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{{Feminism sidebar |expanded=Waves}} |
{{Feminism sidebar |expanded=Waves}} |
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Within sociology, ''' |
Within sociology, '''rape culture''' is a concept of disputed origin and meaning<ref name="Blackwell Publishing Inc - Encyclopedia - Prof Joyce E Williams - Rape Culture">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology - Rape Culture | encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology | url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_yr2012_chunk_g978140512433124_ss1-19#citation | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Inc. | accessdate=21 January 2013 | author=Wiliams, Joyce E. | editor=Ritzer, George | year=2007 | doi=10.1111/b.9781405124331.2007.x | isbn=9781405124331 | archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Dpy0NZWD | archivedate=21 January 2013}}</ref> used to describe a [[culture]] in which [[rape]] and [[sexual violence]] are common and in which prevalent [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], [[norm (sociology)|norms]], practices, and [[mass media|media]] [[normalization (sociology)|normalize]], excuse, tolerate, or even condone rape. |
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Examples of |
Examples of behaviours commonly associated with rape culture include [[victim blaming]], [[sexual objectification]], and trivializing rape. Rape culture has been used to model behaviour within social groups, including prison systems where [[prison rape]] is common and conflict areas where [[war rape]] is used as psychological warfare. Entire countries have also been alleged to be rape cultures.<ref name=leaderu /><ref name=rozee>{{cite web |url=http://www.raperesistance.org/research/rape_culture.html |title=Resisting a Rape Culture |author=Rozee, Patricia |publisher=Rape Resistance |accessdate=11 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=Steffes>{{cite web |url=http://hpr1.com/feature/article/the_rape_culture/ |title=The American Rape Culture |author=Steffes, Micah |date=January 2008 |publisher=High Plains Reader |accessdate=11 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Maitse1998">{{cite journal|last1=Maitse|first1=Teboho|title=Political change, rape, and pornography in postapartheid South Africa|journal=Gender & Development|volume=6|issue=3|year=1998|pages=55–59|issn=1355-2074|doi=10.1080/741922834}}</ref><ref name="Prof Upendra Baxi India = Rape Culture">{{cite journal|last=Baxi|first=Upendra|title=THE SECOND GUJARAT CATASTROPHE|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|year=2002|month=August|volume=37|issue=34|pages=3519–3531|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412519|accessdate=22 May 2012}}</ref> |
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Although the concept of rape culture is a generally accepted theory in feminist academia{{fix |
Although the concept of rape culture is a generally accepted theory in feminist academia{{fix |
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The term was used 1974 in ''Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women'', edited by [[Noreen Connell]] and Cassandra Wilson<!-- careful before wikilinking - currently leads to a singer --> for the [[New York Radical Feminists]].<ref name="FeministsConnell1974">{{cite book|author1=New York Radical Feminists|author2=Noreen Connell|author3=Cassandra Wilson|title=Rape: the first sourcebook for women|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?ei=04yuT9qECsfB0QWW_ZikCQ&id=ej1BAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Rape+Culture%22|accessdate=14 May 2012|date=31 October 1974|publisher=New American Library|isbn=9780452250864|page=105|chapter=3}}</ref> It was one of the first books to include first-person accounts of rape, which were one reason for rape entering the public view.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/10/11/letters/letters.html |title=Letters to the Editor: Speaking Out |newspaper=New York Times |date=11 October 1998 |author=[[Helen Benedict]] |accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> In the book, the group stated that "our ultimate goal is to eliminate rape and that goal cannot be achieved without a revolutionary transformation of our society."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.faar-aegis.org/NovDec_74/review_NovDec74.html |title=Book Review: Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women (New York Radical Feminists) |author=Freada Klein |work=Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter |date=November/December 1974 |publisher=Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter |accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> |
The term was used 1974 in ''Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women'', edited by [[Noreen Connell]] and Cassandra Wilson<!-- careful before wikilinking - currently leads to a singer --> for the [[New York Radical Feminists]].<ref name="FeministsConnell1974">{{cite book|author1=New York Radical Feminists|author2=Noreen Connell|author3=Cassandra Wilson|title=Rape: the first sourcebook for women|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?ei=04yuT9qECsfB0QWW_ZikCQ&id=ej1BAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Rape+Culture%22|accessdate=14 May 2012|date=31 October 1974|publisher=New American Library|isbn=9780452250864|page=105|chapter=3}}</ref> It was one of the first books to include first-person accounts of rape, which were one reason for rape entering the public view.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/10/11/letters/letters.html |title=Letters to the Editor: Speaking Out |newspaper=New York Times |date=11 October 1998 |author=[[Helen Benedict]] |accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> In the book, the group stated that "our ultimate goal is to eliminate rape and that goal cannot be achieved without a revolutionary transformation of our society."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.faar-aegis.org/NovDec_74/review_NovDec74.html |title=Book Review: Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women (New York Radical Feminists) |author=Freada Klein |work=Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter |date=November/December 1974 |publisher=Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter |accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref> |
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Dr Joyce E. Williams traces the origin and first usage of rape culture <ref name="Blackwell Publishing Inc - Encyclopedia - Prof Joyce E Williams - Rape Culture"/> to the 1975 documentary film ''[[Rape Culture (film)|Rape Culture]]'', produced and directed by [[Margaret Lazarus]] and [[Renner Wunderlich]] for [[Cambridge Documentary Films]]. Prof Williams says that the film "..takes credit for first defining the concept |
Dr Joyce E. Williams traces the origin and first usage of rape culture <ref name="Blackwell Publishing Inc - Encyclopedia - Prof Joyce E Williams - Rape Culture"/> to the 1975 documentary film ''[[Rape Culture (film)|Rape Culture]]'', produced and directed by [[Margaret Lazarus]] and [[Renner Wunderlich]] for [[Cambridge Documentary Films]]. Prof Williams says that the film "..takes credit for first defining the concept".<ref name="Blackwell Publishing Inc - Encyclopedia - Prof Joyce E Williams - Rape Culture"/>. No earlier defining source has been located. |
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The film discussed rape of both men and women in the context of a larger cultural normalization of rape.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridgedocumentaryfilms.org/rapeculture.html |title=Rape Culture |publisher=Cambridge Documentary Films |accessdate=8 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Norsigian 29–30">{{cite journal|last=Norsigian|first=Judy|title=Women, Health, and Films|journal=Women & Health|date=20 January 1975|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–30|doi=10.1300/J013v01n01_07|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J013v01n01_08#preview|accessdate=11 May 2012}}</ref> In 2000, Lazarus stated that she believed the movie was the first use of the term.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rape Culture |url=http://userpages.umbc.edu/~korenman/wmst/rapeculture2.html |date=15 March 2000<!-- 10:15:39 -->|accessdate=8 January 2012 |author=Lazarus, Margaret}}</ref> The film featured the work of the DC Rape Crisis Centre in co-operation with Prisoners Against Rape Inc.<ref name="smith">{{cite journal|last=Follet|first=Joyce|title=LORETTA ROSS|journal=Voices of Feminism Oral History Project, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063|year=2004–2005|pages=122–124|url=http://www.smith.edu/libraries/libs/ssc/vof/vof-intro.html|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> It included interviews with rapists and victims as well prominent anti-rape activists like feminist philosopher and theologian [[Mary Daly]] and author and artist Emily Culpepper. The film also explored the mass media, how film-makers, song writers, writers and magazines perpetuated attitudes towards rape.<ref name="Norsigian 29–30"/> |
The film discussed rape of both men and women in the context of a larger cultural normalization of rape.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridgedocumentaryfilms.org/rapeculture.html |title=Rape Culture |publisher=Cambridge Documentary Films |accessdate=8 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Norsigian 29–30">{{cite journal|last=Norsigian|first=Judy|title=Women, Health, and Films|journal=Women & Health|date=20 January 1975|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–30|doi=10.1300/J013v01n01_07|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J013v01n01_08#preview|accessdate=11 May 2012}}</ref> In 2000, Lazarus stated that she believed the movie was the first use of the term.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rape Culture |url=http://userpages.umbc.edu/~korenman/wmst/rapeculture2.html |date=15 March 2000<!-- 10:15:39 -->|accessdate=8 January 2012 |author=Lazarus, Margaret}}</ref> The film featured the work of the DC Rape Crisis Centre in co-operation with Prisoners Against Rape Inc.<ref name="smith">{{cite journal|last=Follet|first=Joyce|title=LORETTA ROSS|journal=Voices of Feminism Oral History Project, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063|year=2004–2005|pages=122–124|url=http://www.smith.edu/libraries/libs/ssc/vof/vof-intro.html|accessdate=7 May 2012}}</ref> It included interviews with rapists and victims as well prominent anti-rape activists like feminist philosopher and theologian [[Mary Daly]] and author and artist Emily Culpepper. The film also explored the mass media, how film-makers, song writers, writers and magazines perpetuated attitudes towards rape.<ref name="Norsigian 29–30"/> |
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===Slutwalk=== |
===Slutwalk=== |
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The [[Slutwalk]] and [[Besharmi Morcha]] movements are credited with popularizing the term via certain mass media reports about the protesters in the English speaking, Western media.<ref name=time1>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2088234-1,00.html |title=Will SlutWalks Change the Meaning of the Word Slut? |author=Gibson, Megan |publisher=TIME Magazine |date=12 August 2011 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=November 2012}} The rallies aim to raise awareness of rape culture – which they define as a culture where "sexual violence is both made to be invisible and inevitable"—and to end [[slut-shaming]] and victim blaming.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://slutwalknyc.com/FAQ |title=FAQ |publisher=Slutwalk NYC |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref><ref name=TL>{{cite news |url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/2011/09/23/slutwalk-joburg-takes-to-the-streets |title=Slutwalk Joburg takes to the streets |newspaper=Times LIVE |date=23 September 2011 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> |
The [[Slutwalk]] and [[Besharmi Morcha]] movements are credited with popularizing the term via certain mass media reports about the protesters in the English speaking, Western media.<ref name=time1>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2088234-1,00.html |title=Will SlutWalks Change the Meaning of the Word Slut? |author=Gibson, Megan |publisher=TIME Magazine |date=12 August 2011 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=November 2012}} The rallies aim to raise awareness of rape culture – which they define as a culture where "sexual violence is both made to be invisible and inevitable"—and to end [[slut-shaming]] and victim blaming.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://slutwalknyc.com/FAQ |title=FAQ |publisher=Slutwalk NYC |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref><ref name=TL>{{cite news |url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/local/2011/09/23/slutwalk-joburg-takes-to-the-streets |title=Slutwalk Joburg takes to the streets |newspaper=Times LIVE |date=23 September 2011 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> |
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==By region== |
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===India=== |
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Ruchira Gupta, founder of Apne Aap Women Worldwide writing for [[The Hindu]] after the [[2012 Delhi gang rape case|rape and death]] of a young girl on a bus has said that she has "seen the steady creeping in of a rape culture into the fabric of India"<ref name=Gupta>{{cite news|last=Gupta|first=Ruchira|title=Challenging India’s rape culture|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/challenging-indias-rape-culture/article4294223.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> It has been estimated that up to 100,000 children go missing each year, with the majority of them being sexually abused. The Justice Verma panel has said this is due to a rape culture and that missing children are trafficked, sexually assaulted and that the police are complicit in these crimes.<ref name=Sharma>{{cite news|last=Sharma|first=Nagendar|title=Missing kids victims of rape culture: panel|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Missing-kids-victims-of-rape-culture-panel/Article1-1002331.aspx|newspaper=Hindustan Times|date=January 27, 2013}}</ref> |
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==Theory and manifestations of rape culture== |
==Theory and manifestations of rape culture== |
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}}, acts of [[sexism]] are commonly employed to validate and [[Rationalization (psychology)|rationalize]] normative [[misogyny|misogynistic]] practices. For instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being. An example would be a female rape victim being blamed for her being raped because of how she dressed or acted. In rape culture, sexualized violence towards women is regarded as a continuum in a society that regards women's bodies as sexually available by default.<ref>Chris O'Sullivan, "Fraternities and the Rape Culture", in ''Transforming a Rape Culture'', edited by Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher & Martha Roth, ISBN 0-915943-06-9</ref> |
}}, acts of [[sexism]] are commonly employed to validate and [[Rationalization (psychology)|rationalize]] normative [[misogyny|misogynistic]] practices. For instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being. An example would be a female rape victim being blamed for her being raped because of how she dressed or acted. In rape culture, sexualized violence towards women is regarded as a continuum in a society that regards women's bodies as sexually available by default.<ref>Chris O'Sullivan, "Fraternities and the Rape Culture", in ''Transforming a Rape Culture'', edited by Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher & Martha Roth, ISBN 0-915943-06-9</ref> |
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The root cause of rape culture is generally agreed to be the "domination and objectivication [sic] of women".<ref name=SA >{{cite web |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=127046 |title=Sexual Face of Violence: Rapists on Rape (abstract) |author=Vogelman, L. |publisher=Raven Press Ltd (book); National Criminal Justice Reference Service (abstract) |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> However, academic theory holds that rape culture does not necessarily have a single cause, and causes may be localized based on other social aspects of culture.<ref name=herman >Herman, Dianne F. "[http://homepage.smc.edu/delpiccolo_guido/Soc1/soc1readings/rape%20culture_final.pdf The Rape Culture] |
The root cause of rape culture is generally agreed to be the "domination and objectivication [sic] of women".<ref name=SA >{{cite web |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=127046 |title=Sexual Face of Violence: Rapists on Rape (abstract) |author=Vogelman, L. |publisher=Raven Press Ltd (book); National Criminal Justice Reference Service (abstract) |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> However, academic theory holds that rape culture does not necessarily have a single cause, and causes may be localized based on other social aspects of culture.<ref name=herman >Herman, Dianne F. "[http://homepage.smc.edu/delpiccolo_guido/Soc1/soc1readings/rape%20culture_final.pdf The Rape Culture]". Printed in ''Women: A Feminist Perspective'' (ed. Jo Freeman). Mcgraw Hill, 1994. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref> For example, in South Africa the overriding "war culture" which emphasized masculinity and violence led to a culture in which [[war rape|rape was normalized]].<ref name=TL /><ref name=SA /> A University of California Davis public document alleged that the enforcement of the following of social rules by women and the conditioning of gender roles were major causes.<ref name=UCDavis>{{cite web |url=http://students.haverford.edu/masar/documents/RapeCulture.pdf |title=Defining a Rape Culture |publisher=University of California Davis |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> Others have also advanced the notion that, in a rape culture women are conditioned to assume responsibility for male sexuality, and gender roles are socially constructed and enforced on women through fear<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ritzer|first1=George|last2=Ryan|first2=J. Michael|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4wU64f_JYC&pg=PA493|date=3 December 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9264-7|page=493}}</ref>. In a study of [[date rape]], gender-based miscommunications were held to be a major factor supporting a [[campus rape]] culture.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1993-21940-001 |title=Date and acquaintance rape among a sample of college students (abstract) |author=Mills, Crystal S. and Granoff, Barbara J. |journal=Social Work |volume=37 |issue=6 |date=November 1992 |pages=504–509 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> The general unwillingness of police and district attorneys to prosecute rapes where force was not involved or where the victim had some sort of relationship with the aggressor is also cited as a motivation for date rape and campus rape.<ref name=herman /> Rape culture is also closely related to slut-shaming and [[victim blaming]], where rape victims are considered at fault for being raped, and it is argued that this connection is due to the presence of a culture that shames all female sexuality.<ref name=herman /> That some rapes are not reported to the police due to fear that they would not be believed is often cited as a symptom of a rape culture,<ref name=herman /><ref name=real>{{cite news |title=Rape culture is real |url=http://cupwire.ca/articles/47672 |author=Ketterling, Jean |newspaper=The Xaverian Weekly |publisher=Canadian University Press |date=23 September 2011 |accessdate=18 October 2011}}</ref> that they thought the police would not believe them is cited as a reason by 6% of women who did not report rape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Backman |first1=Ronet |last2= |first2= |year=1988 |title=The factors related to rape reporting behaviour and arrest: new evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey |journal=Criminal Justice and Behavior |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=8 |publisher= |doi= |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> Pornography has also been commonly targeted as a contributor to rape culture because it is said to contribute to larger patterns of oppression. Feminists frequently link rape culture to the widespread distribution of [[pornography]], which is seen as an expression of a rape culture that objectifies women,reducing the female body to a commodity<ref>{{cite web|last=Willis|first=Ellen|title=Feminism, Moralism, and Pornography|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/nyls38&div=26&id=&page=|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> . The fusion of several pornographic motifs are seen in the accounts of rapists.<ref name="Odem"/> Although much of its early use as a theory to explain the occurrence of rape and [[domestic violence]] was focused on the rape of women, rape culture has been described as detrimental to men as well as women. Some writers and speakers, such as [[Jackson Katz]], [[Michael Kimmel]], and [[Don McPherson]], have said that it is intrinsically linked to [[gender role]]s that limit male self-expression and cause psychological harm to men.<ref>Jackson Katz, "Tough Guise" videorecording, Media Education Foundation, 2002</ref> |
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According to [[Michael Parenti]], rape culture manifests through the global acceptance of rapes as an everyday occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It is exacerbated by police apathy in handling rape cases, as well as [[victim blaming]], reluctance by the authorities to go against [[patriarchial]] cultural norms and practices, as well as fears of [[stigmatization]] from rape victims and their families<ref>{{cite book |last= Parenti|first= Michael|authorlink= Michael Parenti |title= The Cultural Struggle|url= |accessdate= |
According to [[Michael Parenti]], rape culture manifests through the global acceptance of rapes as an everyday occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It is exacerbated by police apathy in handling rape cases, as well as [[victim blaming]], reluctance by the authorities to go against [[patriarchial]] cultural norms and practices, as well as fears of [[stigmatization]] from rape victims and their families<ref>{{cite book |last= Parenti|first= Michael|authorlink= Michael Parenti |title= The Cultural Struggle|url= |accessdate=2 February 2013|year=2005|publisher= Seven Stories Press|location= [[New York]]|isbn= 9781583227046|pages=71-78}} </ref>. Sociologists posit that rape culture links nonconsensual sex to the cultural fabric of a society, where patriarchial world views, laced with mysoginy and gender inequality, are passed from generation to generation, leading to widespread social and institutional acceptance of rape. Feminists and sexual activists conceptualize rape cultures that encourage gender violence, as well as perpetuate 'rape myths', ranging from treating rape as merely 'rough sex' to blaming the victim for inviting rape. Such 'rape myths' are social messages that command women to assume pre-defined gender roles concerning sexual behaviour. <ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicoletti|first1=John|last2=Spencer-Thomas|first2=Sally|last3=Bollinger|first3=Christopher|title=Violence Goes to College: The Authoritative Guide to Prevention and Intervention|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T_ClourcxRwC&pg=PA134|year=2009|publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher|isbn=978-0-398-07910-9|page=134}}</ref>. In addition, rape culture can manifest when third parties separate the violence from the general reputation and character of the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/louise-pennington/roman-polanksi-perpetuating-rape-culture_b_2585867.html |title=Perpetuating Rape Culture: Polanski and the Privileges of 'Fame' |last= Pennington|first= Louise|date=2 February 2013 |publisher= [[The Huffington Post]] |accessdate=4 February 2013}}</ref> According to political scientist [[Iris Marion Young]], victims in rape cultures live in fear of random acts of oppressive sexual violence that are intended to damage or humiliate the victim<ref>{{cite book |last1= Heldke |first1= Lisa |last2= O'Connor |first2= Peg|title= Oppression, Privilege, & Resistance|year=2004|publisher= McGraw Hill|location= Boston}}</ref>. Others link rape culture with modernisation and industrialisation, arguing that pre-industrial societies tend to be 'rape free' cultures, since the lower status of women in these societies give them some immunity from sexual violence. In industrial rape cultures, women emerge from their homebound roles and make their presence felt in the workplace and other areas traditionally dominated by men, increasing male insecurities that lead to them using rape as a countering method<ref name="Odem">{{cite book|last1=Odem|first1=Mary E.|last2=Clay-Warner|first2=Jody|title=Confronting Rape and Sexual Assault|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VYj_woVgA3EC&pg=PA111|year=1998|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8420-2599-7|page=111}} |
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</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Lippmann-Blumen |first1= Jean| last2= Bernard |first2= Jessie|title= Sex roles and social policy| year= 1979|publisher= Sage Studies in International Sociology|location= London |pages=113-142}} </ref>. Others also link rape culture to environmental insecutiries, where men objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief that rape proves masculinity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryle|first=Robyn|title=Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DK8086_VaGQC&pg=482#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2011|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-6594-1}}</ref> Other manifestations of rape culture include [[denial]] of widespread rape |
</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Lippmann-Blumen |first1= Jean| last2= Bernard |first2= Jessie|title= Sex roles and social policy| year= 1979|publisher= Sage Studies in International Sociology|location= London |pages=113-142}} </ref>. Others also link rape culture to environmental insecutiries, where men objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief that rape proves masculinity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryle|first=Robyn|title=Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DK8086_VaGQC&pg=482#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2011|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-6594-1}}</ref> Other manifestations of rape culture include [[denial]] of widespread rape |
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<ref name="nation">{{cite web |url=http://www.thenation.com/blog/172024/americas-rape-problem-we-refuse-admit-there-one |title=America’s Rape Problem: We Refuse to Admit That There Is One |last= Valenti |first= Jessica |date= January |
<ref name="nation">{{cite web |url=http://www.thenation.com/blog/172024/americas-rape-problem-we-refuse-admit-there-one |title=America’s Rape Problem: We Refuse to Admit That There Is One |last= Valenti |first= Jessica |date=4 January 2013|publisher= [[The Nation]] |accessdate=4 February 2013}} |
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</ref>, institutional apathy towards the problem of rape<ref name="tdc"> |
</ref>, institutional apathy towards the problem of rape<ref name="tdc"> |
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{{cite web |url=http://dailycollegian.com/2013/01/22/steubenville-case-highlights-u-s-rape-culture/ |title= Steubenville case highlights U.S. rape culture |
{{cite web |url=http://dailycollegian.com/2013/01/22/steubenville-case-highlights-u-s-rape-culture/ |title= Steubenville case highlights U.S. rape culture |
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|last= Sparks |first= Hannah |date= |
|last= Sparks |first= Hannah |date=22 January 2013|publisher=[[The Massachusetts Daily Collegian]] |accessdate=4 February 2013}}</ref>, minimization of rape cases by government officials<ref name="nation"/><ref name="tdc"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Baxi|first=Upendra|title=THE SECOND GUJARAT CATASTROPHE|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|year=2002|month=August|volume=37|issue=34|pages=3519–3531|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412519|accessdate=22 May 2012}}</ref>, and excusing rapists as social anomalies<ref name="nation"/><ref name="tdc"/>. |
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== Criticisms == |
== Criticisms == |
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Joyce E. Williams has criticised the monolithic nature of the concept of rape culture, due to the implication that ultimately all women are victimised by all men.<ref name=ConSociEncycJEWilliams>{{cite book|last=Edited by George Ritzer|title=The concise encyclopedia of sociology|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-8352-9|pages=493|author=Joyce E Williams}}</ref> |
Joyce E. Williams has criticised the monolithic nature of the concept of rape culture, due to the implication that ultimately all women are victimised by all men.<ref name=ConSociEncycJEWilliams>{{cite book|last=Edited by George Ritzer|title=The concise encyclopedia of sociology|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-8352-9|pages=493|author=Joyce E Williams}}</ref> |
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Other writers, such as [[bell hooks]], have criticized the rape culture paradigm on the grounds that it ignores rape's place in an overarching "culture of violence |
Other writers, such as [[bell hooks]], have criticized the rape culture paradigm on the grounds that it ignores rape's place in an overarching "culture of violence".<ref>[[bell hooks]], ''Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center'', quoted in ''Feminism is for Everybody'' by bell hooks, ISBN 0-89608-628-3</ref> |
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[[Jadaliyya]], an academic initiative by the Arab Studies Institute, published another critique of the concept of rape culture in the light of western media reports on the [[Arab spring]] and the [[2012 Delhi gang rape case]], criticizing the appropriation of the term by [[orientalists]] to promote [[racist]] [[Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States|stereotypes of Arab and Muslim men]], as well as [[stereotypes of South Asians]] in western media and academia. The critique draws connections between media reports [[demonizing]] [[Middle Eastern]] and [[South Asia]]n men as "racially prone to rape" and similar tactics employed by the [[British Raj|British]] as part of a [[racist]] [[Indophobic]] [[propaganda]] campaign during the [[1857 rebellion]] casting resistance fighters as rapists.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/9371/orientalist-feminism-rears-its-head-in-india|title= Orientalist Feminism Rears its Head in India|last1= Gupta|first1= Amith|date= |
[[Jadaliyya]], an academic initiative by the Arab Studies Institute, published another critique of the concept of rape culture in the light of western media reports on the [[Arab spring]] and the [[2012 Delhi gang rape case]], criticizing the appropriation of the term by [[orientalists]] to promote [[racist]] [[Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States|stereotypes of Arab and Muslim men]], as well as [[stereotypes of South Asians]] in western media and academia. The critique draws connections between media reports [[demonizing]] [[Middle Eastern]] and [[South Asia]]n men as "racially prone to rape" and similar tactics employed by the [[British Raj|British]] as part of a [[racist]] [[Indophobic]] [[propaganda]] campaign during the [[1857 rebellion]] casting resistance fighters as rapists.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/9371/orientalist-feminism-rears-its-head-in-india|title= Orientalist Feminism Rears its Head in India|last1= Gupta|first1= Amith|date=2 January 2013|work= Academic|publisher= Arab Studies Institute|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> |
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==References== |
==References== |
Revision as of 10:03, 9 February 2013
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Within sociology, rape culture is a concept of disputed origin and meaning[1] used to describe a culture in which rape and sexual violence are common and in which prevalent attitudes, norms, practices, and media normalize, excuse, tolerate, or even condone rape.
Examples of behaviours commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, sexual objectification, and trivializing rape. Rape culture has been used to model behaviour within social groups, including prison systems where prison rape is common and conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire countries have also been alleged to be rape cultures.[2][3][4][5][6]
Although the concept of rape culture is a generally accepted theory in feminist academia[citation needed], there is disagreement over what defines a rape culture and to what degree a given society meets the criteria to be considered a rape culture.
Rape culture has been observed to correlate with other social factors and behaviours. Research identifies correlation between rape myths, victim blaming and trivialisation of rape with increased incidence of racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, religious intolerance and other forms of discrimination.[7][8]
Origins and usage
During the early 1970s, feminists began to engage in consciousness-raising efforts to educate the public about the reality of rape. Until then, rape was rarely discussed or acknowledged: "Until the 1970s, most Americans assumed that rape, incest, and wife-beating rarely happened."[9] The idea of rape culture was one result of these efforts. According to the Encyclopedia of Rape, "The term 'rape culture' originated in the 1970s during the 2nd wave feminist movement and is often used by feminists to describe contemporary American culture as a whole."[10] The concept appeared in multiple forms of media during the mid 1970s.
The term was used 1974 in Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women, edited by Noreen Connell and Cassandra Wilson for the New York Radical Feminists.[11] It was one of the first books to include first-person accounts of rape, which were one reason for rape entering the public view.[12] In the book, the group stated that "our ultimate goal is to eliminate rape and that goal cannot be achieved without a revolutionary transformation of our society."[13]
Dr Joyce E. Williams traces the origin and first usage of rape culture [1] to the 1975 documentary film Rape Culture, produced and directed by Margaret Lazarus and Renner Wunderlich for Cambridge Documentary Films. Prof Williams says that the film "..takes credit for first defining the concept".[1]. No earlier defining source has been located.
The film discussed rape of both men and women in the context of a larger cultural normalization of rape.[14][15] In 2000, Lazarus stated that she believed the movie was the first use of the term.[16] The film featured the work of the DC Rape Crisis Centre in co-operation with Prisoners Against Rape Inc.[17] It included interviews with rapists and victims as well prominent anti-rape activists like feminist philosopher and theologian Mary Daly and author and artist Emily Culpepper. The film also explored the mass media, how film-makers, song writers, writers and magazines perpetuated attitudes towards rape.[15]
In a 1992 paper in the Journal of Social Issues entitled "A Feminist Redefinition of Rape and Sexual Assault: Historical Foundations and Change," Patricia Donat and John D'Emilio suggested that the term originated as "rape-supportive culture"[18] in Susan Brownmiller's 1975 book Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Brownmiller, a member of the New York Radical Feminists, showed how both academia and the general public ignored the existence of rape.[19] The book is considered a "landmark" work on feminism and sexual violence and one of the pillars of modern rape studies.[20]
Slutwalk
The Slutwalk and Besharmi Morcha movements are credited with popularizing the term via certain mass media reports about the protesters in the English speaking, Western media.[21][failed verification] The rallies aim to raise awareness of rape culture – which they define as a culture where "sexual violence is both made to be invisible and inevitable"—and to end slut-shaming and victim blaming.[22][23]
By region
India
Ruchira Gupta, founder of Apne Aap Women Worldwide writing for The Hindu after the rape and death of a young girl on a bus has said that she has "seen the steady creeping in of a rape culture into the fabric of India"[24] It has been estimated that up to 100,000 children go missing each year, with the majority of them being sexually abused. The Justice Verma panel has said this is due to a rape culture and that missing children are trafficked, sexually assaulted and that the police are complicit in these crimes.[25]
Theory and manifestations of rape culture
According to the rape culture theory[citation needed], acts of sexism are commonly employed to validate and rationalize normative misogynistic practices. For instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being. An example would be a female rape victim being blamed for her being raped because of how she dressed or acted. In rape culture, sexualized violence towards women is regarded as a continuum in a society that regards women's bodies as sexually available by default.[26]
The root cause of rape culture is generally agreed to be the "domination and objectivication [sic] of women".[27] However, academic theory holds that rape culture does not necessarily have a single cause, and causes may be localized based on other social aspects of culture.[28] For example, in South Africa the overriding "war culture" which emphasized masculinity and violence led to a culture in which rape was normalized.[23][27] A University of California Davis public document alleged that the enforcement of the following of social rules by women and the conditioning of gender roles were major causes.[29] Others have also advanced the notion that, in a rape culture women are conditioned to assume responsibility for male sexuality, and gender roles are socially constructed and enforced on women through fear[30]. In a study of date rape, gender-based miscommunications were held to be a major factor supporting a campus rape culture.[31] The general unwillingness of police and district attorneys to prosecute rapes where force was not involved or where the victim had some sort of relationship with the aggressor is also cited as a motivation for date rape and campus rape.[28] Rape culture is also closely related to slut-shaming and victim blaming, where rape victims are considered at fault for being raped, and it is argued that this connection is due to the presence of a culture that shames all female sexuality.[28] That some rapes are not reported to the police due to fear that they would not be believed is often cited as a symptom of a rape culture,[28][32] that they thought the police would not believe them is cited as a reason by 6% of women who did not report rape.[33] Pornography has also been commonly targeted as a contributor to rape culture because it is said to contribute to larger patterns of oppression. Feminists frequently link rape culture to the widespread distribution of pornography, which is seen as an expression of a rape culture that objectifies women,reducing the female body to a commodity[34] . The fusion of several pornographic motifs are seen in the accounts of rapists.[35] Although much of its early use as a theory to explain the occurrence of rape and domestic violence was focused on the rape of women, rape culture has been described as detrimental to men as well as women. Some writers and speakers, such as Jackson Katz, Michael Kimmel, and Don McPherson, have said that it is intrinsically linked to gender roles that limit male self-expression and cause psychological harm to men.[36]
According to Michael Parenti, rape culture manifests through the global acceptance of rapes as an everyday occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It is exacerbated by police apathy in handling rape cases, as well as victim blaming, reluctance by the authorities to go against patriarchial cultural norms and practices, as well as fears of stigmatization from rape victims and their families[37]. Sociologists posit that rape culture links nonconsensual sex to the cultural fabric of a society, where patriarchial world views, laced with mysoginy and gender inequality, are passed from generation to generation, leading to widespread social and institutional acceptance of rape. Feminists and sexual activists conceptualize rape cultures that encourage gender violence, as well as perpetuate 'rape myths', ranging from treating rape as merely 'rough sex' to blaming the victim for inviting rape. Such 'rape myths' are social messages that command women to assume pre-defined gender roles concerning sexual behaviour. [38]. In addition, rape culture can manifest when third parties separate the violence from the general reputation and character of the perpetrators.[39] According to political scientist Iris Marion Young, victims in rape cultures live in fear of random acts of oppressive sexual violence that are intended to damage or humiliate the victim[40]. Others link rape culture with modernisation and industrialisation, arguing that pre-industrial societies tend to be 'rape free' cultures, since the lower status of women in these societies give them some immunity from sexual violence. In industrial rape cultures, women emerge from their homebound roles and make their presence felt in the workplace and other areas traditionally dominated by men, increasing male insecurities that lead to them using rape as a countering method[35][41]. Others also link rape culture to environmental insecutiries, where men objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief that rape proves masculinity.[42] Other manifestations of rape culture include denial of widespread rape [43], institutional apathy towards the problem of rape[44], minimization of rape cases by government officials[43][44][45], and excusing rapists as social anomalies[43][44].
Criticisms
Christina Hoff Sommers has disputed the existence of rape culture, arguing that the common "one in four women will be raped in her lifetime" is based on a flawed study, but frequently cited because it leads to campus anti-rape groups receiving public funding. Sommers has also examined and criticized many other rape studies for their methodology, and states "There are many researchers who study rape victimization, but their relatively low figures generate no headlines."[2]
Joyce E. Williams has criticised the monolithic nature of the concept of rape culture, due to the implication that ultimately all women are victimised by all men.[46]
Other writers, such as bell hooks, have criticized the rape culture paradigm on the grounds that it ignores rape's place in an overarching "culture of violence".[47]
Jadaliyya, an academic initiative by the Arab Studies Institute, published another critique of the concept of rape culture in the light of western media reports on the Arab spring and the 2012 Delhi gang rape case, criticizing the appropriation of the term by orientalists to promote racist stereotypes of Arab and Muslim men, as well as stereotypes of South Asians in western media and academia. The critique draws connections between media reports demonizing Middle Eastern and South Asian men as "racially prone to rape" and similar tactics employed by the British as part of a racist Indophobic propaganda campaign during the 1857 rebellion casting resistance fighters as rapists.[48]
References
- ^ a b c Wiliams, Joyce E. (2007). "Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology - Rape Culture". In Ritzer, George (ed.). Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Blackwell Publishing Inc. doi:10.1111/b.9781405124331.2007.x. ISBN 9781405124331. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
- ^ a b Sommers, Dr. Christina Hoff. Researching the "Rape Culture" of America. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
- ^ Rozee, Patricia. "Resisting a Rape Culture". Rape Resistance. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
- ^ Steffes, Micah (January 2008). "The American Rape Culture". High Plains Reader. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
- ^ Maitse, Teboho (1998). "Political change, rape, and pornography in postapartheid South Africa". Gender & Development. 6 (3): 55–59. doi:10.1080/741922834. ISSN 1355-2074.
- ^ Baxi, Upendra (2002). "THE SECOND GUJARAT CATASTROPHE". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (34): 3519–3531. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Aosved, Allison C. (28 November 2006). "Co-occurrence of Rape Myth Acceptance, Sexism, Racism, Homophobia, Ageism, Classism, and Religious Intolerance". Sex Roles. 55 (7–8): 481–492. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Suarez, E. (11 January 2010). "Stop Blaming the Victim: A Meta-Analysis on Rape Myths". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 25 (11): 2010–2035. doi:10.1177/0886260509354503.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Review of Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape quoted in Rutherford, Alexandra (June 2011). "Sexual Violence Against Women: Putting Rape Research in Context". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 35 (2): 342–347. doi:10.1177/0361684311404307. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
- ^ Smith, Merril D. (2004). Encyclopedia of Rape (1st ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-313-32687-8.
- ^ New York Radical Feminists; Noreen Connell; Cassandra Wilson (31 October 1974). "3". Rape: the first sourcebook for women. New American Library. p. 105. ISBN 9780452250864. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ^ Helen Benedict (11 October 1998). "Letters to the Editor: Speaking Out". New York Times. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
- ^ Freada Klein (November/December 1974). "Book Review: Rape: The First Sourcebook for Women (New York Radical Feminists)". Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter. Feminist Alliance Against Rape Newsletter. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ "Rape Culture". Cambridge Documentary Films. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
- ^ a b Norsigian, Judy (20 January 1975). "Women, Health, and Films". Women & Health. 1 (1): 29–30. doi:10.1300/J013v01n01_07. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
- ^ Lazarus, Margaret (15 March 2000). "Rape Culture". Retrieved 8 January 2012.
- ^ Follet, Joyce (2004–2005). "LORETTA ROSS". Voices of Feminism Oral History Project, Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063: 122–124. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ Patricia Donat and John D'Emilio, "A Feminist Redefinition of Rape and Sexual Assault: Historical Foundations and Change", Journal of Social Issues, vol. 48, n. 1, 1992; published in Di Karen J. Maschke, "The legal response to violence against women", Routledge 1997, ISBN 978-0-8153-2519-2.
- ^ Rutherford, Alexandra (June 2011). "Sexual Violence Against Women: Putting Rape Research in Context". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 35 (2): 342–347. doi:10.1177/0361684311404307. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
- ^ Buchwald, Emilie; Fletcher, Pamela; Roth, Martha (1993). "Editor's Preface". In Buchwald, Emilie; Fletcher, Pamela; Roth, Martha (eds.). Transforming a Rape Culture. Milkweed Editions. p. 1. ISBN 0915943069.
- ^ Gibson, Megan (12 August 2011). "Will SlutWalks Change the Meaning of the Word Slut?". TIME Magazine. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ "FAQ". Slutwalk NYC. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ a b "Slutwalk Joburg takes to the streets". Times LIVE. 23 September 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ Gupta, Ruchira (10 January 2013). "Challenging India's rape culture". The Hindu.
- ^ Sharma, Nagendar (27 January 2013). "Missing kids victims of rape culture: panel". Hindustan Times.
- ^ Chris O'Sullivan, "Fraternities and the Rape Culture", in Transforming a Rape Culture, edited by Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher & Martha Roth, ISBN 0-915943-06-9
- ^ a b Vogelman, L. "Sexual Face of Violence: Rapists on Rape (abstract)". Raven Press Ltd (book); National Criminal Justice Reference Service (abstract). Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ a b c d Herman, Dianne F. "The Rape Culture". Printed in Women: A Feminist Perspective (ed. Jo Freeman). Mcgraw Hill, 1994. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ "Defining a Rape Culture" (PDF). University of California Davis. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (3 December 2010). The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4443-9264-7.
- ^ Mills, Crystal S. and Granoff, Barbara J. (November 1992). "Date and acquaintance rape among a sample of college students (abstract)". Social Work. 37 (6): 504–509. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ketterling, Jean (23 September 2011). "Rape culture is real". The Xaverian Weekly. Canadian University Press. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
- ^ Backman, Ronet (1988). "The factors related to rape reporting behaviour and arrest: new evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey". Criminal Justice and Behavior. 25 (1): 8.
- ^ Willis, Ellen. "Feminism, Moralism, and Pornography". Wesleyan University Press. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
- ^ a b Odem, Mary E.; Clay-Warner, Jody (1998). Confronting Rape and Sexual Assault. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8420-2599-7.
- ^ Jackson Katz, "Tough Guise" videorecording, Media Education Foundation, 2002
- ^ Parenti, Michael (2005). The Cultural Struggle. New York: Seven Stories Press. pp. 71–78. ISBN 9781583227046.
{{cite book}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help) - ^ Nicoletti, John; Spencer-Thomas, Sally; Bollinger, Christopher (2009). Violence Goes to College: The Authoritative Guide to Prevention and Intervention. Charles C Thomas Publisher. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-398-07910-9.
- ^ Pennington, Louise (2 February 2013). "Perpetuating Rape Culture: Polanski and the Privileges of 'Fame'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Heldke, Lisa; O'Connor, Peg (2004). Oppression, Privilege, & Resistance. Boston: McGraw Hill.
- ^ Lippmann-Blumen, Jean; Bernard, Jessie (1979). Sex roles and social policy. London: Sage Studies in International Sociology. pp. 113–142.
- ^ Ryle, Robyn (2011). Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-6594-1.
- ^ a b c Valenti, Jessica (4 January 2013). "America's Rape Problem: We Refuse to Admit That There Is One". The Nation. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b c Sparks, Hannah (22 January 2013). "Steubenville case highlights U.S. rape culture". The Massachusetts Daily Collegian. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Baxi, Upendra (2002). "THE SECOND GUJARAT CATASTROPHE". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (34): 3519–3531. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Edited by George Ritzer. The concise encyclopedia of sociology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4051-8352-9.
{{cite book}}
:|last=
has generic name (help); More than one of|author=
and|last=
specified (help) - ^ bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, quoted in Feminism is for Everybody by bell hooks, ISBN 0-89608-628-3
- ^ Gupta, Amith (2 January 2013). "Orientalist Feminism Rears its Head in India". Academic. Arab Studies Institute. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Further reading
- Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher and Martha Roth, ed. (1993). Transforming a Rape Culture. ISBN 1-57131-204-8.
- M. R. Burt (1980). "Cultural myths and supports for rape". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38: 217–230. PMID 7373511.
- M. R. Burt and R. S. Albin (1981). "Rape myths, rape definitions, and probability of conviction". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 11: 212–230.