway-for-oso-memorial-4-years-after-devastating-landslide/720083016 |title=Plans underway for Oso memorial 4 years after devastating landslide |last=News Staff |first=KIRO 7 |date=March 22, 2018 |access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref><ref name="tree king5" /> |
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== Ground activity surrounding the slide == |
== Ground activity surrounding the slide == |
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[[File:Oso |
[[File:Oso Landslide aerial.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of the damage]] |
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Ground vibrations generated by the Oso landslide were recorded at several regional stations and subsequently analyzed by the [[Pacific Northwest Seismic Network]] (PNSN). The initial collapse began at 10:37:22 |
Ground vibrations generated by the Oso landslide were recorded at several regional stations and subsequently analyzed by the [[Pacific Northwest Seismic Network]] (PNSN). The initial collapse began at 10:37:22 a.m. local time (PDT; 17:37:22 UTC), lasting approximately 2.5 minutes. Debris loosened by initial collapse is believed to contain material previously disturbed and weakened by the 2006 slide. Following the initial event was another large slide occurring at 10:41:53 PDT. |
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Additional events, most likely smaller landslides breaking off the head scarp, continued for several hours. The last notable signal came at 14:10:15.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allstadt|2014}}.</ref> Examination of records from the nearest seismic station {{convert|7|mi|abbr=on}} to the southwest indicate small seismic events started around 8 a.m. the day of the slide and stopped in the late afternoon. However, they were not detected at the next nearest seismic station. They are also seen in the days before and after the slide, but only during daylight hours. They are believed to be related to some kind of human activity. No other indications of possible precursors have been found.<ref name="Allstadt 2014"/> |
Additional events, most likely smaller landslides breaking off the head scarp, continued for several hours. The last notable signal came at 14:10:15.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allstadt|2014}}.</ref> Examination of records from the nearest seismic station {{convert|7|mi|abbr=on}} to the southwest indicate small seismic events started around 8 a.m. the day of the slide and stopped in the late afternoon. However, they were not detected at the next nearest seismic station. They are also seen in the days before and after the slide, but only during daylight hours. They are believed to be related to some kind of human activity. No other indications of possible precursors have been found.<ref name="Allstadt 2014"/> |
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In the days following the slide, Snohomish County Emergency Management Director John Pennington speculated a 1.1 magnitude earthquake on March 10 may have triggered the landslide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014c}}; {{Harvnb|CBC News, March 25, 2014}}.</ref> Data collected by the PNSN shows a magnitude 1.1 earthquake on that date in the vicinity of the Oso landslide (about 2 ±0.8 km to the northeast), at a depth of 3.9 ±1.9 km.<ref name="Allstadt 2014">{{Harvnb|Allstadt|2014}} (PNSN).</ref><ref>[ |
In the days following the slide, Snohomish County Emergency Management Director John Pennington speculated a 1.1 magnitude earthquake on March 10 may have triggered the landslide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014c}}; {{Harvnb|CBC News, March 25, 2014}}.</ref> Data collected by the PNSN shows a magnitude 1.1 earthquake on that date in the vicinity of the Oso landslide (about 2 ±0.8 km to the northeast), at a depth of 3.9 ±1.9 km.<ref name="Allstadt 2014">{{Harvnb|Allstadt|2014}} (PNSN).</ref><ref>[https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/uw60715651#summary M1.1 – 18km WNW of Darrington, Washington (BETA)]</ref> Regardless, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) determined the slide was not caused by seismic activity.<ref>[http://q13fox.com/2014/03/27/usgs-says-landslide-not-caused-by-earthquake/ USGS states slide not caused by seismic activity]{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}</ref> |
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==Geological context== |
==Geological context== |
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The landslide occurred at the southeastern edge of ''Whitman Bench'', a land terrace about {{convert|800|ft|abbr=on}} above the valley floor and consisting of gravel and sand deposited during the most recent glaciation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|USGS OFR 2014-1065}}. |
The landslide occurred at the southeastern edge of ''Whitman Bench'', a land terrace about {{convert|800|ft|abbr=on}} above the valley floor and consisting of gravel and sand deposited during the most recent glaciation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|USGS OFR 2014-1065}}. |
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</ref> When the Puget Lobe of the [[Cordilleran Ice Sheet]] moved south from [[British Columbia]], Canada filling the Puget Lowland, various mountain valleys were dammed and lakes were formed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tabor|Booth|Vance|Ford| 2002}} (Sauk River Quadrangle). |
</ref> When the Puget Lobe of the [[Cordilleran Ice Sheet]] moved south from [[British Columbia]], Canada filling the Puget Lowland, various mountain valleys were dammed and lakes were formed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tabor|Booth|Vance|Ford| 2002}} (Sauk River Quadrangle). |
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</ref> Sediment washed down from the higher mountains settled in the lake bottoms, forming a layer of clay. |
</ref> Sediment washed down from the higher mountains settled in the lake bottoms, forming a layer of clay. |
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As the glacial ice pressed higher against the western end of [[Mount Frailey]], water flowing around the edge of the ice from the north was forced around the mountain, eventually pouring in through the long valley extending to the northwest and now occupied by [[Lake Cavanaugh]]. Sand and gravel carried by the flow and entering the glacial lake dropped out to form a delta, the remnant of which is now known as Whitman Bench.<ref>The areas predominantly containing gravel and sand are shown as "Qgog<sub>e</sub>" and "Qgos<sub>e</sub>", respectively. "Qgl<sub>e</sub>" and "Qgl<sub>v</sub>" mark exposures of the underlying clay and silt with "Qls" marking landslide complexes. {{Harvnb|Mount Higgins}}; {{Harvnb|Dragovich|Stanton|2007}} (DDMF). |
As the glacial ice pressed higher against the western end of [[Mount Frailey]], water flowing around the edge of the ice from the north was forced around the mountain, eventually pouring in through the long valley extending to the northwest and now occupied by [[Lake Cavanaugh]]. Sand and gravel carried by the flow and entering the glacial lake dropped out to form a delta, the remnant of which is now known as Whitman Bench.<ref>The areas predominantly containing gravel and sand are shown as "Qgog<sub>e</sub>" and "Qgos<sub>e</sub>", respectively. "Qgl<sub>e</sub>" and "Qgl<sub>v</sub>" mark exposures of the underlying clay and silt with "Qls" marking landslide complexes. {{Harvnb|Mount Higgins}}; {{Harvnb|Dragovich|Stanton|2007}} (DDMF). |
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</ref> |
</ref> |
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Following the glacier's retreat and allowing for the lake to be released, the river carved out most of the clay and silt deposits, leaving the former delta "hanging" approximately {{convert|650|ft|abbr=on}} above the current valley floor<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=1}}.</ref> When the sand portion of a deposit has very little clay or "fines" to cement it together, it is structurally weak, leaving the area around it vulnerable. Such an area is also sensitive to water accumulation, increasing the internal "pore" pressure and subsequently contributing to ground failure. Water infiltrating from the surface will flow through the surface, save for contact with the less permeable clay, allowing the water to accumulate and form a zone of stability weakness.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|loc=p. 1}}.</ref> |
Following the glacier's retreat and allowing for the lake to be released, the river carved out most of the clay and silt deposits, leaving the former delta "hanging" approximately {{convert|650|ft|abbr=on}} above the current valley floor<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=1}}.</ref> When the sand portion of a deposit has very little clay or "fines" to cement it together, it is structurally weak, leaving the area around it vulnerable. Such an area is also sensitive to water accumulation, increasing the internal "pore" pressure and subsequently contributing to ground failure. Water infiltrating from the surface will flow through the surface, save for contact with the less permeable clay, allowing the water to accumulate and form a zone of stability weakness.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|loc=p. 1}}.</ref> |
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Such variations in pore pressure and water flux are one of the primary factors leading to slope failure. In case of the area of the Stillaguamish River where the March 2014 slide occurred, erosion at the base of the slope from the river flow further contributes to slope instability.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=4}}.</ref> Such conditions have created an extensive series of landslide complexes on both sides of the Stillaguamish valley. Additional benches on the margin of Whitman Bench are due to deep-seated slumping of large blocks, which also creates planes of weakness for future slippage and channels for water infiltration.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|Sias|1997|loc= Figure 1.3}}.</ref> |
Such variations in pore pressure and water flux are one of the primary factors leading to slope failure. In case of the area of the Stillaguamish River where the March 2014 slide occurred, erosion at the base of the slope from the river flow further contributes to slope instability.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=4}}.</ref> Such conditions have created an extensive series of landslide complexes on both sides of the Stillaguamish valley. Additional benches on the margin of Whitman Bench are due to deep-seated slumping of large blocks, which also creates planes of weakness for future slippage and channels for water infiltration.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|Sias|1997|loc= Figure 1.3}}.</ref> |
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== History of slide activity == |
== History of slide activity == |
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According to a 1999 report submitted to the Army Corps of Engineers<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=2}}.</ref> by geologist Daniel J. Miller, PhD:<ref>[http://www.ausgeos.com.au/cv/D_MIller_CV_AusGeos_13.pdf Geologist Daniel J. Miller Ph.D. curriculum vitae online]</ref> |
According to a 1999 report submitted to the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1999|p=2}}.</ref> by geologist Daniel J. Miller, PhD:<ref>[http://www.ausgeos.com.au/cv/D_MIller_CV_AusGeos_13.pdf Geologist Daniel J. Miller Ph.D. curriculum vitae online]</ref> |
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<blockquote>The Hazel landslide has been active for over half a century. Thorsen (1996) noted a tight river bend impinging on the north bank with active landslides visible in 1937 aerial photographs. The next 60 years involves two periods of relatively low landslide activity, and two periods of relatively high activity, the last of which extends to this day [1999].</blockquote> |
<blockquote>The Hazel landslide has been active for over half a century. Thorsen (1996) noted a tight river bend impinging on the north bank with active landslides visible in 1937 aerial photographs. The next 60 years involves two periods of relatively low landslide activity, and two periods of relatively high activity, the last of which extends to this day [1999].</blockquote> |
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* 1967 January: slump of a large block and accompanying mud flows push the river channel about {{convert|700|ft|abbr=on}} south. This protects the toe from erosion, activity is minor for about two decades. |
* 1967 January: slump of a large block and accompanying mud flows push the river channel about {{convert|700|ft|abbr=on}} south. This protects the toe from erosion, activity is minor for about two decades. |
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* 1988 November: erosion of the toe leads to another slide, and the river is again moved south, but not as far as in 1967. |
* 1988 November: erosion of the toe leads to another slide, and the river is again moved south, but not as far as in 1967. |
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* 2006 January 25: large slide blocks the river, new channel is cut to alleviate flooding.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, January 27, 2006}}. See also [http://stillaguamish.nsn.us/Publish/Steelhead%20Landslide.pdf Steelhead Landslide pictures].</ref> |
* 2006 January 25: large slide blocks the river, new channel is cut to alleviate flooding.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seattle Times, January 27, 2006}}. See also [https://web.archive.org/web/20101201015157/http://stillaguamish.nsn.us/Publish/Steelhead%20Landslide.pdf Steelhead Landslide pictures].</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Portal|United States}} |
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* [[2006 Southern Leyte mudslide]] |
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* [[Debris flow]] |
* [[Debris flow]] |
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* [[Mudflow]] |
* [[Mudflow]] |
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* [[Landslide]] |
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* [[Mass wasting]] |
* [[Mass wasting]] |
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* [[Landslide classification#Rotational slides|Rotational slides]] |
* [[Landslide classification#Rotational slides|Rotational slides]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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* {{Citation |first1=Kate |last1=Allstadt |date=March 26, 2014 |title=Seismic signals generated by the March 22nd Oso Landslide |publisher=Seismo Blog: Updates and dispatches from the PNSN |author-link=Kate Allstadt |url=http://www.pnsn.org/blog/2014/03/26/seismic-signals-generated-by-the-march-22nd-oso-landslide}}. |
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|title= Seismic signals generated by the March 22nd Oso Landslide |
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* ''[[The Bellingham Herald]]'': {{Cite news |ref=CITEREFBellingham Herald, January 23, 2009 |last=Stark |first=John |date=January 23, 2009 |title=Lands commissioner tours landslide areas in Whatcom County |newspaper=The Bellingham Herald |access-date=March 30, 2014 |url=http://wflc.org/inthenews/landslidesflooding/1.23.09BellinghamHerald/view}} |
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* ''[[The Bellingham Herald]]'': {{Cite news |
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|title = Lands commissioner tours landslide areas in Whatcom County |
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* {{Cite journal |last1=Benda |first1=L. |first2=G. |last2=Thorsen |first3=S. |last3=Bemath |year=1988 |title=Report of the ID Team Investigation of the Hazel Landslide on the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River |journal=Unpublished. DNR NW Region, FPA |pages=19–09420}} |
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|title = Report of the ID Team Investigation of the Hazel Landslide on the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River |
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* CBC News: {{Cite news |ref=CITEREFCBC News, March 25, 2014 |first1=Mike |last1=Lanela |date=March 25, 2014 |title=Washington state mudslide preceded by small earthquake |publisher=[[CBC News]] |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/washington-state-mudslide-preceded-by-small-earthquake-1.2585733}} |
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* {{Citation |first1=Joe D. |last1=Dragovich |first2=Benjamin |last2=Stanton |year=2007 |title=The Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault – A probably active reverse-oblique-slip fault zone in Skagit and Island Counties, Washington |journal=Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources |volume=Open-File Report 2007-2 |at=1 sheet, scale 1:31,104 |url=http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2007-2_darrington_devils_mountain_fault.zip}}. |
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* {{Citation |ref=CITEREFMount Higgins |first1=Joe D. |last1=Dragovich |first2=Benjamin W. |last2=Stanton |first3=William S. |last3=Lingley Jr. |first4=Gerry A. |last4=Griesel |first5=Michael |last5=Polenz |year=2003 |title=Geologic Map of the Mount Higgins 7.5-minute Quadrangle, Skagit and Snohomish Counties, Washington |journal=Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources |volume=Open-File Report 2003-12 |at=1 sheet, scale 1:24,000 |url=http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2003-12_geol_map_mounthiggins_24k.pdf}}. |
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|at= 1 sheet, scale 1:31,104 |
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|url= http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2007-2_darrington_devils_mountain_fault.zip |
|||
}}. |
|||
*{{Citation |
|||
|ref= CITEREFMount Higgins |
|||
|first1= Joe D. |last1= Dragovich |
|||
|first2= Benjamin W. |last2= Stanton |
|||
|first3= William S. |last3=Lingley Jr. |
|||
|first4= Gerry A. |last4= Griesel |
|||
|first5= Michael |last5= Polenz |
|||
|year= 2003 |
|||
|title= Geologic Map of the Mount Higgins 7.5-minute Quadrangle, Skagit and Snohomish Counties, Washington |
|||
|journal= Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources |
|||
|volume= Open-File Report 2003-12 |
|||
|at= 1 sheet, scale 1:24,000 |
|||
|url= http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_ofr2003-12_geol_map_mounthiggins_24k.pdf |
|||
}}. |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|GEER Report|2014|loc= §}} Specify section, figure, or page. --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|GEER Report|2014|loc= §}} Specify section, figure, or page. --> |
||
* GEER Report: {{Citation |ref=CITEREFGEER Report2014 |first1=Jeffrey R. |last1=Keaton |first2=Joseph |last2=Wartman |first3=Scott |last3=Anderson |first4=Jean |last4=Benoît |first5=John |last5=deLaChapelle |first6=Robert |last6=Gilbert |first7=David R. |last7=Montgomery |date=July 22, 2014 |title=The 22 March 2014 Oso Landslide, Snohomish County, Washington |publisher=Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance |url=https://snohomishcountywa.gov/DocumentCenter/View/18180}}. |
|||
* GEER Report: {{Citation |
|||
|ref= CITEREFGEER Report2014 |
|||
|first1= Jeffrey R. |last1= Keaton |
|||
|first2= Joseph |last2= Wartman |
|||
|first3= Scott |last3= Anderson |
|||
|first4= Jean |last4= Benoît |
|||
|first5= John |last5= deLaChapelle |
|||
|first6= Robert |last6= Gilbert |
|||
|first7= David R. |last7= Montgomery |
|||
|date= July 22, 2014 |
|||
|title= The 22 March 2014 Oso Landslide, Snohomish County, Washington |
|||
|publisher= Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance |
|||
|url= https://snohomishcountywa.gov/DocumentCenter/View/18180 |
|||
}}. |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|USGS OFR 2014-1065}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|USGS OFR 2014-1065}} --> |
||
* {{Citation |ref=CITEREFUSGS OFR 2014-1065 |first1=Ralph A. |last1=Haugerud |year=2014 |title=Preliminary interpretation of pre-2014 landslide deposits in the vicinity of Oso, Washington |journal=U.S. Geological Survey |series=Open-File Report |volume=Open-File Report 2014-1065 |doi=10.3133/ofr20141065 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2014/1065/pdf/ofr2014-1065.pdf |doi-access=free}}. |
|||
*{{Citation |
|||
|ref= CITEREFUSGS OFR 2014-1065 |
|||
|first1= Ralph A. |last1= Haugerud |
|||
|year= 2014 |
|||
|title= Preliminary interpretation of pre-2014 landslide deposits in the vicinity of Oso, Washington |
|||
|journal= U.S. Geological Survey |
|||
|volume= Open-File Report 2014-1065 |
|||
|doi= 10.3133/ofr20141065 |
|||
|url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2014/1065/pdf/ofr2014-1065.pdf |
|||
}}. |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFHerald (Everett), March 22, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFHerald (Everett), March 22, 2014 --> |
||
* ''[[The Herald (Everett)|Everett Herald]]'': {{cite news |ref=CITEREFHerald (Everett), March 22, 2014 |first1=Chris |last1=Winters |date=March 22, 2014 |title=Mudslide witness: 'Everything was gone in 3 seconds' |newspaper=Everett Herald |url=http://www.heraldnet.com/article/20140322/NEWS01/140329561/Mudslide-witness-%91Everything-was-gone-in-3-seconds%92 |access-date=March 23, 2014}} |
|||
* ''[[The Herald (Everett)|Everett Herald]]'': {{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFHerald (Everett), March 22, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Chris |last1= Winters |
|||
|date= March 22, 2014 |
|||
|title= Mudslide witness: 'Everything was gone in 3 seconds' |
|||
|newspaper= Everett Herald |
|||
|url= http://www.heraldnet.com/article/20140322/NEWS01/140329561/Mudslide-witness-%91Everything-was-gone-in-3-seconds%92 |
|||
|accessdate= March 23, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Iverson|et al.| 1998}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Iverson|et al.| 1998}} --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "Iverson et al. 2015"> |
<!--<ref name= "Iverson et al. 2015"> |
||
--> |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Iverson |first1=R.M. |first2=D.L. |last2=George |first3=K. |last3=Allstadt |first4=M.E. |author-link3=Kate Allstadt |last4=Reid |first5=B.D. |last5=Collins |first6=J.W. |last6=Vallance |first7=S.P. |last7=Schilling |first8=J.W. |last8=Godt |first9=C.M. |last9=Cannon |first10=C.S. |last10=McGirl |first11=R.L. |last11=Baum |first12=J.A. |last12=Coe |first13=W.H. |last13=Schulz |first14=J.B. |last14=Bower |year=2015 |title=Landslide mobility and hazards: implications of the 2014 Oso disaster |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=412 |pages=197–208 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.12.020 |bibcode=2015E&PSL.412..197I |doi-access=free}}. |
|||
*{{Cite journal |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|last = Iverson |first = R.M. |
|||
|first2= D.L. |last2= George |
|||
|first3= K. |last3= Allstadt |
|||
|first4= M.E. |last4= Reid |
|||
|first5= B.D. |last5= Collins |
|||
|first6= J.W. |last6= Vallance |
|||
|first7= S.P. |last7= Schilling |
|||
|first8= J.W. |last8= Godt |
|||
|first9= C.M. |last9= Cannon |
|||
|first10= C.S. |last10= McGirl |
|||
|first11= R.L. |last11= Baum |
|||
|first12= J.A. |last12= Coe |
|||
|first13= W.H. |last13= Schulz |
|||
|first14= J.B. |last14= Bower |
|||
|year = 2015 |
|||
|title = Landslide mobility and hazards: implications of the 2014 Oso disaster |
|||
|journal = Earth and Planetary Science Letters |
|||
|volume = 412 |pages = 197–208 |
|||
|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X1400781X |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.12.020 |
|||
}}. |
|||
* KING 5 News (Seattle): |
* KING 5 News (Seattle): |
||
<!-- XX Following citation lacks a publication YEAR. --> |
<!-- XX Following citation lacks a publication YEAR. --> |
||
<!-- Insufficient information to generate Harv template. --> |
<!-- Insufficient information to generate Harv template. --> |
||
:*{{cite news |title=Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide |publisher=KING 5 News |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html |access-date=March 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325045513/http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html |archive-date=March 25, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} <!-- ** Title does not correlate with url. Which is wrong? ** |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|title= Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide |
|||
|publisher= KING 5 News |
|||
|agency= Associated Press |
|||
|url= http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Oso-darrington-landslide-Monday-251915291.html |
|||
|accessdate= March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} <!-- ** Title does not correlate with url. Which is wrong? ** |
|||
www.nwcn.com is certainly not KING 5 News --> |
www.nwcn.com is certainly not KING 5 News --> |
||
<!-- {{Harvnb|KING5 News Online, March 23, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|KING5 News Online, March 23, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFKING5 News Online, March 23, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFKING5 News Online, March 23, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFKING5 News Online, March 23, 2014 |first1=Zahid |last1=Arab |date=March 23, 2014 |publisher=KING 5 News |title=What caused the landslide near Oso? |place=Seattle, Washington |url=http://www.king5.com/news/local/What-caused-the-landslide-near-Oso-251810431.html |access-date=March 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326191927/http://www.king5.com/news/local/What-caused-the-landslide-near-Oso-251810431.html |archive-date=March 26, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFKING5 News Online, March 23, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Zahid |last1= Arab |
|||
|date= March 23, 2014 |
|||
|publisher= KING 5 News |
|||
|title= What caused the landslide near Oso? |
|||
|place= Seattle, Washington |
|||
|url= http://www.king5.com/news/local/What-caused-the-landslide-near-Oso-251810431.html |
|||
|accessdate= March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|KUOW, March 26,| 2014}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|KUOW, March 26,| 2014}} --> |
||
<!-- |ref= CITEREFKUOW, March 26, 2014 --> |
<!-- |ref= CITEREFKUOW, March 26, 2014 --> |
||
* KUOW (Seattle): {{Cite news |title=Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old |date=March 26, 2014 |publisher=KUOW |place=Seattle, Washington |last=Ryan |first=John |url=http://kuow.org/post/concern-over-landslide-logging-connection-near-oso-decades-old |access-date=March 30, 2014}} |
|||
* KUOW (Seattle): {{Cite news |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|title = Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old |
|||
|date= March 26, 2014 |
|||
|publisher= KUOW |
|||
|place= Seattle, Washington |
|||
|last = Ryan |first = John |
|||
|url = http://kuow.org/post/concern-over-landslide-logging-connection-near-oso-decades-old |
|||
|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Leberfinger| 2014}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Leberfinger| 2014}} --> |
||
<!-- |ref= CITEREFLeberfinger2014 --> |
<!-- |ref= CITEREFLeberfinger2014 --> |
||
* {{cite web |first=Mark |last=Leberfinger |date=March 24, 2014 |title=Death Toll From Washington Landslide Climbs to Eight |publisher=AccuWeather.com |url=http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/two-dead-after-washington-land/24749353 |access-date=March 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323224449/http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/two-dead-after-washington-land/24749353 |archive-date=March 23, 2014 |url-status=dead}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|first= Mark |last= Leberfinger |
|||
|date= March 24, 2014 |
|||
|title= Death Toll From Washington Landslide Climbs to Eight |
|||
|publisher = AccuWeather.com |
|||
|url= http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/two-dead-after-washington-land/24749353 |
|||
|accessdate= March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller| 1999}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller| 1999}} --> |
||
* {{Citation |first1=Daniel J. |last1=Miller |date=October 1999 |title=Hazel/Gold Basin Landslides: Geomorphic Review Draft Report |url=http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Hazel_GoldBasin.pdf}}. |
|||
*{{Citation |
|||
|first1= Daniel J. |last1= Miller |
|||
|date= October 1999 |
|||
|title= Hazel/Gold Basin Landslides: Geomorphic Review Draft Report |
|||
|url= http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Hazel_GoldBasin.pdf |
|||
}}. |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1997}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1997}} --> |
||
* {{Citation |first1=Dan |last1=Miller |first2=Joan |last2=Sias |year=1997 |title=Environmental Factors Affecting the Hazel Landslide |url=http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Hazel.pdf}}. |
|||
*{{Citation |
|||
|first1= Dan |last1= Miller |
|||
|first2= Joan |last2= Sias |
|||
|year= 1997 |
|||
|title= Environmental Factors Affecting the Hazel Landslide |
|||
|url= http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Hazel.pdf |
|||
}}. |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Miller|Sias| 1998}} --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "Miller and Sias 1998"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "Miller and Sias 1998"> --> |
||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Daniel J. |first2=Joan |last2=Sias |year=1998 |title=Deciphering large landslides: linking hydrological, groundwater and slope stability models through GIS |journal=Hydrological Processes |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=923–941 |url=http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Miller&Sias.pdf |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1085(199805)12:6<923::aid-hyp663>3.0.co;2-3 |bibcode=1998HyPr...12..923M}} |
|||
*{{Cite journal |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|last = Miller |first = Daniel J. |
|||
|first2= Joan |last2= Sias |
|||
|year = 1998 |
|||
|title = Deciphering large landslides: linking hydrological, groundwater and slope stability models through GIS |
|||
|journal = Hydrological Processes |
|||
|volume = 12 |issue = 6 |pages = 923–941 |
|||
|url = http://www.netmaptools.org/Pages/Hazel/Miller&Sias.pdf |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1085(199805)12:6<923::aid-hyp663>3.0.co;2-3 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|NBC News, March 24, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|NBC News, March 24, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFNBC News, March 24, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFNBC News, March 24, 2014 --> |
||
* [[NBC News]]: {{cite news |ref=CITEREFNBC News, March 24, 2014 |first1=Elisha |last1=Fieldstadt |first2=Alexander |last2=Smith |date=March 24, 2014 |title=Rescuers Search 'Quicksand' for Survivors of Washington Mudslide |publisher=NBC News |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/deadly-mudslide/rescuers-search-quicksand-survivors-washington-mudslide-n60256 |access-date=March 24, 2014}} |
|||
* [[NBC News]]: {{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFNBC News, March 24, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Elisha |last1= Fieldstadt |
|||
|first2= Alexander |last2= Smith |
|||
|date= March 24, 2014 |
|||
|title= Rescuers Search 'Quicksand' for Survivors of Washington Mudslide |
|||
|publisher= NBC News |
|||
|url= http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/deadly-mudslide/rescuers-search-quicksand-survivors-washington-mudslide-n60256 |
|||
|accessdate= March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
* ''[[The New York Times]]'': |
* ''[[The New York Times]]'': |
||
<!-- {{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014a}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014a}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014a --> |
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014a --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014a |first1=John |last1=Schwartz |date=March 29, 2014a |title=No Easy Way to Restrict Construction in Risky Areas |newspaper=The New York Times |page=A12 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/us/governments-find-it-hard-to-restrict-building-in-risky-areas.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014a |
|||
|first1= John |last1= Schwartz |
|||
|date= March 29, 2014a |
|||
|title= No Easy Way to Restrict Construction in Risky Areas |
|||
|newspaper= The New York Times |
|||
|page= A12 |
|||
|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/29/us/governments-find-it-hard-to-restrict-building-in-risky-areas.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014b}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|New York Times, March 29, 2014b}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014b --> |
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014b --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014b |first1=Timothy |last1=Egan |date=March 29, 2014b |title=A Mudslide, Foretold |newspaper=The New York Times |page=SR3 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/30/opinion/sunday/egan-at-home-when-the-earth-moves.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
* {{cite news |last=Kaminsky |first=Jonathan |date=March 23, 2014 |title=Landslide kills three, injures others in Washington state |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-mudslide-washingtonstate-idUSBREA2L0R020140323 |access-date=March 23, 2014}}<!-- Fixed it. --> |
|||
|ref= CITEREFNew York Times, March 29, 2014b |
|||
|first1= Timothy |last1= Egan |
|||
|date= March 29, 2014b |
|||
|title= A Mudslide, Foretold |
|||
|newspaper= The New York Times |
|||
|page= SR3 |
|||
|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/30/opinion/sunday/egan-at-home-when-the-earth-moves.html |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|last=Kaminsky |first=Jonathan |
|||
|date=March 23, 2014 |
|||
|title= Landslide kills three, injures others in Washington state |
|||
|publisher= Reuters |
|||
|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/23/us-usa-mudslide-washingtonstate-idUSBREA2L0R020140323 |
|||
|accessdate= March 23, 2014 |
|||
}}<!-- Fixed it. --> |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Northwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Northwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFNorthwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFNorthwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014 --> |
||
* {{Cite news |ref=CITEREFNorthwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014 |last=Ryan |first=John |date=March 28, 2014 |title=Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone |publisher=Northwest Public Radio |url=http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331112759/http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=March 30, 2014}} |
|||
*{{Cite news |
|||
* ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' (by date): |
|||
|ref= CITEREFNorthwest Public Radio, March 28, 2014 |
|||
|last = Ryan |first = John |
|||
|date= March 28, 2014 |
|||
|title = Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone |
|||
|publisher= Northwest Public Radio |
|||
|url = http://nwpr.org/post/oso-clearcut-extended-no-logging-zone |
|||
|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
* ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' (by date): |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, January 27, 2006}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, January 27, 2006}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, January 27, 2006 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, January 27, 2006 --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, January 27, 2006 |first1=Brian |last1=Alexander |date=January 27, 2006 |title=Slide diverts river; Oso homes at risk |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20060127&slug=ososlide27m}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, January 27, 2006 |
|||
|first1= Brian |last1= Alexander |
|||
|date= January 27, 2006 |
|||
|title= Slide diverts river; Oso homes at risk |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20060127&slug=ososlide27m |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, July 13, 2008}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, July 13, 2008}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 13, 2008 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 13, 2008 --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, July 13, 2008 |last1=Bernton |first1=Hal |last2=Mayo |first2=Justin |date=July 13, 2008 |title=Logging and landslides: What went wrong? |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=March 30, 2014 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2008048848_logging13m.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 13, 2008 |
|||
|last1 = Bernton |first1 = Hal |
|||
|last2 = Mayo |first2 = Justin |
|||
|date= July 13, 2008 |
|||
|title = Logging and landslides: What went wrong? |
|||
|newspaper = The Seattle Times |
|||
|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
|||
|url = http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2008048848_logging13m.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, July 14, 2008}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, July 14, 2008}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 14, 2008 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 14, 2008 --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, July 14, 2008 |last1=Bernton |first1=Hal |last2=Mayo |first2=Justin |date=July 14, 2008 |title=Slides putting our highways in danger |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=March 30, 2014 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2008050123_logging14.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, July 14, 2008 |
|||
|last1 = Bernton |first1 = Hal |
|||
|last2 = Mayo |first2 = Justin |
|||
|date= July 14, 2008 |
|||
|title = Slides putting our highways in danger |
|||
|newspaper = The Seattle Times |
|||
|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
|||
|url = http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2008050123_logging14.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 22, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 22, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 22, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 22, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 22, 2014 |first1=Angel |last1=Gonzalez |first2=Coral |last2=Garnick |first3=Jack |last3=Broom |date=March 22, 2014 |title=3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023201818_mudslidexml.html |access-date=March 24, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 22, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Angel |last1= Gonzalez |
|||
|first2= Coral |last2= Garnick |
|||
|first3= Jack |last3= Broom |
|||
|date= March 22, 2014 |
|||
|title= 3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023201818_mudslidexml.html |
|||
|accessdate = March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014a}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014a}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014a --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014a --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014a |first1=Angel |last1=Gonzalez |first2=Coral |last2=Garnick |first3=Jack |last3=Broom |date=March 23, 2014a |title=3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023201818_mudslidexml.html |access-date=March 24, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014a |
|||
|first1= Angel |last1= Gonzalez |
|||
|first2= Coral |last2= Garnick |
|||
|first3= Jack |last3= Broom |
|||
|date= March 23, 2014a |
|||
|title= 3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023201818_mudslidexml.html |
|||
|accessdate = March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014b}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 23, 2014b}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014b --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014b --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014b |author=<!-- staff --> |date=March 23, 2014b |title=8 confirmed dead in mudslide; 18 still missing |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023210830_mudslidesundayxml.html |access-date=March 23, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 23, 2014b |
|||
|author= <!-- staff --> |
|||
|date= March 23, 2014b |
|||
|title= 8 confirmed dead in mudslide; 18 still missing |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023210830_mudslidesundayxml.html |
|||
|accessdate= March 23, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014a --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014a --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014a |first1=Nancy |last1=Bartley |first2=Ken |last2=Armstrong |date=March 24, 2014a |title=Site has long history of slide problems |newspaper=The Seattle Times |page=A4 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023211509_mudslidehistoryxml.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014a |
|||
|first1= Nancy |last1= Bartley |
|||
|first2= Ken |last2= Armstrong |
|||
|date= March 24, 2014a |
|||
|title= Site has long history of slide problems |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|page= A4 |
|||
|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023211509_mudslidehistoryxml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014b}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014b}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014b --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014b --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014b |first1=Sandi |last1=Doughton |date=March 24, 2014 |title=River likely undercut slope, experts say |newspaper=The Seattle Times |page=A5 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023211593_mudslidesciencexml.html}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014b |
|||
|first1= Sandi |last1= Doughton |
|||
|date= March 24, 2014 |
|||
|title= River likely undercut slope, experts say |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|page= A5 |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023211593_mudslidesciencexml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014c}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 24, 2014c}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014c --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014c --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014c |date=March 24, 2014c |title=14 dead; 176 reports of people missing in mile-wide mudslide |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023215066_mudslidemondayxml.html |access-date=March 24, 2014}} <!-- Fixed --> |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 24, 2014c |
|||
|date= March 24, 2014c |
|||
|title= 14 dead; 176 reports of people missing in mile-wide mudslide |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023215066_mudslidemondayxml.html |
|||
|accessdate=March 24, 2014 |
|||
}} <!-- Fixed --> |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014a --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014a --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014a |first1=Ken |last1=Armstrong |first2=Mike |last2=Carter |first3=Mike |last3=Baker |date=March 25, 2014a |title='Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades |newspaper=The Seattle Times |pages=A1, A5 |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/risk-of-oso-landslide-unforeseen-warnings-go-back-decades/}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014a |
|||
|first1= Ken |last1= Armstrong |
|||
|first2= Mike |last2= Carter |
|||
|first3= Mike |last3= Baker |
|||
|date= March 25, 2014a |
|||
|title= 'Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|pages= A1, A5 |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023218573_mudslidewarningsxml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014b}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014b}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014b --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014b --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "Clearcut Extended"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "Clearcut Extended"> --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014b |last1=Baker |first1=Mike |last2=Armstrong |first2=Ken |last3=Bernton |first3=Hal |date=March 25, 2014b |title=State allowed logging on plateau above slope |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225363_mudslideloggingxml.html |access-date=March 30, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014b |
|||
|last1 = Baker |first1 = Mike |
|||
|last2 = Armstrong |first2 = Ken |
|||
|last3 = Bernton |first3 = Hal |
|||
|date= March 25, 2014b |
|||
|title = State allowed logging on plateau above slope |
|||
|newspaper = The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225363_mudslideloggingxml.html |
|||
|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014c}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 25, 2014c}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014c --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014c --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014c |first1=Sandi |last1=Doughton |date=March 25, 2014c |title=Scientists say there's little chance tiny quake triggered slide |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://blogs.seattletimes.com/today/2014/03/scientists-say-theres-little-chance-tiny-quake-triggered-slide/}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 25, 2014c |
|||
|first1= Sandi |last1= Doughton |
|||
|date= March 25, 2014c |
|||
|title= Scientists say there's little chance tiny quake triggered slide |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://blogs.seattletimes.com/today/2014/03/scientists-say-theres-little-chance-tiny-quake-triggered-slide/ |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 26, 2014b}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 26, 2014b}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 26, 2014b --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 26, 2014b --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 26, 2014b |first1=Mike |last1=Baker |first2=Justin |last2=Mayo |date=March 26, 2014 |title=Logging OK'd in 2004 may have exceeded approved boundary |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023235343_mudslideovercutxml.html}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 26, 2014b |
|||
|first1= Mike |last1= Baker |
|||
|first2= Justin |last2= Mayo |
|||
|date= March 26, 2014 |
|||
|title= Logging OK'd in 2004 may have exceeded approved boundary |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023235343_mudslideovercutxml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 27, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, March 27, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 27, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 27, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, March 27, 2014 |first1=Jim |last1=Brunner |first2=Michael J. |last2=Berens |date=March 27, 2014 |title=County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous |newspaper=The Seattle Times |pages=A1, A7 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225415_mudslidecounty1xml.html}} <!-- <small>Re-published April 9.</small> No evidence of the republish online --> |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, March 27, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Jim |last1= Brunner |
|||
|first2= Michael J. |last2= Berens |
|||
|date= March 27, 2014 |
|||
|title= County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|pages= A1, A7 |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225415_mudslidecounty1xml.html |
|||
}} <!-- <small>Re-published April 9.</small> No evidence of the republish online --> |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 2, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 2, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 2, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 2, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 2, 2014 |first1=Lornet |last1=Turnbull |first2=Jennifer |last2=Sullivan |date=April 2, 2014 |title=Day 12: 'We are trying to be as honest as we can' |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=April 7, 2014 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023288032_mudslidewednesday031xml.html}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 2, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Lornet |last1= Turnbull |
|||
|first2= Jennifer |last2= Sullivan |
|||
|date= April 2, 2014 |
|||
|title= Day 12: 'We are trying to be as honest as we can' |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|accessdate= April 7, 2014 |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023288032_mudslidewednesday031xml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 3, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 3, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 3, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 3, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{citation |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 3, 2014 |author=<!--staff writer; no author given--> |date=April 3, 2014 |title=Oso mudslide victims |newspaper=The Seattle Times |access-date=April 4, 2014 |url=http://seattletimesdata.com/mudslide-map/deploy/index-playlist.html}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 7, 2014}} -- |
|||
:*{{citation |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 3, 2014 |
|||
|author=<!--staff writer; no author given--> |
|||
|date= April 3, 2014 |
|||
|title= Oso mudslide victims |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|accessdate= April 4, 2014 |
|||
|url= http://seattletimesdata.com/mudslide-map/deploy/index-playlist.html |
|||
}}<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 7, 2014}} -- |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "BermWork"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "BermWork"> --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=April 7, 2014 |title=Crews start work on berms to ease search for mudslide victims |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023324877_mudslidetuesdayxml.html |access-date=April 7, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|date= April 7, 2014 |
|||
|title= Crews start work on berms to ease search for mudslide victims |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023324877_mudslidetuesdayxml.html |
|||
|accessdate= April 7, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 8, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 8, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 7, 2014 --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "Expert Baffled"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "Expert Baffled"> --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 8, 2014 |first1=Sandy |last1=Doughton |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=April 8, 2014 |title=Expert baffled by ferocity, distance of 'freakish' slide |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023331700_mudslidescientistxml.html |access-date=April 19, 2014}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 8, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Sandy |last1= Doughton |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|date= April 8, 2014 |
|||
|title= Expert baffled by ferocity, distance of 'freakish' slide |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023331700_mudslidescientistxml.html |
|||
|accessdate= April 19, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 9, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 9, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 9, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 9, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 9, 2014 |first1=Jim |last1=Brunner |first2=Michael J. |last2=Berens |date=April 9, 2014 |title=County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225415_mudslidecounty1xml.html}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 9, 2014 |
|||
|first1= Jim |last1= Brunner |
|||
|first2= Michael J. |last2= Berens |
|||
|date= April 9, 2014 |
|||
|title= County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2023225415_mudslidecounty1xml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 14, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 14, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 14, 2014 --> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 14, 2014 --> |
||
:*{{cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 14, 2014 |first1=David |last1=Montgomery |date=April 14, 2014 |title=Guest: Map the runout risk for landslides like Oso |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2023376128_davidmontgomeryopedosolandslidexxxml.html}} |
|||
:*{{cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 14, 2014 |
|||
|first1= David |last1= Montgomery |
|||
|date= April 14, 2014 |
|||
|title= Guest: Map the runout risk for landslides like Oso |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2023376128_davidmontgomeryopedosolandslidexxxml.html |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 22, 2014}} -- |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Seattle Times, April 22, 2014}} -- |
||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 22, 2014--> |
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 22, 2014--> |
||
:*{{Cite news |ref=CITEREFSeattle Times, April 22, 2014 |first=Mike |last=Carter |date=April 22, 2014 |title=Obama to Oso: 'Whole country thinking about you' |newspaper=The Seattle Times |url=http://blogs.seattletimes.com/today/2014/04/obama-on-his-way-to-site-of-the-oso-slide/}} |
|||
:*{{Cite news |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSeattle Times, April 22, 2014 |
|||
|first= Mike |last= Carter |
|||
|date= April 22, 2014 |
|||
|title= Obama to Oso: 'Whole country thinking about you' |
|||
|newspaper= The Seattle Times |
|||
|url= http://blogs.seattletimes.com/today/2014/04/obama-on-his-way-to-site-of-the-oso-slide/ |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Sidle|Ochiai| 2006}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Sidle|Ochiai| 2006}} --> |
||
* {{cite book |first1=Roy C. |last1=Sidle |first2=Hirotaka |last2=Ochiai |year=2006 |title=Landslides: processes, prediction, and land use |series=Water Resources Monograph |volume=18 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |isbn=978-0-87590-322-4}}<!-- Article of same name in "Environmental & Engineering Geoscience" |
|||
*{{cite book |
|||
|ref= harv |
|||
|first1= Roy C. |last1= Sidle |
|||
|first2= Hirotaka |last2= Ochiai |
|||
|year = 2006 |
|||
|title = Landslides: processes, prediction, and land use |
|||
|series = Water Resources Monograph |
|||
|volume = 18 |
|||
|publisher = American Geophysical Union |
|||
|isbn = 978-0-87590-322-4 |
|||
}}<!-- Article of same name in "Environmental & Engineering Geoscience" |
|||
-- That's a review of the book. --> |
-- That's a review of the book. --> |
||
Line 706: | Line 309: | ||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014}} --> |
||
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014 --> |
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014 --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "OfficialCount"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "OfficialCount"> ## Use of "ref name=" construct here violates WP:CITEVAR.## --> |
||
* {{cite web |ref=CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014 |author=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |date=April 9, 2014 |title=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update |url=http://www.snohomishcountywa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3589 |access-date=April 9, 2014}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 9, 2014 |
|||
|author= Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |
|||
|date= April 9, 2014 |
|||
|title= Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update |
|||
|url= http://www.snohomishcountywa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/3589 |
|||
|accessdate= April 9, 2014 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- XX Following citation may be a DUPLICATE, or need a year suffix. |
<!-- XX Following citation may be a DUPLICATE, or need a year suffix. |
||
It's way out of date, time to remove it. --> |
It's way out of date, time to remove it. --> |
||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014}} --> |
||
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014 --> |
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014 --> |
||
* {{cite web |ref=CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014 |author=Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |title=Sunday night 530 landslide update |date=April 1, 2014 |url=http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181 |access-date=April 1, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407193345/http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181 |archive-date=April 7, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} |
|||
*{{cite web |
|||
|ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Medical Examiner's Office, April 1, 2014 |
|||
|author= Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office |
|||
|title= Sunday night 530 landslide update |
|||
|date= April 1, 2014 |
|||
|url= http://snohomishcountywa.gov/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=181 |
|||
}} |
|||
<!-- XX This URL gets updated every day, as does the date and access date. |
<!-- XX This URL gets updated every day, as does the date and access date. |
||
Maybe not for much longer, though. :-( |
Maybe not for much longer, though. :-( |
||
This one is out of date. --> |
This one is out of date. --> |
||
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Sheriff's Office, April 9, 2014}} --> |
<!-- {{Harvnb|Snohomish County Sheriff's Office, April 9, 2014}} --> |
||
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Sheriff's Office, April 9, 2014 --> |
<!-- |ref= CITEREFSnohomish County Sheriff's Office, April 9, 2014 --> |
||
<!--<ref name= "SheriffMissing"> --> |
<!--<ref name= "SheriffMissing"> --> |
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* {{cite web |ref=CITEREFSnohomish County Sheriff's Office, April 9,2 014 |author=Snohomish County Sheriff's Office |date=April 9, 2014 |title=SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List |url=http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=205 |access-date=April 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410141225/http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=205 |archive-date=April 10, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|author = Snohomish County Sheriff's Office |
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<!-- {{Harvnb|USGS OFR 2018-1132|p= }} --> |
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|date = April 9, 2014 |
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* {{Citation |ref=CITEREFUSGS OFR 2018-1132 |last1=Staisch |first1=Lydia M. |title=Bedrock Mapping and Seismic Hazard Assessment at Gold Basin Landslide, Washington |date=2018 |journal=U.S. Geological Survey |series=Open-File Report |volume=Open-File Report 2018-1132 |doi=10.3133/ofr20181132 |url=https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo111239 |doi-access=free}} |
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|title = SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List |
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|url = http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=205 |
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|accessdate= April 9, 2014 |
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}} |
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* ''[[The Stranger (newspaper)|The Stranger]]'': {{Cite news |ref=CITEREFStranger, March 27, 2014 |last=Kiley |first=Brendan |date=March 27, 2014 |title=Is There a Connection Between the Mudslide and Our State's Historical Mishmash of Logging Regulations? |newspaper=The Stranger |department=SLOG |place=Seattle, Washington |url=http://slog.thestranger.com/slog/archives/2014/03/27/is-there-a-connection-between-the-mudslide-and-our-states-historical-mishmash-of-logging-regulations |access-date=March 30, 2014}} |
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* ''[[The Stranger (newspaper)|The Stranger]]'': {{Cite news |
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|last = Kiley |first = Brendan |
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|date= March 27, 2014 |
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|title = Is There a Connection Between the Mudslide and Our State's Historical Mishmash of Logging Regulations? |
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|newspaper= The Stranger |
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|department= SLOG |
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|place= Seattle, Washington |
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|url = http://slog.thestranger.com/slog/archives/2014/03/27/is-there-a-connection-between-the-mudslide-and-our-states-historical-mishmash-of-logging-regulations |
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|accessdate = March 30, 2014 |
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* {{Citation |first1=R. W. |last1=Tabor |first2=D. B. |last2=Booth |first3=J. A. |last3=Vance |first4=A. B. |last4=Ford |year=2002 |title=Geologic Map of the Sauk River 30- by 60- minute quadrangle, Washington |journal=U.S. Geological Survey |volume=Miscellaneous Investigations map I-2592 |at=2 sheets and pamphlet, scale 1:100,000 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2592/}}. |
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|title= Geologic Map of the Sauk River 30- by 60- minute quadrangle, Washington |
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|journal= U.S. Geological Survey |
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|volume= Miscellaneous Investigations map I-2592 |
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|at= 2 sheets and pamphlet, scale 1:100,000 |
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|url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2592/ |
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* ''[[The Washington Post]]'': {{cite news |ref=CITEREFWashington Post, March 24, 2014 |last=Berman |first=Mark |date=March 24, 2014 |title=Everything you need to know about the Washington landslide |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2014/03/24/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-washington-landslide/ |access-date=March 24, 2014}} |
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* ''[[The Washington Post]]'': {{cite news |
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|ref= CITEREFWashington Post, March 24, 2014 |
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|last= Berman |first= Mark |
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|date= March 24, 2014 |
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|title= Everything you need to know about the Washington landslide |
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|newspaper= The Washington Post |
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|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2014/03/24/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-washington-landslide/ |
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|accessdate= March 24, 2014 |
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* ''[[Whidbey News-Times]]'': {{cite news |ref=CITEREFWhidbey News-Times, March 26, 2014 |first=Janis |last=Reid |date=March 26, 2014 |title=Whidbey Island agencies assist in Oso mudslide response |newspaper=Whidbey News-Times |url=http://www.whidbeynewstimes.com/news/252508151.html}} |
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* ''[[Whidbey News-Times]]'': {{cite news |
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|ref= CITEREFWhidbey News-Times, March 26, 2014 |
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|first= Janis |last= Reid |
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|date= March 26, 2014 |
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|title= Whidbey Island agencies assist in Oso mudslide response |
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|newspaper= Whidbey News-Times |
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|url= http://www.whidbeynewstimes.com/news/252508151.html |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |url=http://www.historicaerials.com/aerials.php?scale=6&lon=-121.85849656687999&lat=48.283683958846765&year= |author=NETR Online |title=Fresh landslide tailings depicted in 2006 aerial photograph, with topology map comparisons |date=2006 |website=Historic Aerials |publisher=Nationwide Environmental Title Research, LLC}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|url= http://www.historicaerials.com/aerials.php?scale=6&lon=-121.85849656687999&lat=48.283683958846765&year= |
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|author= NETR Online |
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|title=Fresh landslide tailings depicted in 2006 aerial photograph, with topology map comparisons |
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|date=2006 |
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|website= Historic Aerials |
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|publisher= Nationwide Environmental Title Research, LLC |
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* {{cite web |title=Flash Flood Watch |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=National Weather Service |url=http://forecast.weather.gov/showsigwx.php?warnzone=WAZ518&warncounty=WAC061&firewxzone=WAZ656&local_place1=&product1=Flash+Flood+Watch#.UzDXWVxrpzQ |access-date=March 27, 2014}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|title= Flash Flood Watch |
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|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |
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|publisher = National Weather Service |
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|url= http://forecast.weather.gov/showsigwx.php?warnzone=WAZ518&warncounty=WAC061&firewxzone=WAZ656&local_place1=&product1=Flash+Flood+Watch#.UzDXWVxrpzQ |
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|accessdate= March 27, 2014 |
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}} |
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* {{Citation |date=November 2004 |title=Forest Practices Rules |author=Forest Practices Board |publisher=[[Washington State Department of Natural Resources]] |url=http://www.dnr.wa.gov/BusinessPermits/Topics/ForestPracticesRules/Pages/fp_rules.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613074228/http://www.dnr.wa.gov/BusinessPermits/Topics/ForestPracticesRules/Pages/fp_rules.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-06-13 |access-date=March 31, 2014}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|date= November 2004 |
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|title = Forest Practices Rules |
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|author = Forest Practices Board |
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|publisher = [[Washington State Department of Natural Resources]] |
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|url = http://www.dnr.wa.gov/BusinessPermits/Topics/ForestPracticesRules/Pages/fp_rules.aspx |
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|accessdate = March 31, 2014 |
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* {{cite web |date=March 25, 2014 |title=SR 530 Landslide |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]] |url=http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR530/Landslide/ |access-date=March 26, 2014}} |
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*{{cite web |
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* {{cite web |url=http://www.kvue.com/news/253727261.html |title=Obama declares major disaster for Oso landslide |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=April 3, 2014 |website=kvue.com |publisher=KVUE Television |access-date=April 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073456/http://www.kvue.com/news/253727261.html |archive-date=April 7, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}} |
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|ref= harv |
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|date= March 25, 2014 |
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|title= SR 530 Landslide |
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|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |
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|publisher= [[Washington State Department of Transportation]] |
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|url= http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR530/Landslide/ |
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|accessdate= March 26, 2014 |
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}} |
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*{{cite web |
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| url =http://www.kvue.com/news/253727261.html |
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| title =Obama declares major disaster for Oso landslide |
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| author =<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |
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| date =April 3, 2014 |
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| website =kvue.com |
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| publisher =KVUE Television |
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| accessdate =April 3, 2014 |
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}} |
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* {{cite web |date=March 25, 2014 |author=Christopher C. Burt |title=Worst Landslides in U.S. History |publisher=Wunderground |url=http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/comment.html?entrynum=258 |access-date=March 31, 2014}} |
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*{{cite web |
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|ref= harv |
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|date= March 25, 2014 |
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|author=Christopher C. Burt |
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|title= Worst Landslides in U.S. History |
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|publisher= Wunderground |
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|url= http://www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/comment.html?entrynum=258 |
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|accessdate= March 31, 2014 |
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}} |
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{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
||
{{Commons category|Oso mudslide}} |
{{Commons category|Oso mudslide}} |
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* [http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/2354/530-Slide Snohomish County Official 530 Slide Updates] (includes most recent lists of victims and missing people) |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140409092105/http://wa-snohomishcounty.civicplus.com/2354/530-Slide Snohomish County Official 530 Slide Updates] (includes most recent lists of victims and missing people) |
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* [http://seattletimes.com/flatpages/local/victimsoftheosomudslide.html ''The Seattle Times'': Victims of the Oso mudslide] (photos and brief bios of the people killed or missing) |
* [http://seattletimes.com/flatpages/local/victimsoftheosomudslide.html ''The Seattle Times'': Victims of the Oso mudslide] (photos and brief bios of the people killed or missing) |
||
* [http://seattletimesdata.com/mudslide-map/deploy/index-playlist.html Oso mudslide victims] (interactive aerial view of victims' addresses) |
* [https://archive.today/20140408062456/http://seattletimesdata.com/mudslide-map/deploy/index-playlist.html Oso mudslide victims] (interactive aerial view of victims' addresses) |
||
* [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/usgs-simulation-shows-quickly-washington-landslide-liquefied/ USGS simulation shows how quickly the Washington landslide liquefied] |
* [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/usgs-simulation-shows-quickly-washington-landslide-liquefied/ USGS simulation shows how quickly the Washington landslide liquefied] |
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* [https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/national/washington-mudslide-before-and-after/893/ Washington mudslide: before and after] (interactive aerial view of landslide area) |
* [https://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/national/washington-mudslide-before-and-after/893/ Washington mudslide: before and after] (interactive aerial view of landslide area) |
||
* [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_misc_landslide_hazel_stillaguamish_1967.pdf Thorsen, 1967: Landslide of January 1967] <!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
* [http://www.dnr.wa.gov/Publications/ger_misc_landslide_hazel_stillaguamish_1967.pdf Thorsen, 1967: Landslide of January 1967] <!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
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* [http://www.co.snohomish.wa.us/documents/Departments/Emergency_Management/nhmp/v1part2ch14.pdf Tetra Tech Report, 2010, Ch. 14: Landslides]<!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407080510/http://www.co.snohomish.wa.us/documents/Departments/Emergency_Management/nhmp/v1part2ch14.pdf Tetra Tech Report, 2010, Ch. 14: Landslides]<!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
||
* [http://www.co.snohomish.wa.us/documents/Departments/Emergency_Management/nhmp/NHMPpresentation.pdf Snohomish County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update (presentation)]<!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073728/http://www.co.snohomish.wa.us/documents/Departments/Emergency_Management/nhmp/NHMPpresentation.pdf Snohomish County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update (presentation)]<!-- It would be better to work this into the article and use it as a ref --> |
||
* [http://washingtonlandscape.blogspot.com/2014/03/aerial-history-and-lidar-of.html Aerial History and LiDAR of the Stilliguamish Blocking Landslide] |
* [http://washingtonlandscape.blogspot.com/2014/03/aerial-history-and-lidar-of.html Aerial History and LiDAR of the Stilliguamish Blocking Landslide] |
||
* [http://cliffmass.blogspot.co.uk/2014/03/the-meteorological-background-for.html Professor Cliff Mass, Cliff Mass Weather Blog: The Meteorological Background for the Stillaguamish Landslide] |
* [http://cliffmass.blogspot.co.uk/2014/03/the-meteorological-background-for.html Professor Cliff Mass, Cliff Mass Weather Blog: The Meteorological Background for the Stillaguamish Landslide] |
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* [http://washingtondnr.wordpress.com/2014/03/27/sr-530-landslide-questions-answers-about-landslides-and-geology/ Department of Natural Resources, Q&A About Landslides and Geology] |
* [http://washingtondnr.wordpress.com/2014/03/27/sr-530-landslide-questions-answers-about-landslides-and-geology/ Department of Natural Resources, Q&A About Landslides and Geology] |
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[[Category:2014 in Washington (state)]] |
[[Category:2014 in Washington (state)]] |
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[[Category:2014 natural disasters in the United States]] |
[[Category:2014 natural disasters in the United States]] |
Revision as of 07:26, 18 April 2024
Date | March 22, 2014 |
---|---|
Time | 10:36 a.m. |
Location | Oso, Washington |
Coordinates | 48°16′57″N 121°50′53″W / 48.28256°N 121.84800°W |
Cause | Suspected soil saturation from heavy rainfall[1] |
Deaths | 43[2] |
Non-fatal injuries | 12 total (4 serious)[3] |
Missing | 0[4] |
Property damage | $60 million (2014 USD) [5] |
A major landslide occurred 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Oso, Washington, United States, on March 22, 2014, at 10:37 a.m. local time. A portion of an unstable hill collapsed, sending mud and debris to the south across the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, engulfing a rural neighborhood, and covering an area of approximately 1 square mile (2.6 km2). Forty-three people were killed and 49 homes and other structures destroyed.[2] The landslide has been described as one of, if not the most, deadly landslide in American history.[6][7]
Overview
The March 2014 landslide engulfed 49 homes and other structures in an unincorporated neighborhood known as "Steelhead Haven" on the south side of the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, approximately 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Oso, Washington.[9] It also dammed the river, causing extensive flooding upstream as well as blocking State Route 530, the main route to the town of Darrington (population 1,347), 16 miles (26 km) east of Oso.[10]
The natural rock and mineral formation (referred to as a "geological feature") with the most recent activity in the area of Oso is known as the Hazel Landslide; the most recent landslide event was referred to in the media as "The Oso Mudslide".[11] Excluding landslides caused by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or dam collapses, the Oso slide is the deadliest single landslide event in United States history.[12]
The Hazel Landslide has a history of instability dating to 1937.[13][14] Prior to the March 2014 mudslide, the Oso area had heavy rainfall during the previous 45 days, up to 200 percent of normal.[15] The slide, described by witnesses as a "fast-moving wall of mud", contained trees and other debris; it cut through homes directly beneath the hill on the south side of the Stillaguamish River. A firefighter at the scene stated, "When the slide hit the river, it was like a tsunami." A Washington state geologist stated the slide was one of the largest landslides he had personally seen. The mud, soil and rock debris left from the mudslide covered an area 1,500 ft (460 m) long, 4,400 ft (1,300 m) wide and deposited debris 30 to 70 ft (9.1 to 21.3 m) deep.[16][17] A national geologist stated the flow of the landslide was extreme because of the extraordinary run-out of mud and debris. While the landslide was well documented, a research team from the Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance (GEER) announced in April 2014 that it would investigate the factors contributing to the slide.[18]
Casualties and damage
More than 100 first responders from Snohomish County and other surrounding counties were dispatched to assist with emergency medical and search-and-rescue efforts, including the Navy's search and rescue unit stationed at nearby Naval Air Station Whidbey Island.[19] Over 600 personnel, including more than 160 volunteers, worked on landslide recovery operations.[20]
Late in the evening of March 22, 2014, Washington's Lieutenant Governor Brad Owen declared a state of emergency in Snohomish County. Washington state Governor Jay Inslee toured the area by air the following day before joining county officials at a news conference.[21]
On the day of the slide, eight people were rescued and taken to regional hospitals.[1] While the official search for victims ended in April 2014, workers and volunteers continued to screen debris and look for one victim still unaccounted for. On July 22, 2014 the Snohomish County Sheriff's Office confirmed 43 fatalities after remains of the final victim had been located and identified.[22]
The slide blocked the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River, causing it to back up eastward. Because of concerns that the mud and debris dam could fail and cause downstream flooding, the National Weather Service (NWS) issued a flash flood watch. On April 2, 2014, with the river flowing in a new channel at the north end of the debris dam, the service lifted the flash flood watch. Flooding due to the partially obstructed river continued to occur upstream of the debris dam.[23] As a result, the NWS continued to issue flood warnings for the Stillaguamish one month after the March 2014 slide.[24]
State Route 530 was indefinitely closed after the slide by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), with an alternative local route opened the following week after snow was cleared from the unpaved portion of Mountain Loop Highway south of Darrington.[25] The highway was cleared enough by May 31 to open one lane of escorted traffic. Because the highway was badly damaged, and because the topography of the area had been altered by the landslide, WSDOT decided to elevate that section of the highway when it was rebuilt. The new roadway was opened September 22,[26] ahead of schedule of the projected completion date of early October 2014.[27]
Federal aid
On April 3, the mudslide was declared a major disaster by President Barack Obama. The declaration was requested on April 1 by Governor Inslee, who stated that approximately 30 families needed help with housing and other needs. Inslee said that financial loss estimates had reached $10 million. Snohomish County Emergency Management Director John Pennington advised residents to register with FEMA.[28] Four days later, during passage of the Green Mountain Lookout Heritage Protection Act, Senator Patty Murray (D-WA) mentioned the landslide, saying the bill would "provide a glimmer of hope for the long-term recovery of this area."[29]
On April 22, President Obama visited the west side of the slide area. After arriving in Air Force One at Paine Field in Everett, he met with officials and boarded Marine One. There, he was joined by Governor Inslee and Senators Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell as well as Rep. Suzan DelBene for a flyover of the slide and debris field. After viewing the site, the president met privately with survivors, families of the victims, and some of the scene's first responders and rescuers at the Oso fire hall.[30]
Controversy
"Completely unforeseen" remark
On March 24, two days after the slide, John Pennington, Director of Snohomish County's Department of Emergency Management, stated at a news conference, "This was a completely unforeseen slide. This came out of nowhere."[31] The same day The Seattle Times published an article[32] about previous slides at the same location, as well as the likelihood of future slides. The article contained comments from geologists, engineers, and local residents, and stated that the area was known among locals as "Slide Hill". On the next day, The Times followed up with a full page article, "'Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades".[31] Snohomish County Public Works Director Steve Thomsen was quoted as saying, "A slide of this magnitude is very difficult to predict. There was no indication, no indication at all."
On March 27, 2014, The Seattle Times reported[33] that a 2010 study, commissioned by the county, warned the hillside above Steelhead Drive was one of the most dangerous in the county. According to Rob Flaner, one of the authors of the 2010 report, "For someone to say that this plan did not warn that this was a risk is a falsity."[33] In the days following the slide, criticism of Snohomish County officials received national attention in a New York Times editorial.[34] The Seattle Times further reported that in 2004, county officials became concerned about the possibility of a dangerous landslide in the Steelhead Haven area, and considered buying out the homes of that area's residents. The idea was rejected with the county building a new wall in an attempt to stabilize the slope. Some disaster experts criticized this decision as a serious mistake.[35] According to environmental engineer and applied geomorphologist Tracy Drury, "[after the 2006 slide they] didn't even stop pounding nails." As to any kind of buy-out program, Drury further stated, "I think we did the best we could under the constraints that nobody wanted to sell their property and move elsewhere."[31]
Repairs to the slide area extend back several decades prior to the March 2014 slide. A rock revetment installed in 1962 to protect the toe of the slide area from erosion from the river was overrun by a slide two years later. An effort in 2006 to move the river 430 feet (130 m) south of the erosion area failed when another landslide moved the river a total of 730 feet (220 m).[36]
Logging
In the days following the slide, scientists questioned whether logging in the area could have been a factor contributing to the hillside collapse.[37][38] Grandy Lake Forest Associates of Mount Vernon, Washington[39] proposed a 15-acre (6 ha) clearcut at the upper edge of the Oso landslide zone in 2004. Washington state forester Aaron Everett stated in an interview with KUOW that the application was rejected and "The one that was approved in the end eliminated the part of the harvest that would have been inside the groundwater recharge area." Everett further stated the resulting 7-acre (2.8 ha) clearcut operation reached to the edge of the groundwater danger zone.[40] An investigation is being conducted to determine whether Grandy Lake crossed into the restricted area that could theoretically feed groundwater into the landslide zone, affecting it for 16 to 27 years.[41]
Aftermath
Two years after the mudslide, about 11,000 tons of wreckage had been removed from the slide area. Thirty-four parcels of land had been purchased by Snohomish County from owners of property too dangerous for residences. Properties in the area bordering State Route 530 and across from the slide area remained salable.[42]
In October 2016, survivors and the victims' families reached settlements with the State of Washington and a timber company, Grandy Lake Forest Associates, for $50 million and $10 million respectively.[43]
Site memorials
Alongside State Route 530, the entrance to what was Steelhead Drive is closed by a gate that was decorated by impromptu memorials. Alongside, three rows of 43 cedar trees were planted, one for each of the victims.[42] At the time of the planting, each tree was decorated with mementos specific to each person.[42]
In September 2017, one of the few trees in the path of the slide that remained standing near Highway 530 and was seen by locals as a memorial was cut down as a danger tree. County officials decided to cut the Sitka spruce tree down after it was determined its roots had sustained enough damage that it could no longer be considered stable and not a hazard to both the Whitehorse Trail parallel to the highway as well as the highway itself. Following the slide, a memorial sign carved out of cedar and reading, "Oso. 10:45 a.m. 3/22/14", was placed on the spruce and remained until the tree was removed.[44][45][46] The Snohomish County Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism announced on March 22, 2018, that plans had begun for the Oso Landslide Memorial, a permanent memorial commemorating the victims. The tribute is set to be built at the location of the slide and fundraising efforts are underway with wood from the formerly standing memorial tree to be repurposed and used for the permanent display.[47][46]
Ground activity surrounding the slide
Ground vibrations generated by the Oso landslide were recorded at several regional stations and subsequently analyzed by the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN). The initial collapse began at 10:37:22 a.m. local time (PDT; 17:37:22 UTC), lasting approximately 2.5 minutes. Debris loosened by initial collapse is believed to contain material previously disturbed and weakened by the 2006 slide. Following the initial event was another large slide occurring at 10:41:53 PDT.
Additional events, most likely smaller landslides breaking off the head scarp, continued for several hours. The last notable signal came at 14:10:15.[48] Examination of records from the nearest seismic station 7 mi (11 km) to the southwest indicate small seismic events started around 8 a.m. the day of the slide and stopped in the late afternoon. However, they were not detected at the next nearest seismic station. They are also seen in the days before and after the slide, but only during daylight hours. They are believed to be related to some kind of human activity. No other indications of possible precursors have been found.[49]
In the days following the slide, Snohomish County Emergency Management Director John Pennington speculated a 1.1 magnitude earthquake on March 10 may have triggered the landslide.[50] Data collected by the PNSN shows a magnitude 1.1 earthquake on that date in the vicinity of the Oso landslide (about 2 ±0.8 km to the northeast), at a depth of 3.9 ±1.9 km.[49][51] Regardless, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) determined the slide was not caused by seismic activity.[52]
Geological context
The landslide occurred at the southeastern edge of Whitman Bench, a land terrace about 800 ft (240 m) above the valley floor and consisting of gravel and sand deposited during the most recent glaciation.[53] When the Puget Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet moved south from British Columbia, Canada filling the Puget Lowland, various mountain valleys were dammed and lakes were formed.[54] Sediment washed down from the higher mountains settled in the lake bottoms, forming a layer of clay.
As the glacial ice pressed higher against the western end of Mount Frailey, water flowing around the edge of the ice from the north was forced around the mountain, eventually pouring in through the long valley extending to the northwest and now occupied by Lake Cavanaugh. Sand and gravel carried by the flow and entering the glacial lake dropped out to form a delta, the remnant of which is now known as Whitman Bench.[55]
Following the glacier's retreat and allowing for the lake to be released, the river carved out most of the clay and silt deposits, leaving the former delta "hanging" approximately 650 ft (200 m) above the current valley floor[56] When the sand portion of a deposit has very little clay or "fines" to cement it together, it is structurally weak, leaving the area around it vulnerable. Such an area is also sensitive to water accumulation, increasing the internal "pore" pressure and subsequently contributing to ground failure. Water infiltrating from the surface will flow through the surface, save for contact with the less permeable clay, allowing the water to accumulate and form a zone of stability weakness.[57]
Such variations in pore pressure and water flux are one of the primary factors leading to slope failure. In case of the area of the Stillaguamish River where the March 2014 slide occurred, erosion at the base of the slope from the river flow further contributes to slope instability.[58] Such conditions have created an extensive series of landslide complexes on both sides of the Stillaguamish valley. Additional benches on the margin of Whitman Bench are due to deep-seated slumping of large blocks, which also creates planes of weakness for future slippage and channels for water infiltration.[59]
History of slide activity
According to a 1999 report submitted to the United States Army Corps of Engineers[60] by geologist Daniel J. Miller, PhD:[61]
The Hazel landslide has been active for over half a century. Thorsen (1996) noted a tight river bend impinging on the north bank with active landslides visible in 1937 aerial photographs. The next 60 years involves two periods of relatively low landslide activity, and two periods of relatively high activity, the last of which extends to this day [1999].
Known activity at this specific site includes the following:[62]
- 1937: aerial photographs show active landslides.
- 1951: mudflow from a side channel briefly blocked the river.
- 1952: movement of large, intact blocks, leaving head scarps 70 ft (21 m) high. Later photographs show persistent activity through the next decade.
- 1967 January: slump of a large block and accompanying mud flows push the river channel about 700 ft (210 m) south. This protects the toe from erosion, activity is minor for about two decades.
- 1988 November: erosion of the toe leads to another slide, and the river is again moved south, but not as far as in 1967.
- 2006 January 25: large slide blocks the river, new channel is cut to alleviate flooding.[63]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b Washington Post, March 24, 2014.
- ^ a b Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office (July 23, 2014). "Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update". Retrieved July 27, 2014.
- ^ Seattle Times, April 7, 2014.
- ^ Snohomish County Sheriff's Office (May 28, 2014). "SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List". Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 7, 2014.
- ^ Storm Events Database, NOAA
- ^ "Friday marks 10 years since 43 killed in Oso landslide". KIRO 7 News Seattle. March 20, 2024. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
- ^ Bernhard, Jimmy (March 22, 2022). "Remembering the Oso landslide, deadliest in US history, 8 years later". king5.com. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
- ^ Seattle Times, April 3, 2014
- ^ Seattle Times, March 24, 2014c
- ^ "A brief history of Darrington and Oso". KING 5 News. March 26, 2014. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
- ^ Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014; Leberfinger 2014; NBC News, March 24, 2014; Seattle Times, March 22, 2014.
- ^ "Worst Landslides in U.S. History". Weather Underground. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
- ^ Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a; Miller & Sias 1998.
- ^ Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a; Miller & Sias 1998.
- ^ Leberfinger 2014.
- ^ Tina Patel, "The mud and debris are 70 feet deep in some places", Q13 Fox News
- ^
- Fresh landslide tailings depicted in aerial photograph dated 2006, with topology map comparisons (1901–1977), NETROnline.com. [citation needed]
- KING5 News Online, March 23, 2014.
- Seattle Times, March 23, 2014b.
- "Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide". KING 5 News and Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 25, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2014. [verification needed]
- ^ Wilcox, Kevin (April 22, 2014). "Team Seeks to Learn From Fatal Landslide". Civil Engineering. Archived from the original on April 28, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2014.
- ^ Whidbey News-Times, March 26, 2014; Herald (Everett), March 22, 2014; Leberfinger 2014; NBC News, March 24, 2014; Seattle Times, March 22, 2014.
- ^ Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office (April 1, 2014). "Sunday night 530 landslide update". Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
- ^ Kaminsky, Jonathan (March 23, 2014). "Landslide kills three, injures others in Washington state". Reuters. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
- ^ "Last body found in Washington mudslide". MYNorthwest.com. Associated Press. July 22, 2014. Archived from the original on August 8, 2014. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
- ^ "Flash Flood Watch". National Weather Service. Retrieved March 27, 2014.
- ^ National Weather Service Watches, Warnings & Advisories; Flood Statement National Weather Service, Seattle, WA 327 PM PDT Sat Apr 19 2014
- ^ "SR 530 Landslide". Washington State Department of Transportation. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
- ^ "Highway 530 reopens 6 months after Oso slide". Arlington Times. September 23, 2014. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
- ^ "Rebuilding SR 530". Washington State Department of Transportation. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
- ^ "Obama declares major disaster for Oso landslide" Archived April 7, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, KING 5 News and Associated Press via KVUE, April 3, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.
- ^ Cox, Ramsey (April 3, 2014). "Senate approves small bill to help Oso recovery". The Hill. Retrieved April 8, 2014.
- ^ Seattle Times, April 22, 2014
- ^ a b c Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a.
- ^ Seattle Times, March 24, 2014a.
- ^ a b Seattle Times, March 27, 2014.
- ^ New York Times, March 29, 2014b.
- ^ Christian Science Monitor, April 5, 2014
- ^ Seattle Times, March 25, 2014a.
- ^ UPI Science News; "Logging may have contributed to deadly Washington landslide"
- ^ Stranger, March 27, 2014
- ^ Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old
- ^ "Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone | Northwest Public Radio". Nwpr.org. Archived from the original on March 31, 2014. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
- ^ Mike Baker and Justin Mayo (March 26, 2014). "Logging OK'd in 2004 may have exceeded approved boundary". The Seattle Times.
- ^ a b c Lacitis, Erik (March 21, 2016). "2 years since Oso slide, a quiet renewal amid the sorrow". Seattle Times. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
- ^ "Families reach $10 million settlement with Grandy Lake Forest Associates over deadly 2014 landslide". CBS News. October 10, 2016. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
- ^ King, Rikki (September 17, 2017). "Massive tree that withstood deadly Oso mudslide comes down". spokesman.com. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
- ^ Bhoolsuwan, Patranya (September 16, 2017). "Tree that withstood Oso slide comes down". Retrieved June 28, 2018.
- ^ a b Tan, LiLi (September 17, 2017). "Oso tree cut down, but not community's strength". king5.com. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
- ^ News Staff, KIRO 7 (March 22, 2018). "Plans underway for Oso memorial 4 years after devastating landslide". Retrieved June 28, 2018.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Allstadt 2014.
- ^ a b Allstadt 2014 (PNSN).
- ^ Seattle Times, March 25, 2014c; CBC News, March 25, 2014.
- ^ M1.1 – 18km WNW of Darrington, Washington (BETA)
- ^ USGS states slide not caused by seismic activity[citation needed]
- ^ Miller 1999, p. 1; USGS OFR 2014-1065.
- ^ Tabor et al. 2002 (Sauk River Quadrangle).
- ^ The areas predominantly containing gravel and sand are shown as "Qgoge" and "Qgose", respectively. "Qgle" and "Qglv" mark exposures of the underlying clay and silt with "Qls" marking landslide complexes. Mount Higgins; Dragovich & Stanton 2007 (DDMF).
- ^ Miller 1999, p. 1.
- ^ Miller 1999, p. 1.
- ^ Miller 1999, p. 4.
- ^ Miller & Sias 1997, Figure 1.3.
- ^ Miller 1999, p. 2.
- ^ Geologist Daniel J. Miller Ph.D. curriculum vitae online
- ^ Miller 1999, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Seattle Times, January 27, 2006. See also Steelhead Landslide pictures.
References
- Allstadt, Kate (March 26, 2014), Seismic signals generated by the March 22nd Oso Landslide, Seismo Blog: Updates and dispatches from the PNSN.
- The Bellingham Herald: Stark, John (January 23, 2009). "Lands commissioner tours landslide areas in Whatcom County". The Bellingham Herald. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Benda, L.; Thorsen, G.; Bemath, S. (1988). "Report of the ID Team Investigation of the Hazel Landslide on the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River". Unpublished. DNR NW Region, FPA: 19–09420.
- CBC News: Lanela, Mike (March 25, 2014). "Washington state mudslide preceded by small earthquake". CBC News.
- The Christian Science Monitor:
- Knickerbocker, Brad (March 28, 2014). "Washington mudslide: logging eyed as contributing cause". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Knickerbocker, Brad (April 5, 2014). "Authorities knew of mudslide danger, but didn't tell residents". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
- Dragovich, Joe D.; Stanton, Benjamin (2007), "The Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault – A probably active reverse-oblique-slip fault zone in Skagit and Island Counties, Washington", Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources, Open-File Report 2007-2, 1 sheet, scale 1:31,104.
- Dragovich, Joe D.; Stanton, Benjamin W.; Lingley Jr., William S.; Griesel, Gerry A.; Polenz, Michael (2003), "Geologic Map of the Mount Higgins 7.5-minute Quadrangle, Skagit and Snohomish Counties, Washington" (PDF), Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources, Open-File Report 2003-12, 1 sheet, scale 1:24,000.
- GEER Report: Keaton, Jeffrey R.; Wartman, Joseph; Anderson, Scott; Benoît, Jean; deLaChapelle, John; Gilbert, Robert; Montgomery, David R. (July 22, 2014), The 22 March 2014 Oso Landslide, Snohomish County, Washington, Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance.
- Haugerud, Ralph A. (2014), "Preliminary interpretation of pre-2014 landslide deposits in the vicinity of Oso, Washington" (PDF), U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report, Open-File Report 2014-1065, doi:10.3133/ofr20141065.
- Everett Herald: Winters, Chris (March 22, 2014). "Mudslide witness: 'Everything was gone in 3 seconds'". Everett Herald. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
- Iverson, R.M.; George, D.L.; Allstadt, K.; Reid, M.E.; Collins, B.D.; Vallance, J.W.; Schilling, S.P.; Godt, J.W.; Cannon, C.M.; McGirl, C.S.; Baum, R.L.; Coe, J.A.; Schulz, W.H.; Bower, J.B. (2015). "Landslide mobility and hazards: implications of the 2014 Oso disaster". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 412: 197–208. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.412..197I. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.12.020..
- KING 5 News (Seattle):
- "Death toll rises to 14 in Snohomish County landslide". KING 5 News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 25, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Arab, Zahid (March 23, 2014). "What caused the landslide near Oso?". Seattle, Washington: KING 5 News. Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- KUOW (Seattle): Ryan, John (March 26, 2014). "Concern Over Landslide-Logging Connection Near Oso Is Decades Old". Seattle, Washington: KUOW. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Leberfinger, Mark (March 24, 2014). "Death Toll From Washington Landslide Climbs to Eight". AccuWeather.com. Archived from the original on March 23, 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Miller, Daniel J. (October 1999), Hazel/Gold Basin Landslides: Geomorphic Review Draft Report (PDF).
- Miller, Dan; Sias, Joan (1997), Environmental Factors Affecting the Hazel Landslide (PDF).
- Miller, Daniel J.; Sias, Joan (1998). "Deciphering large landslides: linking hydrological, groundwater and slope stability models through GIS" (PDF). Hydrological Processes. 12 (6): 923–941. Bibcode:1998HyPr...12..923M. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1085(199805)12:6<923::aid-hyp663>3.0.co;2-3.
- NBC News: Fieldstadt, Elisha; Smith, Alexander (March 24, 2014). "Rescuers Search 'Quicksand' for Survivors of Washington Mudslide". NBC News. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- The New York Times:
- Schwartz, John (March 29, 2014a). "No Easy Way to Restrict Construction in Risky Areas". The New York Times. p. A12.
- Egan, Timothy (March 29, 2014b). "A Mudslide, Foretold". The New York Times. p. SR3.
- Kaminsky, Jonathan (March 23, 2014). "Landslide kills three, injures others in Washington state". Reuters. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
- Ryan, John (March 28, 2014). "Oso: Clearcut Extended Into No-Logging Zone". Northwest Public Radio. Archived from the original on March 31, 2014. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- The Seattle Times (by date):
- Alexander, Brian (January 27, 2006). "Slide diverts river; Oso homes at risk". The Seattle Times.
- Bernton, Hal; Mayo, Justin (July 13, 2008). "Logging and landslides: What went wrong?". The Seattle Times. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Bernton, Hal; Mayo, Justin (July 14, 2008). "Slides putting our highways in danger". The Seattle Times. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Gonzalez, Angel; Garnick, Coral; Broom, Jack (March 22, 2014). "3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed". The Seattle Times. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Gonzalez, Angel; Garnick, Coral; Broom, Jack (March 23, 2014a). "3 die in mudslide east of Arlington, 6 homes destroyed". The Seattle Times. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- "8 confirmed dead in mudslide; 18 still missing". The Seattle Times. March 23, 2014b. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
- Bartley, Nancy; Armstrong, Ken (March 24, 2014a). "Site has long history of slide problems". The Seattle Times. p. A4.
- Doughton, Sandi (March 24, 2014). "River likely undercut slope, experts say". The Seattle Times. p. A5.
- "14 dead; 176 reports of people missing in mile-wide mudslide". The Seattle Times. March 24, 2014c. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Armstrong, Ken; Carter, Mike; Baker, Mike (March 25, 2014a). "'Unforeseen' risk of slide? Warnings go back decades". The Seattle Times. pp. A1, A5.
- Baker, Mike; Armstrong, Ken; Bernton, Hal (March 25, 2014b). "State allowed logging on plateau above slope". The Seattle Times. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Doughton, Sandi (March 25, 2014c). "Scientists say there's little chance tiny quake triggered slide". The Seattle Times.
- Baker, Mike; Mayo, Justin (March 26, 2014). "Logging OK'd in 2004 may have exceeded approved boundary". The Seattle Times.
- Brunner, Jim; Berens, Michael J. (March 27, 2014). "County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous". The Seattle Times. pp. A1, A7.
- Turnbull, Lornet; Sullivan, Jennifer (April 2, 2014). "Day 12: 'We are trying to be as honest as we can'". The Seattle Times. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
- "Oso mudslide victims", The Seattle Times, April 3, 2014, retrieved April 4, 2014
- "Crews start work on berms to ease search for mudslide victims". The Seattle Times. April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
- Doughton, Sandy (April 8, 2014). "Expert baffled by ferocity, distance of 'freakish' slide". The Seattle Times. Retrieved April 19, 2014.
- Brunner, Jim; Berens, Michael J. (April 9, 2014). "County's own 2010 report called slide area dangerous". The Seattle Times.
- Montgomery, David (April 14, 2014). "Guest: Map the runout risk for landslides like Oso". The Seattle Times.
- Carter, Mike (April 22, 2014). "Obama to Oso: 'Whole country thinking about you'". The Seattle Times.
- Sidle, Roy C.; Ochiai, Hirotaka (2006). Landslides: processes, prediction, and land use. Water Resources Monograph. Vol. 18. American Geophysical Union. ISBN 978-0-87590-322-4.
- Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office (April 9, 2014). "Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office Media Update". Retrieved April 9, 2014.
- Snohomish County Medical Examiner's Office (April 1, 2014). "Sunday night 530 landslide update". Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
- Snohomish County Sheriff's Office (April 9, 2014). "SR 530 Slide Area Missing Person List". Archived from the original on April 10, 2014. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
- Staisch, Lydia M. (2018), "Bedrock Mapping and Seismic Hazard Assessment at Gold Basin Landslide, Washington", U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report, Open-File Report 2018-1132, doi:10.3133/ofr20181132
- The Stranger: Kiley, Brendan (March 27, 2014). "Is There a Connection Between the Mudslide and Our State's Historical Mishmash of Logging Regulations?". SLOG. The Stranger. Seattle, Washington. Retrieved March 30, 2014.
- Tabor, R. W.; Booth, D. B.; Vance, J. A.; Ford, A. B. (2002), "Geologic Map of the Sauk River 30- by 60- minute quadrangle, Washington", U.S. Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Investigations map I-2592, 2 sheets and pamphlet, scale 1:100,000.
- The Washington Post: Berman, Mark (March 24, 2014). "Everything you need to know about the Washington landslide". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Whidbey News-Times: Reid, Janis (March 26, 2014). "Whidbey Island agencies assist in Oso mudslide response". Whidbey News-Times.
Broken or incomplete references
- NETR Online (2006). "Fresh landslide tailings depicted in 2006 aerial photograph, with topology map comparisons". Historic Aerials. Nationwide Environmental Title Research, LLC.
- "Flash Flood Watch". National Weather Service. Retrieved March 27, 2014.
- Forest Practices Board (November 2004), Forest Practices Rules, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, archived from the original on June 13, 2015, retrieved March 31, 2014
- "SR 530 Landslide". Washington State Department of Transportation. March 25, 2014. Retrieved March 26, 2014.
- "Obama declares major disaster for Oso landslide". kvue.com. KVUE Television. April 3, 2014. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 3, 2014.
- Christopher C. Burt (March 25, 2014). "Worst Landslides in U.S. History". Wunderground. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
External links
- Snohomish County Official 530 Slide Updates (includes most recent lists of victims and missing people)
- The Seattle Times: Victims of the Oso mudslide (photos and brief bios of the people killed or missing)
- Oso mudslide victims (interactive aerial view of victims' addresses)
- USGS simulation shows how quickly the Washington landslide liquefied
- Washington mudslide: before and after (interactive aerial view of landslide area)
- Thorsen, 1967: Landslide of January 1967
- Tetra Tech Report, 2010, Ch. 14: Landslides
- Snohomish County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update (presentation)
- Aerial History and LiDAR of the Stilliguamish Blocking Landslide
- Professor Cliff Mass, Cliff Mass Weather Blog: The Meteorological Background for the Stillaguamish Landslide
- Dr. Dave Petley, The Landslide Blog
- Department of Natural Resources, Q&A About Landslides and Geology