Not in cited source. Looks spurious since Mary isn't in the Trinity. |
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In [[Nejd]], in the centre of the peninsula, there is evidence of two tribes, [[Kindah]] and [[Taghlib]], converting to Christianity in the 6th century. However, in the [[Hejaz]] in the west, whilst there is evidence of the presence of Christianity, it is not thought to have been significant amongst the indigenous population of the area.<ref name="Goddard2000"/> |
In [[Nejd]], in the centre of the peninsula, there is evidence of two tribes, [[Kindah]] and [[Taghlib]], converting to Christianity in the 6th century. However, in the [[Hejaz]] in the west, whilst there is evidence of the presence of Christianity, it is not thought to have been significant amongst the indigenous population of the area.<ref name="Goddard2000"/> |
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Some of the [[Arab Christians]] identified [[Jesus]] with Allah while others believed in the concept of divine triad of Allah the Father, [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]] the Mother and Jesus the Son.<ref name= Berkey/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
Revision as of 20:33, 11 November 2015
Part of the myth series on |
Religions of the ancient Near East |
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Pre-Islamic Arabian deities |
Arabian deities of other Semitic origins |
Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia was a mix of polytheism, Christianity and Judaism. Arab polytheism, the dominant belief system, was based on the belief in deities and other supernatural beings such as demons, djinn, and demigods. Gods and goddesses were worshipped at local shrines, such as the Kaaba in Mecca. The Kaaba was dedicated to Hubal and also contained the images of the three chief goddesses Al-lāt, Al-‘Uzzá and Manāt. Allah might have been one of the gods of the Meccan religion to whom the shrine was dedicated although it seems he had little relevance in the religion.[1][2][3][4] Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is believed to have contained up to 360 of them.[5]
Christianity and Judaism remained minority beliefs. The influence of the adjacent Roman, Axumite and Sassanian empires resulted in Christian communities in the northwest, northeast and south of Arabia. Christianity made a lesser impact, but secured some conversions, in the remainder of the peninsula. With the exception of Nestorianism in the northeast and the Persian Gulf, the dominant form of Christianity was Monophysitism.
Polytheism
Background and belief systems
Although there existed significant Jewish and Christian minorities, polytheism was the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.[6][7] The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic bedouin were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as Mecca.[8] Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included fetishism, totemism and ancestor worship but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger philosophical questions such as the afterlife.[8] Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complex pantheon of deities.[8] While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of the Hejaz worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.[9] Historians have debated whether these belief systems were derived from indigenous Semitic religious traditions or were a "degenerate" offshoot of the more sophisticated mythologies of the nearby Fertile Crescent.[6]
The sources of information regarding the pre-Islamic pantheon include a small number of inscriptions and carvings,[7] remnants of stone idol-worship,[6] references in the poetry of the pre-Islamic Arab poet Zuhair and in pre-Islamic personal names,[10] as well references in the Quran and later Muslim sources such as the 8th century Book of Idols.[11] Nevertheless, information is limited[7] and there is little certainty about the nature of pre-Islamic polytheism and considerable debate amongst scholars.[6] According to F.E. Peters, "one of the characteristics of Arab paganism as it has come down to us is the absence of a mythology, narratives that might serve to explain the origin or history of the gods."[12]
Allah
In pre-Islamic Arabia, including in Mecca, Allah was used to probably refer to a deity, possibly a creator god or a supreme deity in a polytheistic pantheon. The word was not used as much as a name as it was as a title.[1][2][3][4][13][14] Pre-Islamic Christians, Jews and the monotheistic Arabs called Hanifs used the term Bismillah ("in the name of Allah") and the name Allah to refer to their supreme deity in Arabic stone inscriptions centuries before Islam. Muhammad's father's name was ʿAbd-Allāh meaning "the slave of Allāh".[15]
The concept of Allah may have been vague in the Meccan religion,[14][15] and he might have had sons and daughters who were also divinities.[1][2][3][4][16]
Meccan gods
The three chief goddesses of Meccan religion were Al-lāt, Al-‘Uzzá, and Manāt, who might have been considered to be the daughters of Allah.[1][2][3][4] Each was associated with certain domains and had shrines with idols located near Taif[17] which were destroyed on orders of Muhammad.[18] Allāt (Arabic: اللات) or Al-lāt was the goddess associated with the underworld.[19] Al-‘Uzzá (Arabic: العزى) "The Mightiest One" or "The Strong" was an Arabian fertility goddess. She was called upon for protection and victory before war.[20] Manāt (Arabic: مناة) was the goddess of fate; the Book of Idols describes her as the most ancient of all these idols. An idol of Manāt was erected on the seashore in the vicinity of al-Mushallal in Qudayd, between Medina and Mecca. The Aws and the Khazraj, as well as the inhabitants of Medina and Mecca and their vicinities, venerated Manāt and performed sacrifices before her idol, including offering their children. Pilgrimages of some Arabs, including the Aws, Khazraj, Yathrib and others, were not considered completed until they visited Manāt and shaved their heads.[21]
Hubal (Arabic: هبل) was one of the most notable gods in Mecca where an image of him was worshipped at the Kaaba. The sanctuary was dedicated to Hubal, who was worshipped as the greatest of the 360 idols the Kaaba contained, which probably represented the days of the year.[5] An idol of Hubal, said to have been near the Kaaba, is described as shaped like a human with the right hand severed and replaced with a golden hand.[22] Manaf (Arabic: مناف), was another god of Meccans. He was related to women and menstruation.[17]
Other deities
- Al-Qaum (Arabic: القوم) was the Nabataean god of war and the night, and also guardian of caravans.
- Amm (Arabic: أم) was a moon god worshipped in ancient Qataban. He was revered as in association with the weather, especially lightning.
- Dhu'l-Halasa (Arabic: ذو الحلاس) was an oracular god of south Arabia. He was venerated in the form of a white stone.
- Dushara (Arabic: ذو الشرى) was a Nabataean god, his name meaning "Lord of the Mountain"
- Ta'lab (Arabic: تألب) was a god worshipped in southern Arabia, particularly in Sheba and also a moon god. His oracle was consulted for advice.
- Wadd (Arabic: ود) was a god of love and friendship. Snakes were believed to be sacred to Wadd.[17]
Other supernatural beings
Spirits
- Jinn (also called djinn or genies, Arabic: جن jinn) are supernatural creatures which possess free will, and can be either good or evil. In some cases, evil genies are said to lead humans astray.[citation needed]
- Marids (Arabic: مارد mārid) are often described as the most powerful type of jinn, having especially great powers. They are the most arrogant and proud as well. Like every jinn, they have free will yet could be compelled to perform chores. They also have the ability to grant wishes to mortals, but that usually requires battle, and according to some sources imprisonment, rituals, or just a great deal of flattery.
- Ifrits (Arabic: عفريت ‘ifrīt) are infernal jinn, spirits below the level of angels and devils, noted for their strength and cunning. An ifrit is an enormous winged creature of fire, either male or female, who lives underground and frequents ruins. Ifrits live in a society structured along ancient Arab tribal lines, complete with kings, tribes, and clans. They generally marry one another, but they can also marry humans. While ordinary weapons and forces have no power over them, they are susceptible to magic, which humans can use to kill them or to capture and enslave them. As with the jinn, an ifrit may be either a believer or an unbeliever, good or evil, but he is most often depicted as a wicked and ruthless being.
Monsters
- Nasnas (Arabic: نسناس nasnās) has been described as "half a human being; having half a head, half a body, one arm, one leg, with which it hops with much agility". It was believed to be the offspring of a demon called a Shiqq and a human being.[23]
- Ghouls (Arabic: غول ghūl) are desert-dwelling, shapeshifting demons that can assume the guise of animal, especially hyenas. They lure unwary travellers into the desert wastes to slay and devour them. These creatures also prey on young children, rob graves, drink blood, and eat the dead, taking on the form of the one they previously ate. Because of the latter habit, the word ghoul is sometimes used to refer to an ordinary human such as a grave robber, or to anyone who delights in the macabre.[24]
- Bahamut (Arabic: بهموت Bahamūt) is a vast fish that supports the earth. It is sometimes described as having a head resembling a hippopotamus or elephant.[25]
Judaism
A thriving community of Jewish tribes existed in pre-Islamic Arabia and included both sedentary and nomadic communities. Jews had migrated into Arabia from Roman times onwards.[26] In the Islamic tradition, based on a phrase in the Qur'an, Arabic Jews are said to have referred to Uzair as the son of Allah, although historical accuracy of this assertion has been disputed.[27][28]
Christianity
The main areas of Christian influence in Arabia was on the north eastern and north western borders and in what was to become Yemen in the south.[29] The north west was under the influence of Christian missionary activity from the Roman Empire where the Ghassanids, a client kingdom of the Romans, were converted to Christianity.[30] In the south, particularly at Najran, a centre of Christianity developed as a result of the influence of the Christian Kingdom of Axum based on the other side of the Red Sea in Ethiopia.[29] Both the Ghassanids and the Christians in the south adopted Monophysitism.[29]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Jubail_Church.jpg/220px-Jubail_Church.jpg)
The third area of Christian influence was on the north eastern borders where the Lakhmids, a client tribe of the Sassanians, adopted Nestorianism, being the form of Christianity having the most influence in the Sassanian Empire.[29] As the Persian Gulf region of Arabia increasingly fell under the influence of the Sasanians from the early third century, many of the inhabitants were exposed to Christianity following the eastward dispersal of the religion by Mesopotamian Christians.[31] However, it was not until the fourth century that Christianity gained popularity in the region with the establishment of monasteries and a diocesan structure.[32] In 1986, the remains of a church thought to date to the 4th century were discovered in Jubail in eastern Saudi Arabia.[33]
In Nejd, in the centre of the peninsula, there is evidence of two tribes, Kindah and Taghlib, converting to Christianity in the 6th century. However, in the Hejaz in the west, whilst there is evidence of the presence of Christianity, it is not thought to have been significant amongst the indigenous population of the area.[29]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c d Jonathan Porter Berkey (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-58813-3.
- ^ a b c d Neal Robinson (5 November 2013). Islam: A Concise Introduction. Routledge. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-136-81773-1.
- ^ a b c d Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-7914-1875-8.
- ^ a b c d Daniel C. Peterson (26 February 2007). Muhammad, Prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8028-0754-0.
- ^ a b Karen Armstrong (2000). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X.
- ^ a b c d Jonathan Porter Berkey (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-58813-3.
- ^ a b c David Nicolle (20 June 2012). The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632-750. Osprey Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-78096-998-5.
- ^ a b c Reza Aslan (2 December 2008). No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam. Random House. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4070-0928-5.
- ^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7914-1875-8.
- ^ William E. Phipps (1 September 1999). Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teachings. A&C Black. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8264-1207-2.
- ^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton University Press. pp. 5–7. ISBN 0-691-03267-X.
- ^ Francis E. Peters (2003). Islam, a Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
- ^ Zeki Saritopak, Allah, The Qu'ran: An Encyclopedia, ed. by Oliver Leaman, p. 34
- ^ a b L. Gardet, Allah, Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. by Sir H.A.R. Gibb
- ^ a b Gerhard Böwering, God and his Attributes, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, ed. by Jane Dammen McAuliffe
- ^ Hitti, Philip Khouri (2002). History of the Arabs. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 800. ISBN 9780333631423.
- ^ a b c Book of Idols
- ^ Ibn Ishaq - Sīratu Rasūlu l-LāhHawting.
- ^ The Dawn of Civilisation, by: Gaston Maspero
- ^ Tawil 1993
- ^ Hommel, First Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 1. p. 380
- ^ The Book of Idols (Kitāb al-Asnām) by Hishām Ibn al-Kalbī
- ^ Edward William Lane. "Arabian society in the middle ages : studies from the Thousand and one nights". London : Chatto, 1883. p. 45
- ^ "ghoul". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved January 22, 2006.
- ^ Borges, Jorge Luis (2002). The Book of Imaginary Beings. London: Vintage. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-09-944263-9.
- ^ Irving M. Zeitlin (19 March 2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. pp. 87–90. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.
- ^ "Ezra". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 6. pp. 1106–1107.
Muhammad claims (sura 9:30) that in the opinion of the Jews, 'Uzayr (EZRA) is the son of God. These words are an enigma because no such opinion is to be found among the Jews, even though Ezra was singled out for special appreciation.
- ^ Kaufmann Kohler; Ignatz Goldziher. "Islam". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d e Hugh Goddard (2000). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-1-56663-340-6.
- ^ Jonathan Porter Berkey (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0-521-58813-3.
- ^ Gillman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1999). Christians in Asia Before 1500. University of Michigan Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0472110407.
- ^ Mario Kozah; Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn (26 August 2014). The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century. Gorgias PressLlc. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-4632-0355-9.
- ^ "4th Century Assyrian Church in Saudi Arabia". Assyrian International News Agency. 28 August 2008.
References
- The Book of Idols (Kitāb al-Asnām) by Hishām Ibn al-Kalbī
Sources
- Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia by Jeremy Black and Anthony Green (ISBN 0-292-70794-0)
- Karen Armstrong (2000). Islam: A Short History. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X.