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'''Yulu''' (also known as '''Youlou''', pronounced [[Ipa|yuːluː]]'')'' is a [[Central Sudanic language]] language spoken by the [[Yulu people]] of [[South Sudan]] and the [[Central African Republic]]. It is estimated that in total the language has about 7,000 speakers, in both the CAR the Sudan.<ref name=":2">Frawley, W. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esperanto. Vol. 1. Oxford university press.</ref> It is similar to '''Binga''', spoken by the [[Binga people]], with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language,<ref name=":3">Santandrea, S. (1964). A tribal history of the Western Bahr el Ghazal. In , Museum Combonianum 17 Nigrizia.</ref> although some of the vocabulary "differs greatly".<ref>Anonymous, ''A Small Comparative Vocabulary of Bongo, Baka, Yulu, Kara.'' Printed by the Sodality of St. Peter Claver, Rome, 1963. Page 7</ref> |
'''Yulu''' (also known as '''Youlou''', pronounced [[Ipa|yuːluː]]'')'' is a [[Central Sudanic language]] language spoken by the [[Yulu people]] of [[South Sudan]] and the [[Central African Republic]]. It is estimated that in total the language has about 7,000 speakers, in both the CAR the Sudan.<ref name=":2">Frawley, W. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esperanto. Vol. 1. Oxford university press.</ref> It is similar to '''Binga''', spoken by the [[Binga people]], with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language,<ref name=":3">Santandrea, S. (1964). A tribal history of the Western Bahr el Ghazal. In , Museum Combonianum 17 Nigrizia.</ref> although some of the vocabulary "differs greatly".<ref>Anonymous, ''A Small Comparative Vocabulary of Bongo, Baka, Yulu, Kara.'' Printed by the Sodality of St. Peter Claver, Rome, 1963. Page 7</ref> |
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Yulu is classified as a non-Bantu language language of northeastern Africa. It is written using Roman script (with adjustments for sounds with no corresponding letters), after the Rejaf Language Conference in 1928 attempted to standardize a writing system for the region's indigenous languages. Yulu is not the dominant indigenous language in the region within which it is spoken, however it is used over a wide geographic area, consequently making it difficult to know how many speakers there are.<ref name=":0">Gabjanda, J. D. (1976). An axiomatic functionalist analysis of the phonology of Yulu (Doctoral dissertation, The University of St Andrews).</ref> It is similar to Binga, another local language, with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language, as opposed to different ones.<ref name=":3">Santandrea, S. (1964). A tribal history of the Western Bahr el Ghazal. In , Museum Combonianum 17 Nigrizia.</ref> |
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Many Sudanese people prefer to speak [[Arabic]], however there is a new movement to promote the instruction of local languages in school. This is particularly because a large proportion of speakers are not literate in Yulu.<ref name=":6">(2015, November 19). W. Bahr el-Ghazal pushes for local languages in schools. Sudan Tribune.</ref> Between 30 and 50 languages are spoken in Southern Sudan, Yulu was not recommended by the Rejaf Language Conference to be taught in schools, possibly contributing to its endangerment.<ref name=":0" /> |
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Yulu has four tones in speech, high, mid, low, and extra-low. One of its defining feature is the use of compound verbs. Compound verbs are a cluster of between two and four related verbs which create meaning when combined.<ref name=":1">Boyeldieu, P. (2007). Compound Verbs and Modalities of Process in Yulu (Central Sudanic). In Advances in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics. Proceedings of the 8th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, University of Hamburg, August 22–25, 2001 (pp. p-25). Rüdiger Köppe.</ref> Some of the most comprehensive linguistic information on Yulu was written by Stefano Santandrea, a Catholic priest from [[Rome]] who lived in Bahr al-Ghazal for several decades.<ref name=":0" /> |
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==Classification== |
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Yulu is not the dominant indigenous language in the region within which it is spoken, however it is used over a wide geographic area, consequently making it difficult to know how many speakers there are.<ref name=":0" /> It is similar to Binga, another local language, with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language, as opposed to different ones.<ref name=":3" /> |
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Yulu has been classified differently according to experts, some of whom refer to its as "Central Sudanic,"<ref name=":1" /> some as "Eastern Sudanic,"<ref name=":0" /> and still others as "West-Central Sudanic."<ref>Ehret, Christopher. (1974). Some Thoughts on the Early History of the Nile-Congo Watershed. Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 5(2). international_asc_ufahamu_17505. Retrieved from: <nowiki>https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2gd85265</nowiki></ref> Boyeldieu<ref name=":1" /> and [[Joseph Greenberg|Greenberg]]<ref>Greenberg, J. H. (1963). ''The languages of Africa'' (Vol. 25). Indiana Univ..</ref> both place it in the "[[Bongo–Bagirmi languages|Bongo-Bagirmi]]" group of languages, while Tucker & Bryan refer to as a "non-Bantu language of north-eastern Africa."<ref>Tucker, A. N., & Bryan, M. A. (1966). ''Linguistic analysis: the non-Bantu languages of North-Eastern Africa''. Published for the International African Institute by the Oxford UP.</ref> Yulu is similar to Binga, the two being mutually intelligible, and there is debate as to whether they are separate languages or dialects of one. The Rejaf Language Conference classified the two as one language, but Gabjanda argues that it makes more sense to see them as dialects of the same language.<ref name=":0" /> Santandrea, meanwhile, says that Yulu is the standard form, as opposed to a dialect.<ref>Santandrea, S. (1970). Brief grammar outlines of the Yulu and Kara languages [Bahr el Ghazal,Sudan-Central African Republic], with a small comparative vocabulary of Bongo Baka Yulu Kara. In , Museum combonianum. 25 Editrice Nigrizia.</ref> Yulu also shares certain linguistic features with Gula and Modo,<ref name=":1" /> and both cultural and linguistic features with Kara and Binga.<ref name=":0" /> |
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== History == |
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The Yulu population itself only numbers several thousand, and subsists mostly off agriculture, hunting and honey production. They are not assumed to be indigenous to the region they currently inhabit, and the mythology surround the Yulu's origin tells that they migrated north-west through Fur from the [[Blue Nile]] to reach the area of Sudan where they currently reside. Later, some Yulu were pushed farther west into the CAR.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gurtong.net/Peoples/PeoplesProfiles/Yulu/tabid/237/Default.aspx|title=Yulu|last=Trust|first=Gurtong|website=www.gurtong.net|language=en-US|access-date=2017-03-09}}</ref> |
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Many Yulu speakers prefer speaking Arabic,<ref name=":6" /> the official language of Sudan and one which was embraced by the academic community. In 1960 Arabic was required in education past grade 3 and through university. The [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement|Navaisha Peace]] agreement added more flexibility, though, by allowing small provinces to adopt local languages as official ones.<ref name=":3" /> Teachers and academics in the Bahr el-Ghazal region of Sudan have pushed for more widespread use of local languages in schools, specifically pointing out that many, including Yulu, survived in books published by [[Catholic missionaries]], which should be taken advantage of.<ref name=":6" /> |
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== Geographic Distribution == |
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Yulu's 7,000 speakers are divided between roughly 4,000 in the CAR and 3,000 in the Sudan. Within the CAR, the language is spoken in the Ouadda-Djalél and Ouadda subprefectures,<ref name=":2" /> while in the Sudan it is primarily common to the southwestern area of [[Darfur]] and Western [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el-Ghazal]].<ref name=":0" /> |
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== Sounds/Phonology == |
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=== Consonant Phonemes === |
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The following table provides an overview of the [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s.<ref name=":0" /> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! colspan="2" | |
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! colspan="2" |Occlusive |
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! colspan="2" |Fricative |
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! colspan="2" |Nasal |
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!Ingressive |
|||
|- |
|||
| |
|||
| |
|||
|Complex |
|||
|Plain |
|||
|Complex |
|||
|Plain |
|||
|Complex |
|||
|Plain |
|||
| |
|||
|- |
|||
| rowspan="2" |Labial |
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|Simple |
|||
|b |
|||
|p |
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| rowspan="2" |v |
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| rowspan="2" |f |
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| colspan="2" |m |
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| rowspan="2" |ᵗb |
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|- |
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|Compound |
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|g͜b |
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|k͜p |
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| colspan="2" |m͜b |
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|- |
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| rowspan="2" |Apical |
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|Simple |
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| rowspan="2" |d |
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| rowspan="2" |t |
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|z |
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|s |
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|ñ |
|||
|n |
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| rowspan="2" |ᵗd |
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|- |
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|Compound |
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|z̆ |
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|c̆ |
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|n͜z̆ |
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|n͜d |
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|- |
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| rowspan="2" |Dorsal |
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|Simple |
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| rowspan="2" |g |
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| rowspan="2" |k |
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| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |h |
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| colspan="2" |ŋ |
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| rowspan="2" |ᵗg |
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|- |
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|Compound |
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| colspan="2" |ʒ͜g |
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|} |
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The following table provides an overview of the vowel phonemes.<ref name=":0" /> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! |
|||
!Rounded |
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!Spread |
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|- |
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|Vocalic |
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|o |
|||
|e |
|||
|- |
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|Semi-Vocalic |
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|u |
|||
|i |
|||
|} |
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==Grammar== |
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One of Yulu's distinctive features is its system of 4 tones, classified as high, mid, low and extra-low. It also boasts a relatively unique phenomenon of clustering verbs, anywhere between 2 and 4 at a time. These clusters work together to describe one process as if it were a single [[verb]], and are not always distinguishable from one another within the cluster, in part because when one verb in a cluster ends in a [[vowel]] and the next verb begins with one, the two sounds overlap. These clusters are common in texts, and occur roughly 75% as often as single verbs. Verbs in Yulu always have a subject marker as well as a [[verb stem]], and sometimes contains a verbal dependency or verbal plural marker.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Writing System == |
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The Rejaf Language Conference recommended adopting the [[Latin script]], with adjustments for the sounds that don't exist within it, as Yulu's writing system.<ref name=":0" /> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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[[Category:Bongo-Bagirmi languages]] |
[[Category:Bongo-Bagirmi languages]] |
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{{ns-lang-stub}} |
Revision as of 22:15, 8 June 2017
Yulu | |
---|---|
Binga | |
Native to | Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan, Sudan |
Ethnicity | Yulu, Binga |
Native speakers | (13,000 cited 1987–2011)[1] |
Dialects |
|
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | yul |
Glottolog | yulu1243 |
ELP | Yulu |
Yulu (also known as Youlou, pronounced yuːluː) is a Central Sudanic language language spoken by the Yulu people of South Sudan and the Central African Republic. It is estimated that in total the language has about 7,000 speakers, in both the CAR the Sudan.[2] It is similar to Binga, spoken by the Binga people, with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language,[3] although some of the vocabulary "differs greatly".[4]
Yulu is classified as a non-Bantu language language of northeastern Africa. It is written using Roman script (with adjustments for sounds with no corresponding letters), after the Rejaf Language Conference in 1928 attempted to standardize a writing system for the region's indigenous languages. Yulu is not the dominant indigenous language in the region within which it is spoken, however it is used over a wide geographic area, consequently making it difficult to know how many speakers there are.[5] It is similar to Binga, another local language, with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language, as opposed to different ones.[3]
Many Sudanese people prefer to speak Arabic, however there is a new movement to promote the instruction of local languages in school. This is particularly because a large proportion of speakers are not literate in Yulu.[6] Between 30 and 50 languages are spoken in Southern Sudan, Yulu was not recommended by the Rejaf Language Conference to be taught in schools, possibly contributing to its endangerment.[5]
Yulu has four tones in speech, high, mid, low, and extra-low. One of its defining feature is the use of compound verbs. Compound verbs are a cluster of between two and four related verbs which create meaning when combined.[7] Some of the most comprehensive linguistic information on Yulu was written by Stefano Santandrea, a Catholic priest from Rome who lived in Bahr al-Ghazal for several decades.[5]
Classification
Yulu is not the dominant indigenous language in the region within which it is spoken, however it is used over a wide geographic area, consequently making it difficult to know how many speakers there are.[5] It is similar to Binga, another local language, with some linguists arguing that they are dialects of the same language, as opposed to different ones.[3]
Yulu has been classified differently according to experts, some of whom refer to its as "Central Sudanic,"[7] some as "Eastern Sudanic,"[5] and still others as "West-Central Sudanic."[8] Boyeldieu[7] and Greenberg[9] both place it in the "Bongo-Bagirmi" group of languages, while Tucker & Bryan refer to as a "non-Bantu language of north-eastern Africa."[10] Yulu is similar to Binga, the two being mutually intelligible, and there is debate as to whether they are separate languages or dialects of one. The Rejaf Language Conference classified the two as one language, but Gabjanda argues that it makes more sense to see them as dialects of the same language.[5] Santandrea, meanwhile, says that Yulu is the standard form, as opposed to a dialect.[11] Yulu also shares certain linguistic features with Gula and Modo,[7] and both cultural and linguistic features with Kara and Binga.[5]
History
The Yulu population itself only numbers several thousand, and subsists mostly off agriculture, hunting and honey production. They are not assumed to be indigenous to the region they currently inhabit, and the mythology surround the Yulu's origin tells that they migrated north-west through Fur from the Blue Nile to reach the area of Sudan where they currently reside. Later, some Yulu were pushed farther west into the CAR.[12]
Many Yulu speakers prefer speaking Arabic,[6] the official language of Sudan and one which was embraced by the academic community. In 1960 Arabic was required in education past grade 3 and through university. The Navaisha Peace agreement added more flexibility, though, by allowing small provinces to adopt local languages as official ones.[3] Teachers and academics in the Bahr el-Ghazal region of Sudan have pushed for more widespread use of local languages in schools, specifically pointing out that many, including Yulu, survived in books published by Catholic missionaries, which should be taken advantage of.[6]
Geographic Distribution
Yulu's 7,000 speakers are divided between roughly 4,000 in the CAR and 3,000 in the Sudan. Within the CAR, the language is spoken in the Ouadda-Djalél and Ouadda subprefectures,[2] while in the Sudan it is primarily common to the southwestern area of Darfur and Western Bahr el-Ghazal.[5]
Sounds/Phonology
Consonant Phonemes
The following table provides an overview of the consonant phonemes.[5]
Occlusive | Fricative | Nasal | Ingressive | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Complex | Plain | Complex | Plain | Complex | Plain | |||
Labial | Simple | b | p | v | f | m | ᵗb | |
Compound | g͜b | k͜p | m͜b | |||||
Apical | Simple | d | t | z | s | ñ | n | ᵗd |
Compound | z̆ | c̆ | n͜z̆ | n͜d | ||||
Dorsal | Simple | g | k | h | ŋ | ᵗg | ||
Compound | ʒ͜g |
The following table provides an overview of the vowel phonemes.[5]
Rounded | Spread | |
---|---|---|
Vocalic | o | e |
Semi-Vocalic | u | i |
Grammar
One of Yulu's distinctive features is its system of 4 tones, classified as high, mid, low and extra-low. It also boasts a relatively unique phenomenon of clustering verbs, anywhere between 2 and 4 at a time. These clusters work together to describe one process as if it were a single verb, and are not always distinguishable from one another within the cluster, in part because when one verb in a cluster ends in a vowel and the next verb begins with one, the two sounds overlap. These clusters are common in texts, and occur roughly 75% as often as single verbs. Verbs in Yulu always have a subject marker as well as a verb stem, and sometimes contains a verbal dependency or verbal plural marker.[7]
Writing System
The Rejaf Language Conference recommended adopting the Latin script, with adjustments for the sounds that don't exist within it, as Yulu's writing system.[5]
References
- ^ Yulu at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b Frawley, W. (2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: AAVE-Esperanto. Vol. 1. Oxford university press.
- ^ a b c d Santandrea, S. (1964). A tribal history of the Western Bahr el Ghazal. In , Museum Combonianum 17 Nigrizia.
- ^ Anonymous, A Small Comparative Vocabulary of Bongo, Baka, Yulu, Kara. Printed by the Sodality of St. Peter Claver, Rome, 1963. Page 7
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gabjanda, J. D. (1976). An axiomatic functionalist analysis of the phonology of Yulu (Doctoral dissertation, The University of St Andrews).
- ^ a b c (2015, November 19). W. Bahr el-Ghazal pushes for local languages in schools. Sudan Tribune.
- ^ a b c d e Boyeldieu, P. (2007). Compound Verbs and Modalities of Process in Yulu (Central Sudanic). In Advances in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics. Proceedings of the 8th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium, University of Hamburg, August 22–25, 2001 (pp. p-25). Rüdiger Köppe.
- ^ Ehret, Christopher. (1974). Some Thoughts on the Early History of the Nile-Congo Watershed. Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 5(2). international_asc_ufahamu_17505. Retrieved from: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2gd85265
- ^ Greenberg, J. H. (1963). The languages of Africa (Vol. 25). Indiana Univ..
- ^ Tucker, A. N., & Bryan, M. A. (1966). Linguistic analysis: the non-Bantu languages of North-Eastern Africa. Published for the International African Institute by the Oxford UP.
- ^ Santandrea, S. (1970). Brief grammar outlines of the Yulu and Kara languages [Bahr el Ghazal,Sudan-Central African Republic], with a small comparative vocabulary of Bongo Baka Yulu Kara. In , Museum combonianum. 25 Editrice Nigrizia.
- ^ Trust, Gurtong. "Yulu". www.gurtong.net. Retrieved 2017-03-09.