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{{Earthquake |
{{Earthquake |
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|title=2003 Bam earthquake |
| title = 2003 Bam earthquake |
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|date= [[December 26]], [[2003]] |
| date = [[December 26]], [[2003]] |
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|map = 2003 Bam earthquake.png |
| map = 2003 Bam earthquake.png |
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|magnitude = 6.6 [[Richter magnitude scale|M<sub>w</sub>]] |
| magnitude = 6.6 [[Richter magnitude scale|M<sub>w</sub>]] |
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|depth={{convert|10|km|mi|6}} |
| depth = {{convert|10|km|mi|6}}<ref name="USGS">United States Department of the Interior (2006).</ref> |
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|location={{ |
| location = {{coord|29.004|N|58.337|E}}<ref name="USGS"/> |
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|countries affected = {{IRN}} |
| countries affected = {{IRN}} |
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| casualties = 26,271 people dead<ref name="Iranlowers">"Iran lowers Bam earthquake toll", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).</ref> and 30,000 injured<ref name="USGS"/> |
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|casualties = ~30,000 dead |
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}} |
}} |
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The '''2003 Bam earthquake''' |
The '''2003 Bam earthquake''' occurred in the [[Kerman province|Kerman]] [[provinces of Iran|province]] of southeastern [[Iran]] on [[December 26]], [[2003]]. |
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The [[earthquake]] happened at at 5:26 AM local time(1:56 AM [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]) and its magnitude was estimated by the [[United States Geological Survey]] as 6.6 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Magnitude 6.6 - Southeastern Iran | work = U.S. Geological Survey | url = http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2003/uscvad/ | accessdate = 2007-09-13 }}</ref> |
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The [[earthquake]] occurred at 1:58 AM [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] (5:28 AM [[Iran Standard Time]]). Its magnitude was estimated by the [[United States Geological Survey]] as 6.6 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]]. |
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A documentary about this earthquake has been produced titled [[Bam 6.6]]. |
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Two documentaries about this earthquake has been produced, the first entitled ''[[Bam 6.6]]'' and the second ''Voices of Bam'', as well as the film ''Colors of Memory''. |
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== Tectonic summary == |
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This earthquake occurred as the result of stresses generated by the motion of the [[Arabian plate]] northward against the [[Eurasian plate]] at a rate of approximately 3 cm/yr (about one inch per year). Deformation of the [[Earth]]'s crust in response to the plate motion takes place in a broad zone that spans the entire width of Iran and extends into [[Turkmenistan]]. Earthquakes occur as the result of both reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting within the zone of deformation. |
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==Background and tectonics== |
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Preliminary analysis of the pattern of seismic-wave radiation from the December 26 earthquake is consistent with the earthquake having been caused by right-lateral strike-slip motion on a north-south oriented fault. The earthquake occurred in a region within which major north-south, right-lateral, strike-slip faults had been previously mapped, and the epicenter lies near the previously mapped, north-south oriented, Bam fault. However, field investigations will be necessary to determine if the earthquake occurred on the Bam fault or on another, possibly not yet mapped, fault. The December 26 earthquake is 100 km south of the destructive earthquakes of [[June 11]], [[1981]] (magnitude 6.6, approximately 3,000 deaths) and [[July 28]], [[1981]] (magnitude 7.3, approximately 1,500 deaths). These earthquakes were caused by a combination of reverse-motion and strike-slip motion on the north-south oriented Gowk fault.<ref>[http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2003/eq_031226/neic_cvad_ts.html USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: Tectonic Summary: SOUTHEASTERN IRAN<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Iran suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor ruptures occurring almost daily. There is little earthquake education in that country, most believing that if one occurs, it is God's will. [[Bahram Akasheh]], a professor at [[Tehran University]], told ''[[Reuters]]'' that this thinking was "poisonous".<ref name="BBC thousands"/> |
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This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by the motion of the [[Arabian plate]] northward against the [[Eurasian plate]] at a rate of approximately {{convert|3|cm|in|0}} per year. Deformation of the [[Earth]]'s crust in response to the plate motion takes place in a broad zone that spans the entire width of Iran and extends into [[Turkmenistan]]. Earthquakes occur as the result of both reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting within the zone of deformation.<ref name="Tectonic Summary">United States Department of the Interior (2003)</ref> |
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Preliminary analysis of the pattern of seismic-wave radiation from the December 26 earthquake is consistent with the earthquake having been caused by right-lateral strike-slip motion on a north-south oriented fault. The earthquake occurred in a region within which major north-south, right-lateral, strike-slip faults had been previously mapped, and the epicenter lies near the previously mapped, north-south oriented Bam fault. However, field investigations will be necessary to determine if the earthquake occurred on the Bam fault or on another. The Bam earthquake is {{convert|100|km|mi|0}} south of the destructive earthquakes of [[June 11]], [[1981]] (magnitude 6.6, approximately 3,000 deaths) and [[July 28]], [[1981]] (magnitude 7.3, approximately 1,500 deaths). These earthquakes were caused by a combination of reverse-motion and strike-slip motion on the north-south oriented Gowk fault.<ref name="Tectonic Summary"/> |
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The rupture length of the earthquake was estimated to be around 24 kilometers. More than half of the quake was produced from its southern segment of approximately {{convert|13|km|mi|0}}, where the slip reached a maximum of up to 270 centimeters resulting in a large stress drop of at least 6 [[MPa]]. Optical remote sensing data shows that the Bam fault is not a single fault but consists of a 4–5 km wide fault system with the main branch running between the cities of [[Bam]] and [[Baravat]]. The fault ruptured by the Bam earthquake is believed to stretch the northwest branch of this fault system from Bam southward. Based on these results, scientists suggest that the Bam earthquake ruptured a hidden fault and that in this process an unusually strong [[asperity]] was involved, causing the widespread devastation of the tremor.<ref>Wang ''et al.'' (2004) p. abstract.</ref> |
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==Damage and casualties== |
==Damage and casualties== |
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{{multiple image |
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[[Image:Arge Bam Arad edit.jpg|thumb|200px|Arg e Bam Before the earthquake.]] |
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| align = left |
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In this earthquake, [[Bam Citadel]] — "the biggest adobe structure of the world" — and most of the city of [[Bam, Iran|Bam]] proper were devastated. The [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] reported that "70% of the modern city of Bam" was destroyed.<ref>{{cite web | title = Iran earthquake kills thousands | work = BBC News | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3348613.stm | accessdate = 2007-09-13 }}</ref> Death toll numbers as high as 80,000 were rumoured on the street and 70,000 reported in the media. However, the total death toll was given as 56,230 on [[January 17]] and the latest estimate from [[Tehran]] has halved previous estimates to 26,271 deaths. An additional 10,000 – 50,000 were reported injured, however this number is very uncertain; the most reported number is 30,000, which may have originated from an early [[Reuters]] account. According to the Iranian news agency [[IRNA]], the old Bam Citadel was "levelled to the ground". |
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| direction = vertical |
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| header = Before and after pictures of the Bam Citadel |
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| header_align = left/right/center |
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| header_background = |
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| footer = |
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| footer_align = left |
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| footer_background = |
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| width = |
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| image1 = Arge Bam Arad edit.jpg |
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| width1 = 200 |
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| caption1 = Before |
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| image2 = Destruction of the Bam Citadel.jpg |
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| width2 = 200 |
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| caption2 = After |
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}} |
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The quake occurred at 1:56 AM [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] (5:26 AM [[Iran Standard Time]]) on [[December 26]], [[2003]].<ref name="BBC thousands">"Iran earthquake kills thousands", British Broadcasting Corporation (2003).</ref> Its epicenter was roughly {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} southwest of the ancient city of [[Bam, Iran|Bam]].<ref name="Oliviera445">Oliviera & Roca & Goula (2006). p. 445.</ref> Maximum intensities were at [[Bam]] and [[Baravat]],<ref name="USGS"/> with the most damage concentrated within the {{convert|16|km|mi|0}} radius around the city.<ref name="Oliviera445"/> |
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At least 26,271 people were killed<ref name="Iranlowers"/> and 30,000 injured.<ref name="USGS"/> Casualties from the earthquake were originally reported to be 41,000,<ref group=note>An unnamed senior Interior Ministry official estimated the death toll to be as high as 50,000. Another unnamed official agreed with this, though Khatami denounced the toll estimate as it was "definitely not 50,000." ("Iran quake toll may hit 50,000", China Daily Group (2003))</ref> but that figure was lowered when it was discovered that some victims were counted more than once.<ref name="Iranlowers"/> Nevertheless, in terms of human loss the quake was the worst to occur in Iranian history.<ref name="Oliviera445"/> A census was undertaken to discover the exact number of casualties.<ref name="Iranlowers"/> [[BBC]] reported that a large number of victims were crushed while sleeping.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> |
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Eighty-five<ref name="USGS"/> to ninety<ref name="quake50000"/> percent of buildings and infrastructure in the [[Bam]] area were either damaged or destroyed,<ref name="USGS"/> with 75% of houses being completely destroyed.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> This left an estimated 100,000 homeless. Not a single house was standing in Baravat.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> An important regional center during the 16th and 17th centuries, Bam contained many buildings that were not constructed to survive such ruptures.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> Many houses in Bam were homemade, and its owners did not use skilled labor or proper building materials to resist earthquakes in the construction. These were often built in the traditional [[mud-brick]] style.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> Mohsen Aboutorabi, professor of architecture at the [[University of Central England]], demonstrated the lack of good building materials by banging two bricks together in Bam, resulting in cracking. On the other hand, Iranian regulations were better enforced in high rise buildings and skyscrapers.<ref name="earthquakepolitics"/> |
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One reason for the large amount of casualties was that when the walls began to fall down, the heavy rooufs would collapse, leaving few air pockets in them.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> The dust and lack of oxygen contributed to the suffocation of survivors.<ref name="quake50000"/> The Iranian government promised to prosecute anyone who violated building regulations, even setting up a special unit to deal with the issue.<ref name="buildbreach">"Iran to prosecute over building law breaches in Bam", China Daily Group (2004).</ref> |
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One of the most notable examples of poor construction was the 2,000 year old [[Bam Citadel]], considered one of the best surviving mud citadel before the quake. Most of it was demolished, including a large square tower.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> |
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Electricity and water supplies were cut by the earthquake.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> At least 29 serious aftershocks struck Bam following the main shock.<ref name="worldcry">"Week on, Iran mourns quake that 'made world cry'", China Daily Group (2004).</ref> |
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===Effects on medicine=== |
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As a result of the quake, two hospitals in Bam collapsed, leaving the remaining hospitals filled. Emergency centers were set up to care for the injured, though many centers did not have enough room to do so.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> Of all of Bam's health workers, half were killed in the rupture. The [[World Health Organisation]] (WHO) appealed for $4 million in medical relief. One of the priorities in this operation was to help mental health patients, many of whom were traumatized over the experience.<ref name="billionbam"/> A situation report released by the U.N. Disaster Assessment Coordination Team noted a rise in [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] and depression.<ref name="97quake"/> |
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Another affect of the rupture on the medical community was the disruption of [[drug trafficking]]. Before the earthquake in Bam, roughly 20% of the population over 15 was addicted. [[Syringes]] with [[opium]] were supplied to drug addicts in the aftermath.<ref name="97quake"/> |
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===Effects on schools=== |
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Large amounts of schools were also affected by the tremor. An estimated 1,200 teachers and 10,000 students were killed. Ali Zang-Abadi, head of education in Bam, described the state of pupils and teachers as "badly need[ing] psychological help because they are morally devastated." Around [[5 January]], teachers were being registered and to resume educating.<ref name="movingcapital"/> |
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==Relief efforts and aftermath== |
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[[Image:Tents in Bam.jpg|thumb|Tents being constructed in the United Nations compound in Bam]] |
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Bam was described as "literally a rubble pile" by the U.S. relief coordinator, Bill Garvelink.<ref name="97quake"/> Iranian President [[Mohammad Khatami]] called the rupture a "national tragedy" and urged all Iranians to help its victims.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> The disaster was a prompt for pledges of aid, which showed Khatami "a spirit of humanity and kindness is alive."<ref name="quake50000"/> The spiritual leader [[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei]] visited the damage on [[29 December]], urging all Iranians and international organizations to help any way they could.<ref name=Promiserebuild>"Promise to rebuild quake-hit city", Cable News Network (2003).</ref> |
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The [[United Nations]] sent experts to coordinate the relief effort. The [[Red Crescent]] set up tents to house survivors.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> Aid organizations such as these launched a massive appeal for money, specifically to help Bam residents over the long term.<ref name="movingcapital"/> More than 50 foreign countries,<ref name="worldcry"/> including Russia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain, sent supplies and rescue workers to the affected area.<ref name="BBC thousands"/> Iranian band [[Shahnaz]] raffled off 15 calligraphy works to benefit the Bam victims at the release of their lead singer's new instrument, the Sorahi.<ref>Islamic Propagation Organization (2008).</ref> |
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China was one of the first countries to supply aid. Upon hearing of the quake, it immediately sent a 43-member rescue squad. In total, its government donated 15 million [[yuan]] ([[US$]]1.81 million). Many indiviuals and companies also donated money and/or supplies.<ref>"China offers another 10m yuan to Iran", Xinhua News Agency (2003).</ref> |
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During the nights following the earthquake, the temperatures would drop to "bitterly cold" extremes, effectively killing some survivors.<ref name="quake50000">"Iran quake toll may hit 50,000", China Daily Group (2003).</ref> These people were living in unheated tents among the rubble. For these reasons, thousands of families were moved to heated<ref name="97quake"/> camps on the outskirts of Bam. This was not met without resistance; many residents wished to stay in place.<ref name="movingcapital"/> For those that owned motorised vehicles, they were met with jammed traffic going both ways through Bam. Survivors loaded their belongings to move elsewhere while relief supplies, volunteers, and relatives were arriving.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> |
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Looters stole food from warehouses and local markets. In reaction, the police force randomly fired into the air to discourage their presense.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> |
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On [[29 December]], a baby girl named Nassin was discovered alive under the rubble, in her deceased mother's arms. ''[[China Daily]]'' called it "a rare moment of joy amid the devastation of Iran's worst earthquake for years."<ref>"Dead mother's embrace saves Iranian baby's life", China Daily Group (2003).</ref> The next day airplanes delivering aid and personnel from roughly 21 countries arrived at the provincial airport at [[Kerman]], where they were unloaded and driven {{convert|120|mi|km|0}} to Bam. By then, relief operations had begun to shift from finding survivors to caring for them. Rescue workers began to slow their efforts, although three individuals were discovered alive on that date. Water and electricity were restored to most parts of the city by then.<ref name=Promiserebuild/> |
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One of the most notable rescues was that of 97-year-old Sharbānou Māzandarānī (شهربانو مازندرانی in [[Persian language|Persian]]), who was trapped in her home for eight days until she was rescued unhurt on [[January 3]]. Rescue workers took three hours to dig her out after sniffer dogs found her.<ref name="97quake">"97-year-old quake victim rescued in Iran", China Daily Group (2004).</ref> Renewed media interest came to Bam on [[January 8]], when a man was pulled out of the rubble alive. The chances of finding more living survivors following this were reportedly very slim.<ref name="billionbam">"Rebuilding Bam 'could cost $1bn'", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).</ref> |
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Iran seriously considered moving the capital of [[Tehran]] following the Bam earthquake. The city lies on a major fault, on which scientists predicted a devastating earthquake similar to that of Bam. The most cited example was [[Isfahan]], a city in central Iran that had previously served as capital until it was moved to Tehran in 1788. As like a similar movement to move the capital proposed in 1991, it did not occur.<ref name="movingcapital">"Iran considers moving capital", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).</ref> |
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===Helicopter crash=== |
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An Iranian navy helicopter crashed {{convert|30|mi|km|0}} southwest of Bam on [[28 December]] following a deliverance of tents and blankets.<ref name=Iranshopefades/> It was headed toward Bandar Abbas as it went down for unknown reasons. On deck were two pilots and a third person, none of whom survived. The helicopter was one of more than 500 who delivered aid to the Bam region.<ref>"Copter crashes, three killed", Agence France-Presse (2003).</ref> |
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===Iran–United States relations=== |
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{{main|Iran–United States relations}} |
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[[Image:Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue squad.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fairfax County]] Urban Search and Rescue squad inspect earthquake damage in Bam]] |
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Due to the earthquake, relations between the United States and Iran thawed. The U.S. usually treated Iran as part of the "[[axis of evil]]", as its President [[George W. Bush]] called the nation.<ref name="earthquakepolitics"/> However, following the tremor White House spokesman [[Scott McClellan]] spoke on behalf of President Bush: "Our thoughts and prayers are with those who were injured and with the families of those who were killed."<ref name="BBC thousands"/> |
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The U.S. offered direct humanitarian assistance to Iran. Iran initially declined this offer,<ref name="buildbreach"/> though later accepted it. On [[December 30]] an 81-member emergency response team was deployed to Iran via U.S. military aircraft, consisting of search and rescue squads, aid coordinators, and medical support.<ref>Ritter (2006) pp. 107-108.</ref> These were the first U.S. military airplanes to land in Iran for more than 20 years.<ref name="quake50000"/> |
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In return, the state promised to comply with an agreement with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] which supports better monitoring of its nuclear interests. This led U.S. Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] to suggest direct talks in the future.<ref name="earthquakepolitics"/> Sanctions were temporarily releaved to help the rescue effort.<ref name="movingcapital"/> However, he also said that the U.S. was still concerned on other Iranian issues, such as the prospect of terrorism and the country's support of [[Hamas]].<ref name="earthquakepolitics">Reynolds (2003).</ref> |
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Reaction to U.S. involvement was mixed. It was well received by physicians and civilians at the scene. In stark contrast to this support, [[IRNA]], the state-controlled radio in Iran, accused the United States of illegal interferance in internal matters.<ref name="97quake"/> Khatami, while not criticising U.S. aid, was upset about the politicization of it.<ref name="quake50000"/> Interior Minister [[Abdolvahed Mousavi Lari]] supported U.S. assistance but not Isreali help, as he considered it an illegitimate government.<ref name=Iranshopefades>"Iran's hope fades for quake survivors", China Daily Group (2003).</ref> |
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===Reconstruction=== |
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== Relief efforts and reconstruction == |
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[[Image:Bam na aardbeving.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The earthquake damage in Bam]] |
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An international relief effort to help the survivors got under way as soon as news of the scale of the disaster reached the outside world. Rescue efforts quickly became a body recovery exercise, with many of the dead being buried in mass graves with the [[mullah]]s sanctioning abbreviated [[Islamic]] burial rites due to the huge numbers and fear of disease. The high death toll occurred because very few people who were trapped when their mud-brick homes collapsed managed to survive. Rescue workers reported that the collapsing mud-brick structures had completely disintegrated and buried people in piles of earth, rather than trapping them in voids or air pockets between building slabs, as would happen in a concrete building collapse. Those few who did survive being trapped were generally rescued within the first few hours, after being dug out by local survivors, or were trapped in ventilated air pockets. Among the survivors of the earthquake was 97-year-old Sharbānou Māzandarānī (شهربانو مازندرانی in [[Persian language|Persian]]), who was trapped in her home for eight days. Rescue workers took three hours to dig her out after sniffer dogs found her. She survived by being under a table near a [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]] pipe.<ref>{{cite web | title = 97-year-old quake victim rescued in Iran | work = China Daily | url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2004-01/04/content_295549.htm | accessdate = 2007-09-13 }}</ref> |
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In January 2004, the [[United Nations]] estimatated that a reconstruction of Bam would cost between [[US$]]700 million and $1 billion. It called on the international community to provide money in this endeavor, though it realised that Iran would be paying for much of it.<ref name="billionbam"/> It announced over state television that it had earmaked roughly $410 million for reconstruction.<ref name="quake50000"/> |
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===Films on the earthquake=== |
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The international relief effort staged in the earthquake's aftermath helped to thaw relations somewhat between Iran and western countries. Numerous countries (including the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]) sent supplies and search-and-rescue teams including the [[International Rescue Corps]]. In February of 2004 Bam was visited by [[Charles, Prince of Wales]], a further indication of the improvement of international relations following the disaster.<ref>{{cite web | title = Prince Charles tours quake-hit Bam | work = Guardian Unlimited | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/iran/story/0,12858,1144395,00.html | accessdate = 2007-09-13 }}</ref> |
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''[[Colors of Memory]]'', released in 2008, tells the story of a surgeon who returns home to Bam after living in Germany for 33 years. Arriving in Tehran, Dr. Parsa arrives in Tehran to perform a complex operation, where he notices the family friend Quanati. Quanati urges him to come back to his hometown, Bam. On the trip, they drive past the rubble and destruction and Parsa remembers back to his childhood. The film was praised by [[Canadian Online Explorer]] as "both celebratory and heartbreaking" and urged Iranians "to bring tissues."<ref>Braun (2008).</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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Reconstruction of Bam has been a slow process. In may 2006 it was reported that rebuilding of the city had yet to begin, although plans existed. The mass [[bereavement]] and [[homelessness]] caused by the disaster led to a huge rise in [[opium addiction]] and [[prostitution]], leading to a rise in [[AIDS]] cases. there has also been a decline in school attendance.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2006/may/11/iran.naturaldisasters "After the earthquake, Bam battles with heroin and Aids"] (retrieved 22 June 2008)</ref> |
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<references group=note/> |
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== |
==References== |
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==Works cited== |
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[[Category:Earthquakes in Iran|Bam earthquake]] |
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{{refbegin}} |
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[[Category:2003 earthquakes|Bam earthquake]] |
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*{{cite news | author=[[Agence France-Presse]]|title ='Copter crashes, three killed| work = [[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |publisher=Herald Publications| url = http://www.dawn.com/2003/12/29/int2.htm | date=2003-12-29 |accessdate = 2008-10-22 }} |
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[[Category:2003 in Iran|Bam earthquake]] |
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*{{cite news | title = Iran considers moving capital | work = [[BBC News]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3348613.stm | date=2004-01-05 |accessdate = 2008-10-16 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Iran earthquake kills thousands | work = [[BBC News]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3348613.stm | date=2003-12-26 |accessdate = 2008-08-19 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Iran lowers Bam earthquake toll | work = [[BBC News]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3579173.stm | date=2004-03-29 |accessdate = 2008-10-15 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Rebuilding Bam 'could cost $1bn' | work = [[BBC News]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3383435.stm | date=2004-01-09 |accessdate = 2008-10-15 }} |
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*{{cite web|first=Liz|last=Braun|url=http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Reviews/C/Colors_Of_Memory/2008/09/26/6886166-sun.html|title='Colors Of Memory' honours Iran|work=Jam! Showbiz|publisher=[[Canadian Online Explorer]]|accessdate=2008-10-18|date=2008}} |
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*{{cite news | title = 97-year-old quake victim rescued in Iran | work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2004-01/04/content_295549.htm | date=2004-01-04 |accessdate = 2008-10-17 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Dead mother's embrace saves Iranian baby's life | work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/29/content_294265.htm | date=2003-12-29 |accessdate = 2008-10-21 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Iran's hope fades for quake survivors | work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/29/content_294086.htm | date=2003-12-29 |accessdate = 2008-10-17 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Iran to prosecute over building law breaches in Bam | work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2004-01/03/content_295446.htm | date=2004-01-03 |accessdate = 2008-10-17 }} |
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*{{cite news | title =Promise to rebuild quake-hit city| work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/31/content_294833.htm | date=2003-12-31 |accessdate = 2008-10-18 }} |
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*{{cite news | title = Week on, Iran mourns quake that 'made world cry' | work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2004-01/02/content_295225.htm | date=2004-01-02 |accessdate = 2008-10-17 }} |
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*{{cite news | author=[[Cable News Network]]|title = Promise to rebuild quake-hit city| work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/30/content_294640.htm| date=2003-12-30 |accessdate = 2008-10-18 }} |
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*{{cite news|url=http://www.tehrantimes.com/index_View.asp?code=179363|title=Shajarian to unveil his new instrument|work=[[Tehran Times]]|publisher=Islamic Propagation Organization|date=2008-10-06|accessdate=2008-10-18}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Oliviera|first=Carlos Sousa|coauthors=Roca, Antoni; Goula, Xavier|title=Assessing and Managing Earthquake Risk: Geo-scientific and Engineering Knowledge for Earthquake Risk Mitigation: Developments, Tools, Techniques|publisher=Springer|location=[[Dordrecht]]|date=2006|isbn=1402035241|oclc=62749837}} |
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*{{cite news | first=Paul|last=Reynolds|title = The politics of earthquakes | work = [[BBC News]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3351121.stm | date=2003-12-30 |accessdate = 2008-10-16 }} |
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*{{cite book|last=Ritter|first=Scott|authorlink=Scott Ritter|title=Target Iran: The Truth about the White House's Plans for Regime Change|publisher=Nation Books|location=[[New York City]]|date=2006|isbn=1560259361|oclc=71374915}} |
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*{{cite web | title = Magnitude 6.6 - SOUTHEASTERN IRAN | work = [[United States Geological Survey]] |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]] | url = http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2003/uscvad/ | date=2006-10-12|accessdate = 2008-08-13 }} |
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*{{cite web|url=http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2003/eq_031226/neic_cvad_ts.html |title=Tectonic Summary: Magnitude 6.6 SOUTHEASTERN IRAN |date=2003-12-25| work = [[United States Geological Survey]] |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]] |accessdate=2008-08-13}} |
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*{{cite journal |last=Wang |first=R. |authorlink= |coauthors=Xia, Y., Grosser, H., Wetzel, H-U., Kaufmann, H., Zschau, J. |year=2004 |month=October |title=The 2003 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake: precise source parameters from satellite radar interferometry |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=159 |issue=3 |pages=917–922 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118792924/abstract |accessdate=2008-09-07 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02476.x}} |
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*{{cite news | author=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|title =China offers another 10m yuan to Iran| work = [[China Daily]] |publisher=China Daily Group| url = http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/31/content_294805.htm | date=2003-12-31 |accessdate = 2008-10-18 }} |
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{{refend}} |
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[[Category:Earthquakes in Iran]] |
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[[Category:2003 earthquakes]] |
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[[Category:2003 in Iran]] |
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[[fa:زمینلرزه بم]] |
[[fa:زمینلرزه بم]] |
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[[nl:Aardbeving Bam 2003]] |
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[[fi:Bamin maanjäristys 2003]] |
Revision as of 23:39, 22 October 2008
UTC time | ?? |
---|---|
Magnitude | 6.6 Mw |
Depth | 10 kilometres (6.213712 mi)[1] |
Epicenter | 29°00′14″N 58°20′13″E / 29.004°N 58.337°E[1] |
Areas affected | Iran |
Casualties | 26,271 people dead[2] and 30,000 injured[1] |
The 2003 Bam earthquake occurred in the Kerman province of southeastern Iran on December 26, 2003.
The earthquake occurred at 1:58 AM UTC (5:28 AM Iran Standard Time). Its magnitude was estimated by the United States Geological Survey as 6.6 on the Richter scale.
Two documentaries about this earthquake has been produced, the first entitled Bam 6.6 and the second Voices of Bam, as well as the film Colors of Memory.
Background and tectonics
Iran suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor ruptures occurring almost daily. There is little earthquake education in that country, most believing that if one occurs, it is God's will. Bahram Akasheh, a professor at Tehran University, told Reuters that this thinking was "poisonous".[3]
This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by the motion of the Arabian plate northward against the Eurasian plate at a rate of approximately 3 centimetres (1 in) per year. Deformation of the Earth's crust in response to the plate motion takes place in a broad zone that spans the entire width of Iran and extends into Turkmenistan. Earthquakes occur as the result of both reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting within the zone of deformation.[4]
Preliminary analysis of the pattern of seismic-wave radiation from the December 26 earthquake is consistent with the earthquake having been caused by right-lateral strike-slip motion on a north-south oriented fault. The earthquake occurred in a region within which major north-south, right-lateral, strike-slip faults had been previously mapped, and the epicenter lies near the previously mapped, north-south oriented Bam fault. However, field investigations will be necessary to determine if the earthquake occurred on the Bam fault or on another. The Bam earthquake is 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of the destructive earthquakes of June 11, 1981 (magnitude 6.6, approximately 3,000 deaths) and July 28, 1981 (magnitude 7.3, approximately 1,500 deaths). These earthquakes were caused by a combination of reverse-motion and strike-slip motion on the north-south oriented Gowk fault.[4]
The rupture length of the earthquake was estimated to be around 24 kilometers. More than half of the quake was produced from its southern segment of approximately 13 kilometres (8 mi), where the slip reached a maximum of up to 270 centimeters resulting in a large stress drop of at least 6 MPa. Optical remote sensing data shows that the Bam fault is not a single fault but consists of a 4–5 km wide fault system with the main branch running between the cities of Bam and Baravat. The fault ruptured by the Bam earthquake is believed to stretch the northwest branch of this fault system from Bam southward. Based on these results, scientists suggest that the Bam earthquake ruptured a hidden fault and that in this process an unusually strong asperity was involved, causing the widespread devastation of the tremor.[5]
Damage and casualties
The quake occurred at 1:56 AM UTC (5:26 AM Iran Standard Time) on December 26, 2003.[3] Its epicenter was roughly 10 kilometres (6 mi) southwest of the ancient city of Bam.[6] Maximum intensities were at Bam and Baravat,[1] with the most damage concentrated within the 16 kilometres (10 mi) radius around the city.[6]
At least 26,271 people were killed[2] and 30,000 injured.[1] Casualties from the earthquake were originally reported to be 41,000,[note 1] but that figure was lowered when it was discovered that some victims were counted more than once.[2] Nevertheless, in terms of human loss the quake was the worst to occur in Iranian history.[6] A census was undertaken to discover the exact number of casualties.[2] BBC reported that a large number of victims were crushed while sleeping.[3]
Eighty-five[1] to ninety[7] percent of buildings and infrastructure in the Bam area were either damaged or destroyed,[1] with 75% of houses being completely destroyed.[3] This left an estimated 100,000 homeless. Not a single house was standing in Baravat.[8] An important regional center during the 16th and 17th centuries, Bam contained many buildings that were not constructed to survive such ruptures.[3] Many houses in Bam were homemade, and its owners did not use skilled labor or proper building materials to resist earthquakes in the construction. These were often built in the traditional mud-brick style.[8] Mohsen Aboutorabi, professor of architecture at the University of Central England, demonstrated the lack of good building materials by banging two bricks together in Bam, resulting in cracking. On the other hand, Iranian regulations were better enforced in high rise buildings and skyscrapers.[9]
One reason for the large amount of casualties was that when the walls began to fall down, the heavy rooufs would collapse, leaving few air pockets in them.[8] The dust and lack of oxygen contributed to the suffocation of survivors.[7] The Iranian government promised to prosecute anyone who violated building regulations, even setting up a special unit to deal with the issue.[10]
One of the most notable examples of poor construction was the 2,000 year old Bam Citadel, considered one of the best surviving mud citadel before the quake. Most of it was demolished, including a large square tower.[8]
Electricity and water supplies were cut by the earthquake.[3] At least 29 serious aftershocks struck Bam following the main shock.[11]
Effects on medicine
As a result of the quake, two hospitals in Bam collapsed, leaving the remaining hospitals filled. Emergency centers were set up to care for the injured, though many centers did not have enough room to do so.[3] Of all of Bam's health workers, half were killed in the rupture. The World Health Organisation (WHO) appealed for $4 million in medical relief. One of the priorities in this operation was to help mental health patients, many of whom were traumatized over the experience.[12] A situation report released by the U.N. Disaster Assessment Coordination Team noted a rise in post-traumatic stress disorder and depression.[13]
Another affect of the rupture on the medical community was the disruption of drug trafficking. Before the earthquake in Bam, roughly 20% of the population over 15 was addicted. Syringes with opium were supplied to drug addicts in the aftermath.[13]
Effects on schools
Large amounts of schools were also affected by the tremor. An estimated 1,200 teachers and 10,000 students were killed. Ali Zang-Abadi, head of education in Bam, described the state of pupils and teachers as "badly need[ing] psychological help because they are morally devastated." Around 5 January, teachers were being registered and to resume educating.[14]
Relief efforts and aftermath
Bam was described as "literally a rubble pile" by the U.S. relief coordinator, Bill Garvelink.[13] Iranian President Mohammad Khatami called the rupture a "national tragedy" and urged all Iranians to help its victims.[3] The disaster was a prompt for pledges of aid, which showed Khatami "a spirit of humanity and kindness is alive."[7] The spiritual leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei visited the damage on 29 December, urging all Iranians and international organizations to help any way they could.[15]
The United Nations sent experts to coordinate the relief effort. The Red Crescent set up tents to house survivors.[3] Aid organizations such as these launched a massive appeal for money, specifically to help Bam residents over the long term.[14] More than 50 foreign countries,[11] including Russia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain, sent supplies and rescue workers to the affected area.[3] Iranian band Shahnaz raffled off 15 calligraphy works to benefit the Bam victims at the release of their lead singer's new instrument, the Sorahi.[16]
China was one of the first countries to supply aid. Upon hearing of the quake, it immediately sent a 43-member rescue squad. In total, its government donated 15 million yuan (US$1.81 million). Many indiviuals and companies also donated money and/or supplies.[17]
During the nights following the earthquake, the temperatures would drop to "bitterly cold" extremes, effectively killing some survivors.[7] These people were living in unheated tents among the rubble. For these reasons, thousands of families were moved to heated[13] camps on the outskirts of Bam. This was not met without resistance; many residents wished to stay in place.[14] For those that owned motorised vehicles, they were met with jammed traffic going both ways through Bam. Survivors loaded their belongings to move elsewhere while relief supplies, volunteers, and relatives were arriving.[8]
Looters stole food from warehouses and local markets. In reaction, the police force randomly fired into the air to discourage their presense.[8]
On 29 December, a baby girl named Nassin was discovered alive under the rubble, in her deceased mother's arms. China Daily called it "a rare moment of joy amid the devastation of Iran's worst earthquake for years."[18] The next day airplanes delivering aid and personnel from roughly 21 countries arrived at the provincial airport at Kerman, where they were unloaded and driven 120 miles (193 km) to Bam. By then, relief operations had begun to shift from finding survivors to caring for them. Rescue workers began to slow their efforts, although three individuals were discovered alive on that date. Water and electricity were restored to most parts of the city by then.[15]
One of the most notable rescues was that of 97-year-old Sharbānou Māzandarānī (شهربانو مازندرانی in Persian), who was trapped in her home for eight days until she was rescued unhurt on January 3. Rescue workers took three hours to dig her out after sniffer dogs found her.[13] Renewed media interest came to Bam on January 8, when a man was pulled out of the rubble alive. The chances of finding more living survivors following this were reportedly very slim.[12]
Iran seriously considered moving the capital of Tehran following the Bam earthquake. The city lies on a major fault, on which scientists predicted a devastating earthquake similar to that of Bam. The most cited example was Isfahan, a city in central Iran that had previously served as capital until it was moved to Tehran in 1788. As like a similar movement to move the capital proposed in 1991, it did not occur.[14]
Helicopter crash
An Iranian navy helicopter crashed 30 miles (48 km) southwest of Bam on 28 December following a deliverance of tents and blankets.[8] It was headed toward Bandar Abbas as it went down for unknown reasons. On deck were two pilots and a third person, none of whom survived. The helicopter was one of more than 500 who delivered aid to the Bam region.[19]
Iran–United States relations
Due to the earthquake, relations between the United States and Iran thawed. The U.S. usually treated Iran as part of the "axis of evil", as its President George W. Bush called the nation.[9] However, following the tremor White House spokesman Scott McClellan spoke on behalf of President Bush: "Our thoughts and prayers are with those who were injured and with the families of those who were killed."[3]
The U.S. offered direct humanitarian assistance to Iran. Iran initially declined this offer,[10] though later accepted it. On December 30 an 81-member emergency response team was deployed to Iran via U.S. military aircraft, consisting of search and rescue squads, aid coordinators, and medical support.[20] These were the first U.S. military airplanes to land in Iran for more than 20 years.[7]
In return, the state promised to comply with an agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency which supports better monitoring of its nuclear interests. This led U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to suggest direct talks in the future.[9] Sanctions were temporarily releaved to help the rescue effort.[14] However, he also said that the U.S. was still concerned on other Iranian issues, such as the prospect of terrorism and the country's support of Hamas.[9]
Reaction to U.S. involvement was mixed. It was well received by physicians and civilians at the scene. In stark contrast to this support, IRNA, the state-controlled radio in Iran, accused the United States of illegal interferance in internal matters.[13] Khatami, while not criticising U.S. aid, was upset about the politicization of it.[7] Interior Minister Abdolvahed Mousavi Lari supported U.S. assistance but not Isreali help, as he considered it an illegitimate government.[8]
Reconstruction
In January 2004, the United Nations estimatated that a reconstruction of Bam would cost between US$700 million and $1 billion. It called on the international community to provide money in this endeavor, though it realised that Iran would be paying for much of it.[12] It announced over state television that it had earmaked roughly $410 million for reconstruction.[7]
Films on the earthquake
Colors of Memory, released in 2008, tells the story of a surgeon who returns home to Bam after living in Germany for 33 years. Arriving in Tehran, Dr. Parsa arrives in Tehran to perform a complex operation, where he notices the family friend Quanati. Quanati urges him to come back to his hometown, Bam. On the trip, they drive past the rubble and destruction and Parsa remembers back to his childhood. The film was praised by Canadian Online Explorer as "both celebratory and heartbreaking" and urged Iranians "to bring tissues."[21]
Notes
- ^ An unnamed senior Interior Ministry official estimated the death toll to be as high as 50,000. Another unnamed official agreed with this, though Khatami denounced the toll estimate as it was "definitely not 50,000." ("Iran quake toll may hit 50,000", China Daily Group (2003))
References
- ^ a b c d e f g United States Department of the Interior (2006).
- ^ a b c d "Iran lowers Bam earthquake toll", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Iran earthquake kills thousands", British Broadcasting Corporation (2003).
- ^ a b United States Department of the Interior (2003)
- ^ Wang et al. (2004) p. abstract.
- ^ a b c Oliviera & Roca & Goula (2006). p. 445.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Iran quake toll may hit 50,000", China Daily Group (2003).
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Iran's hope fades for quake survivors", China Daily Group (2003).
- ^ a b c d Reynolds (2003).
- ^ a b "Iran to prosecute over building law breaches in Bam", China Daily Group (2004).
- ^ a b "Week on, Iran mourns quake that 'made world cry'", China Daily Group (2004).
- ^ a b c "Rebuilding Bam 'could cost $1bn'", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).
- ^ a b c d e f "97-year-old quake victim rescued in Iran", China Daily Group (2004).
- ^ a b c d e "Iran considers moving capital", British Broadcasting Corporation (2004).
- ^ a b "Promise to rebuild quake-hit city", Cable News Network (2003).
- ^ Islamic Propagation Organization (2008).
- ^ "China offers another 10m yuan to Iran", Xinhua News Agency (2003).
- ^ "Dead mother's embrace saves Iranian baby's life", China Daily Group (2003).
- ^ "Copter crashes, three killed", Agence France-Presse (2003).
- ^ Ritter (2006) pp. 107-108.
- ^ Braun (2008).
Works cited
- Agence France-Presse (2003-12-29). "'Copter crashes, three killed". Dawn. Herald Publications. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
- "Iran considers moving capital". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2004-01-05. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
- "Iran earthquake kills thousands". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2003-12-26. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- "Iran lowers Bam earthquake toll". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2004-03-29. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
- "Rebuilding Bam 'could cost $1bn'". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2004-01-09. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
- Braun, Liz (2008). "'Colors Of Memory' honours Iran". Jam! Showbiz. Canadian Online Explorer. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- "97-year-old quake victim rescued in Iran". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2004-01-04. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- "Dead mother's embrace saves Iranian baby's life". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2003-12-29. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
- "Iran's hope fades for quake survivors". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2003-12-29. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- "Iran to prosecute over building law breaches in Bam". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2004-01-03. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- "Promise to rebuild quake-hit city". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2003-12-31. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- "Week on, Iran mourns quake that 'made world cry'". China Daily. China Daily Group. 2004-01-02. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
- Cable News Network (2003-12-30). "Promise to rebuild quake-hit city". China Daily. China Daily Group. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- "Shajarian to unveil his new instrument". Tehran Times. Islamic Propagation Organization. 2008-10-06. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- Oliviera, Carlos Sousa (2006). Assessing and Managing Earthquake Risk: Geo-scientific and Engineering Knowledge for Earthquake Risk Mitigation: Developments, Tools, Techniques. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 1402035241. OCLC 62749837.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Reynolds, Paul (2003-12-30). "The politics of earthquakes". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
- Ritter, Scott (2006). Target Iran: The Truth about the White House's Plans for Regime Change. New York City: Nation Books. ISBN 1560259361. OCLC 71374915.
- "Magnitude 6.6 - SOUTHEASTERN IRAN". United States Geological Survey. United States Department of the Interior. 2006-10-12. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
- "Tectonic Summary: Magnitude 6.6 SOUTHEASTERN IRAN". United States Geological Survey. United States Department of the Interior. 2003-12-25. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
- Wang, R. (2004). "The 2003 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake: precise source parameters from satellite radar interferometry". Geophysical Journal International. 159 (3): 917–922. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02476.x. Retrieved 2008-09-07.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - Xinhua News Agency (2003-12-31). "China offers another 10m yuan to Iran". China Daily. China Daily Group. Retrieved 2008-10-18.