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{{Short description|Shah of Iran from 1834 to 1848}} |
{{Short description|Shah of Iran from 1834 to 1848}} |
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{{Copy edit|date=August 2022}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} |
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{{Infobox royalty |
{{Infobox royalty |
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| name = Mohammad Shah Qajar |
| name = Mohammad Shah Qajar |
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| title = [[King of Kings|Shahanshah]]{{sfn|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|page=171}}<br>Khaqan son of Khaqan{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=10}}<br>[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]{{sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|page=58}} |
| title = [[King of Kings|Shahanshah]]{{sfn|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|page=171}}<br>Khaqan son of Khaqan{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=10}}<br>[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]{{sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|page=58}} |
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| image = File:Mohammad Shah.jpg |
| image = File:Mohammad Shah.jpg |
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| caption = Mohammad Shah in 1838 |
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| succession = [[List of kings of Persia|Shah of Iran]] |
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| reign = 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 |
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| reign = 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 |
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| coronation = 14 January 1835 |
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| coronation = 14 January 1835 |
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| predecessor = [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]] |
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| predecessor = [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]] |
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| successor = [[Naser al-Din Shah]] |
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| birth_date = {{Birth date|1808|1|5|df=y}} |
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| birth_date = {{Birth date|1808|1|5|df=y}} |
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| birth_place = [[Tabriz]], [[Qajar Iran]] |
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| birth_place = [[Tabriz]], [[Qajar Iran]] |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|1848|9|5|1808|8|5||df=yes}} |
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| birth_name = Mohammad Mirza<br>{{lang|fa|محمد میرزا}} |
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| death_place = [[Tehran]], Qajar Iran |
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| death_date = {{death date and age|1848|9|5|1808|8|5||df=yes}} |
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| burial_date = |
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| death_place = [[Tehran]], Qajar Iran |
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| burial_place = [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] |
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| burial_date = |
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| spouses = Seven, among them, [[Malek Jahan Khanom]] |
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| burial_place = [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] |
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| spouses-type = Wives |
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| spouses = Seven, among them, [[Malek Jahan Khanom]] |
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| spouses-type = Wives |
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| issue-link = Mohammad Shah Qajar#Children |
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| issue = See [[Mohammad Shah Qajar#Family|Below]] |
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| issue-link = Mohammad Shah Qajar#Children |
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| father = [[Abbas Mirza]] |
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| signature = Mohammad Shah stamp.jpg |
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| mother = Glin Khanum |
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| signature = Mohammad Shah stamp.jpg |
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| signature_type = [[Tughra]] |
| signature_type = [[Tughra]] |
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| religion = [[Shia Islam]] |
| religion = [[Shia Islam]] |
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| dynasty = [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] |
| dynasty = [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Mohammad Shah''' ({{Lang-fa|محمد شاه}}; born '''Mohammad Mirza'''; 5 January 1808 – 5 September 1848) was the third [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] ''[[shah]]'' of [[Qajar Iran|Iran]] from 1834 to 1848. He succeeded his grandfather, [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]], as the king of Iran. From a young age, Mohammad Mirza was under the tutelage of [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]], a local dervish of [[Tabriz]]. His teachings influenced the young prince to become a [[Sufism|Sufi]]-King later in his life. With the death of his father, [[Abbas Mirza]], in 1833, Mohammad Mirza became the Crown Prince of Iran and was conferred the title of Governor of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]]. Not long after, Fath-Ali Shah died on his way to [[Shiraz]]. The death of Fath Ali Shah led to the revolt of a number of his sons, such as Ali Shah Mirza and [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], but Mohammad Shah, with the support of his [[grand vizier]], [[Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam]], suppressed the rebellions and asserted his authority. |
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'''Mohammad Shah''' ({{Lang-fa|محمدشاه قاجار}}; born '''Mohammad Mirza'''; 5 January 1808 – 5 September 1848) was the third [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] ''[[shah]]'' of [[Qajar Iran|Iran]] from 1834 to 1848, inheriting the throne from his grandfather, [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]]. From a young age, Mohammad Mirza was under the tutelage of [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]], a local [[dervish]] from [[Tabriz]] whose teachings influenced the young prince to become a [[Sufism|Sufi]]-king later in his life. After his father [[Abbas Mirza]] died in 1833, Mohammad Mirza became the crown prince of Iran and was assigned with the governorship of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]]. After the death of Fath-Ali Shah in 1834, some of his sons including [[Hossein Ali Mirza]] and [[Ali Mirza Zel as-Soltan]] rose up as claimants to the throne. With the support of English and Russian forces, Mohammad Shah suppressed the rebellious princes and asserted his authority. |
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Mohammad Shah ordered the removal, imprisonment and eventual execution of Qa'em-Maqam which carved the way for appointment of Aqasi as the grand vizier. One of Mohammad Shah's main goals was to reconquer the rebellious city of [[Herat]] and return it to the Iranian mainland, therefore, in 1837, when he had asserted his authority, he [[Siege of Herat (1837–1838)|marched to Herat]]. He laid a futile siege on Herat and was forced to retreat and withdraw when the British government threatened military action. In return to Iran, he suppressed a revolt in [[Isfahan]] by [[Mohammad Bagher Shafti]], a major clergy figure. In 1837, the governor of [[Baghdad]] sacked the city of [[Khorramshahr]]. Mohammad Shah intended to declare war with the [[Ottoman Empire]], but the British-Russian mediation prevented escalation of tensions and war, and instead led to the signing of the [[Treaties of Erzurum|Second Treaty of Erzurum]]. |
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Mohammad Shah dismissed and executed his tactful premier, [[Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam]], and appointed his favourite, Haji Mirza Aqasi, as the grand vizier. The new shah's main goal was to bring back the rebellious city of [[Herat]] into Iranian sovereignty. In 1837 he [[Siege of Herat (1837–1838)|marched to Herat]] and laid a futile siege on the city which was eventually withdrawn when the British government threatened to invade Iran. On his return, Mohammad suppressed a revolt in [[Isfahan]] led by the major clergy figure [[Mohammad Bagher Shafti]]. Through British-Russian mediation, he concluded the [[Treaties of Erzurum|Second Treaty of Erzurum]] with the [[Ottoman Empire]], after initially wanting retaliation for the sack of [[Khorramshahr]] by the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. |
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Mohammad Shah, under British pressure, abolished the [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|slave trade]] through the [[Persian Gulf]], however it was still allowed to have slaves and trade them through land. The Shah initially opposed the abolition based on the Islamic tradition, but eventually accepted. Another important event of his time was the rise of the [[Báb]] and [[Bábism]], in which Mohammad Shah refused to eliminate his followers despite the ''[[fatwa]]'' by Shiite clerics. [[France–Iran relations]] resumed during his reign. Mohammad Shah suffered from [[gout]] and this overshadowed his rule. In the final years of his reign, his physical condition deteriorated, and he died from a combination of gout and [[erysipelas]] on 4 September 1848, at the age of 40, after fourteen years reign. He was buried in [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in [[Qom]] and was succeeded by his son, [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]]. |
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Due to British pressure, Mohammad Shah reluctantly abolished the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|slave trade]] through the [[Persian Gulf]], but still allowed the possession and trade of slaves in the country. During the rise of the [[Bábism]] faith and its prophet [[Báb]], Mohammad refused to persecute them despite the ''[[fatwa]]'' (decree) imposed by [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] clerics. [[France–Iran relations|Diplomatic relations between France and Iran]] recommenced during his reign. Mohammad suffered from [[gout]], which overshadowed his reign. In the final years of his life, his physical health deteriorated, leading to his death from a combination of gout and [[erysipelas]] on 4 September 1848 at the age of 40 after fourteen years of reign. He was buried in [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] in [[Qom]] and was succeeded by his son, [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]]. |
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As a ruler, Mohammad Shah did not receive praise. He was labeled as a figurehead king for Aqasi, whom he was highly depended on. The shah was devoted to both Aqasi and his teachings on Sufism. So much that over time he became the willing sustainer of Sufis, and sought spiritual guidance in mystical rituals instead of the ''[[Marja'|marji'i taqlīd]].'' Wherefore, the ulama grew as his firmest rivals who challenged his legitimacy and authority throughout his short reign. He enlarged the Qajar bureaucracy and filled governmental positions with Aqasi's Sufi friends and companions, thus, establishing a corrupt administration that saw its peak during his son's reign. Mohammad Shah was the last Qajar king who personally attended the battlefield in a foreign war, and also the last one to carry the title [[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]], warrior of Islam, for his presence in the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Iran-Russia war]] and after suppressing the rebellion in Isfahan. |
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As a ruler, Mohammad Shah did not receive praise. He was labeled as a figurehead king for Aqasi, whom he was highly dependent on. Mohammad was devoted to both Aqasi and his teachings on Sufism; he became a willing sustainer of Sufis, and sought spiritual guidance in mystical rituals instead of the ''[[Marja'|marji'i taqlīd]]'' (Shiite clerics). The ''[[ulama]]'' grew as his firmest rivals, who challenged his legitimacy and authority throughout his short reign. Mohammad enlarged the Qajar bureaucracy, and filled governmental positions with Aqasi's Sufi friends and companions, thus establishing a corrupt administration that saw its peak during his son's reign. Mohammad Shah was the last Qajar king who attended the battlefield in a foreign war, and was also the last to use the title ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]'' (warrior of Islam) for his presence in the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Iran-Russia war]] and for suppressing the rebellion in Isfahan. |
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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The [[Russian Empire]] [[Persian expedition of 1796|invaded the Caucasus]] in 1795, while [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan]], the founder of the Qajar dynasty, was reconquering the eastern provinces of Iran. Thus, Agha Mohammad was forced to withdraw his army and march towards [[Caucasus]] without consolidating his rule in the east, including in [[Herat]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991a|p=131}} The Russian army retreated before he could reach the Caucasus,{{Sfn|Atkin|1980|p=42}} and, Agha Mohammad was assassinated in 1797 in [[Shusha]].{{Sfn|Perry|1984}} Though his realm never reached the far east of [[Greater Khorasan]], he was recognised as the [[King of Kings|Shahanshah]] by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], who proclaimed his allegiance in a public ''[[Khutbah|khutba]]''.{{Sfn|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|p=167}} Agha Mohammad Khan was succeeded by his nephew, [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]] (Then called Baba Khan). During the reign of Fath-Ali Shah the tension in the Iranian-Russian relation escalated and turned into two full scale [[Russo-Persian Wars|wars]] which saw the defeat of Iran in several stages; According to the [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]] and [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]] treaties, large parts of the realm were separated and Iran was forced to make many concessions to Russia. The war also tarnished Iran's global image to a weak state with unstable borders,{{Sfn|Amanat|2017|p=305}} and overshadowed Iranian pride.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991a|p=144}} |
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In Europe, [[British Empire]], gained sovereignty over [[British Raj|India]] and viewed Iran as a strong barrier to prevent Russia from gaining access to the region.{{Sfn|Amanat|1989}} On the other hand, it was well known that the Russian Empire, in its quest to reach the |
In Europe, [[British Empire]], gained sovereignty over [[British Raj|India]] and viewed Iran as a strong barrier to prevent Russia from gaining access to the region.{{Sfn|Amanat|1989}} On the other hand, it was well known that the Russian Empire, in its quest to reach the open waters in southern Iran, intended to expand its sovereignty over Iranian territory.{{Sfn|Andreeva|2010|p=5}} Thus, during the reign of Fath-Ali Shah, the Iranian political stage was a competition between the Russian and British governments to receive numerous concessions and expand political influence.{{Sfn|Kazemzadeh|1985}} |
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In the years between the two wars with Russia, |
In the years between the two wars with Russia, a conflict broke out between Iran and the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)|in 1821]], which ended with the military victory of Iran and the conclusion of the [[Treaties of Erzurum|First Treaty of Erzurum]] in 1823. The treaty did not resolve fundamental differences, the most important of which was the unclear borders of the two nations. There were also disputes such as the persecution of Iranian pilgrims to Shiite holy sites by the Ottomans{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=129}} and the citizenship of border tribes. Another contentious issue was the trade rivalry between [[Khorramshahr]] and [[Basra]].{{Sfn|Abol-Hosseini|2007|p=35}} |
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From the beginning of his reign, Fath-Ali Shah tried to present himself as a pious king in the eyes of Shiite clerics{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=46}} and went so far as to declare his monarchy a subrogation for the ''[[ulama]]''.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=34}}{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=45}} During his reign, [[Isfahan]] once again took on the image of the religious capital of Iran, and the government left the hands of Shiite clerics free to persecute religious minorities. [[Sufism|Sufis]] suffered the most. Fath-Ali Shah took upon himself to lead their persecution; In such ways like ordering to "suffocate" the Sufi leaders of [[Tabriz]].{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=34–36}} |
From the beginning of his reign, Fath-Ali Shah tried to present himself as a pious king in the eyes of Shiite clerics{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=46}} and went so far as to declare his monarchy a subrogation for the ''[[ulama]]''.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=34}}{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=45}} During his reign, [[Isfahan]] once again took on the image of the religious capital of Iran, and the government left the hands of Shiite clerics free to persecute religious minorities. [[Sufism|Sufis]] suffered the most. Fath-Ali Shah took upon himself to lead their persecution; In such ways like ordering to "suffocate" the Sufi leaders of [[Tabriz]].{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=34–36}} |
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=== Childhood === |
=== Childhood === |
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[[File:A magnificent Qajar royal portrait of Fath 'Ali Shah attended by a prince (almost certainly Mohammad Mirza, later ruling as Mohammad Shah), attributed to Mihr 'Ali, Persia, circa 1820.jpg|thumb|[[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]] (right) attended by a prince (almost certainly Mohammad Mirza), attributed to [[Mihr 'Ali]], circa 1820.]] |
[[File:A magnificent Qajar royal portrait of Fath 'Ali Shah attended by a prince (almost certainly Mohammad Mirza, later ruling as Mohammad Shah), attributed to Mihr 'Ali, Persia, circa 1820.jpg|thumb|[[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]] (right) attended by a prince (almost certainly Mohammad Mirza), attributed to [[Mihr 'Ali]], circa 1820.]] |
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Mohammad Mirza was born on 5 January 1808 in Tabriz. He was the eldest son of Crown prince [[Abbas Mirza]] and Glin Khanum, daughter of Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Davallu.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} During his childhood and the years of puberty, Mohammad Mirza was a "quiet" and "shy" boy with no apparent political ambitions. He completed his traditional princely education in Tabriz and became a skilled calligrapher.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}} He was also a skilled painter and learned painting under [[Robert Ker Porter]].{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} However, his level of knowledge was limited compared to his other brothers, especially [[Djahangir Mirza]] and Farhad Mirza, who excelled in writing and other "branches of science". An important moment of his life was when the dervish [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]] was summoned to his father's household by [[Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam]], the [[majordomo]] of Abbas Mirza.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}} By the orders of Mirza Bozorg, Aqasi was appointed as the chief tutor to Mohammad Mirza. He quickly became devoted to Aqasi and his Sufi teachings. This was opposed by [[Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam]], another tutor of the Prince who tried to dissuade Mohammad Mirza from studying under Aqasi. But nonetheless, Aqasi's influence on the prince kept growing.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=28–29}} |
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Mohammad Mirza was born on 5 January 1808 in Tabriz. He was the eldest son of crown prince [[Abbas Mirza]] and Glin Khanum, daughter of Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Davallu.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} During his childhood and youth, Mohammad Mirza was a "quiet" and "shy" boy with no apparent political ambitions. He completed his traditional princely education in Tabriz and became a skilled calligrapher{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}} and painter, the latter which he learned from the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] artist [[Robert Ker Porter]].{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} His level of knowledge, however, was limited compared to that of his brothers, especially [[Djahangir Mirza]] and [[Farhad Mirza]], who excelled in writing and other "branches of science". A turning point in his life was the arrival of the local [[dervish]], [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]] to his father's household.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}} By the orders of Abbas Mirza's [[majordomo]], [[Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam]], Aqasi was appointed the chief tutor to Mohammad, who quickly became a devotee to his Sufi teachings. [[Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam]], another of Mohammad's tutors, tried to dissuade Mohammad from studying under Aqasi but Aqasi's influence on Mohammad increased.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=28–29}} |
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When he was 12 years old, Fath-Ali Shah summoned Mohammad Mirza from Tabriz to Tehran to marry the daughter of Mohammad Qasim Khan Zahir al-Dawla, [[Malek Jahan Khanom]], in order to establish solidarity between the royal family and the Davallu [[cadet branch]] of the Qajar dynasty. The marriege, which took place in September 1819, was loveless for the two.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} As a result of recurring deaths of their infants, Mohammad Mirza developed resentment towards Malek Jahan.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} Only two of their children survived until adulthood: [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]], who later became the crown prince and then king of Iran, and [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh]], who would marry [[Amir Kabir]], later the chief minister of Naser al-Din Shah.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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When Mohammad Mirza was 12 years old, Fath-Ali Shah summoned him from Tabriz to Tehran to marry [[Malek Jahan Khanom]], the daughter of Mohammad Qasim Khan Zahir al-Dawla, to establish solidarity between the royal family and the Davallu [[cadet branch]] of the Qajar dynasty. The marriage, which took place in September 1819, was loveless.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} As a result of recurring deaths of their infants, Mohammad Mirza developed resentment towards Malek Jahan.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} Of their children, only [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]], who later became the crown prince and then king of Iran; and [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh]], who married [[Amir Kabir]], later the chief minister of Naser al-Din Shah; survived into adulthood.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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=== Early Military Career === |
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[[File:An official letter from Prince Muhammad, later Muhammad Shah Qajar (reg. 1834-48), relating to the Russo-Persian Wars of 1826-28, Qajar Persia, dated June-July 1827.jpg|thumb|right|June–July 1827 letter from Prince Mohammad Mirza in [[Persian language|Persian]] to his uncle Allahyar Khan (Asef ol-Dowleh), reporting on all events in the north-west regions around [[Karabakh]] and asking for additional troops to protect the border from the [[Russian Empire|Russians]]]] |
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=== Early military career === |
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The [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Second Russo-Iranian War]] began from the declaration of ''[[jihad]]'' by Shiite scholars. During the war, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army consisting of the tribes of Khajevandi and Abdul Maliki to protect the fortress of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]]. There, with the command of Amir Khan Sardar (Abbas Mirza's maternal uncle) Mohammad Mirza launched an attack to the Russian army. In this battle, Amir Khan was slain and Mohammad Mirza severely defeated and forced to retreat.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Nevertheless, Mohammad Mirza was praised for his efforts during the war, and was nicknamed as ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|Gazi]]'' (warrior of Islam).{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} After the end of the war, Fath Ali Shah appointed Abbas Mirza to rule [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and regulate the security situation of that area.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} An area which was under the constant raids of [[Kamran Shah Durrani|Prince Kamran]], previously appointed as the governor of Herat by the Iran government, who now styled himself as 'Shah'.{{Sfn|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|p=170}} Mohammad Mirza also accompanied his father on this trip. In one of his missions, the prince released nearly 20,000 Iranians held captive by [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] tribes of [[Central Asia]]. Apparently, it was in honour of this great victory that he named his newborn child "[[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din]]" (defender of the faith).{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} |
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[[File:An official letter from Prince Muhammad, later Muhammad Shah Qajar (reg. 1834-48), relating to the Russo-Persian Wars of 1826-28, Qajar Persia, dated June-July 1827.jpg|thumb|right|June–July 1827 letter from Prince Mohammad Mirza in [[Persian language|Persian]] to his uncle [[Asef al-Dowleh|Allahyar Khan (Asef ol-Dowleh)]], reporting on all events in the north-west regions around [[Karabakh]] and asking for additional troops to protect the border from the [[Russian Empire|Russians]]]] |
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The [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Second Russo-Iranian War]] began with the declaration of ''[[jihad]]'' by Shiite clerics. During the war, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army consisting of the tribes of Khajevandi and Abdul Maliki to protect the fortress of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]]. There, with the command of Amir Khan Sardar—Abbas Mirza's maternal uncle—Mohammad launched an attack on the Russian army. In the resulting battle, Amir Khan was killed and Mohammad was severely defeated and forced to retreat;{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} he, however, was praised for his efforts during the war and was nicknamed as ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|Gazi]]'' (warrior of Islam).{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} After the war, Fath Ali Shah appointed Abbas Mirza to rule [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and regulate the security of that area,{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} which underwent constant raids by [[Kamran Shah Durrani|Prince Kamran]], whom the Iranian government had previously appointed as the governor of Herat and now styled himself "Shah".{{Sfn|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|p=170}} Mohammad Mirza also accompanied his father on this trip. In one of his missions, Mohammad released nearly 20,000 Iranians held captive by Central Asian [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] tribes; in honor of this victory, he named his newborn child "Naser al-Din" (defender of the faith).{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} |
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Abbas Mirza spent two years in Khorasan suppressing rebel khans; [[Khiva]] and [[Herat]] supported these revolts, and promised aid but the crown prince's victories discouraged them.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=32}} In 1832, Abbas Mirza summoned Kamran Shah, the ruler of Herat, to pay tribute. Instead of coming, he sent his vizier, Yar Mohammad Khan.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=11}} Feeling insulted, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army to Herat.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad Mirza advanced directly to Herat, and began preparing for a siege while Abbas MIrza was bringing him an army of reinforcement when he suddenly died in Mashhad.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=33}}{{Efn|In his farewell letter to his son, Abbas Mirza advised Mohammad Mirza to remain loyal to Fath-Ali Shah. He also reminded him to have forgiveness, justice, and compassion, respect the ulama and the descendant of the prophet (the [[sayyids]]), and lastly, reward the servants of his household.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=58}}}} Upon hearing his death, Mohammad Mirza and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, who also was a leading figure of the siege,{{Sfn|Rypka|1968|p=335}} were forced to negotiate with Kamran Shah. It was agreed that Kamran Shah would accept the sovereignty of Iran, pay 15,000 [[Iranian toman|tomans]] in gold along with fifty [[Kashmir shawl]], and release the Iranian prisoners who had been captured during the war. Mohammad Mirza appointed his brother, Ghahreman Mirza as the governor of Khorasan and, with Qa'em-Maqam in tow, went to Tehran to claim the title of Crown prince.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=12}} |
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Abbas Mirza spent two years in Khorasan suppressing rebel khans; [[Khiva]] and Herat supported these revolts, and promised aid but Mohammad's victories discouraged them.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=32}} In 1832, Abbas Mirza summoned Kamran Shah, the ruler of Herat, to pay tribute but Kamran instead sent his [[vizier]] [[Yar Mohammad Khan]].{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=11}} Feeling insulted, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army to Herat.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad Mirza advanced directly to Herat and prepared for a siege. Meanwhile, Abbas Mirza was on his way with reinforcement when he suddenly died in Mashhad.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=33}}{{Efn|In his farewell letter to his son, Abbas Mirza advised Mohammad Mirza to remain loyal to Fath-Ali Shah. He also reminded him to have forgiveness, justice, and compassion, respect the ''ulama'' and the descendant of the prophet (the [[sayyids]]), and lastly, reward the servants of his household.{{sfn|Amanat|1997|page=58}}}} Upon hearing the news, Mohammad Mirza and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, who was also a leading figure in the siege,{{Sfn|Rypka|1968|p=335}} were forced to negotiate with Kamran. It was agreed Kamran would accept the sovereignty of Iran, pay 15,000 [[Iranian toman|tomans]] in gold and fifty [[Kashmir shawl]]s, and release the Iranian prisoners who had been captured during the war. Mohammad appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza the governor of Khorasan and, with Qa'em-Maqam, went to Tehran to claim the title of crown prince.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=12}} |
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== Accession to the Throne == |
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== Accession == |
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[[File:Section of a pictorial scroll depicting the coronation procession of Muhammad Shah Qajar, Persia, Qajar, dated 1835.jpg|thumb|348x348px|A pictorial scroll depicting the coronation procession of Mohammad Shah Qajar, dated 1835]] |
[[File:Section of a pictorial scroll depicting the coronation procession of Muhammad Shah Qajar, Persia, Qajar, dated 1835.jpg|thumb|348x348px|A pictorial scroll depicting the coronation procession of Mohammad Shah Qajar, dated 1835]] |
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In [[Nowruz]] of 1834, Mohammad Mirza was appointed as the Crown prince, and took the office of his father, governorship of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]] and left Tehran for [[Tabriz]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=167}} As the Crown prince, Mohammad Mirza was under the complete influence of Qa'em-Maqam; on his orders, the prince imprisoned four of his brothers including [[Djahangir Mirza]] and [[Khosrow Mirza]] in [[Ardabil]] and later to invalid their claims to throne, blinded them.{{Sfn|Bournoutian|2015}}{{Efn|Mohammad Mirza later awarded the man who blinded his brothers with the title of [[Khan (title)|Khan]] and a piece of land.{{Sfn|Sarmadi|2012|p=17}}}} Announcing Mohammad Mirza as the crown prince angered Fath-ali Shah's fifth son, [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], the Prince-Governor of [[Fars province|Fars]] who thought that choosing Mohammad Mirza as crown prince would deprive him of his rights and would be surrendering to Russian demands.{{Sfn|Amanat|1993}} |
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At [[Nowruz]] (Iranian New Year, which was held at the [[March equinox]]) of 1834, Mohammad Mirza was appointed as crown prince and took the governorship of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]]—the office of his father—and left Tehran for Tabriz.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=167}} As crown prince, Mohammad Mirza was under the complete influence of Qa'em-Maqam, on whose orders, he imprisoned four of his brothers, including [[Djahangir Mirza]] and [[Khosrow Mirza]], in [[Ardabil]] and later blinded them to invalidate their claims to the throne.{{Sfn|Bournoutian|2015}}{{Efn|Mohammad Mirza later awarded the man who blinded his brothers with the title of [[Khan (title)|Khan]] and a piece of land.{{Sfn|Sarmadi|2012|p=17}}}} The appointment of Mohammad as the crown prince angered Fath-ali Shah's fifth son [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], the Prince-Governor of [[Fars province|Fars]], who thought the appointment would deprive him of his rights and was a sign of submission to Russian demands.{{Sfn|Amanat|1993}} |
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In October 1834, Fath-Ali Shah with intention to collect the 200,000 tomans tax arrears from Hossein Ali Mirza, and a hidden motive to revoke him of his lands, went to Fars but died in the process in [[Isfahan]].{{Sfn|Amanat|1993}}{{Sfn|Hambly|1982}} Couriers were quickly sent to Tabriz, otherwise, the shah's death remained hidden. His body was then taken to [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] for burial. Only then it was publicly announced that the shah was dead.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=167}} As expected, his death sparked riots across the country, with a number of princes, including Hossein Ali Mirza in [[Shiraz]] and Ali Shah Mirza in Tehran, proclaiming themselves kings.{{Sfn|Ghadimi Gheydari|2010|p=17}} |
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In October 1834, Fath-Ali Shah, with the intention of collecting 200,000 tomans tax arrears from Hossein Ali Mirza and a hidden motive to revoke him of his lands, went to Fars but died ''en route'' at [[Isfahan]].{{Sfn|Amanat|1993}}{{Sfn|Hambly|1982}} Couriers were quickly sent to Tabriz but otherwise, the shah's death remained secret. His body was then taken to [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] for burial; only then the death it was publicly announced.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=167}} As expected, his death sparked revolts across the country, and a number of princes, including Hossein Ali Mirza in [[Shiraz]] and [[Ali Mirza Zel as-Soltan]] in Tehran, proclaimed themselves kings.{{Sfn|Ghadimi Gheydari|2010|p=17}} |
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In early November, John Campbell and Comte Ivan Simonich, British and Russian envoys respectively, arrived in Tabriz to proclaim their support for Mohammad Mirza. They provided him an army led by Col. [[Henry Lindsay Bethune]] which set off for Tehran, where Ali Shah Mirza had proclaimed himself king.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad Mirza's army met the 15,000 Ali Shah's men, led by the latter's brother Imam Verdi Mirza, in [[Takestan]], west of [[Qazvin]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=168}} After a brief confrontation, Imam Verdi Mirza sought to surrender and recognise Mohammad Mirza. The new king agreed to waive his uncles' punishment.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=168}} Eventually, in early 1835, Mohammad Mirza entered the capital with Qa'em-Maqam, his courtiers and Russian and British ambassadors, and was crowned king on 14 January.{{Sfn|Shamim|1964|p=120}} |
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In |
In early November, John Campbell and Comte [[Ivan Simonich]], British and Russian envoys respectively, arrived in Tabriz to proclaim their support for Mohammad Mirza. They provided him an army led by Col. [[Henry Lindsay Bethune]] that set off for Tehran, where Ali Mirza had proclaimed himself king.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad's army met the 15,000 Ali Mirza's men, who were led by Ali's brother [[Emamverdi Mirza]], in [[Takestan]], west of [[Qazvin]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=168}} After a brief confrontation, Emamverdi Mirza sought to surrender and pledge fealty to Mohammad. The new king agreed to waive his uncles' punishment.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=168}} In early 1835, Mohammad entered the capital with Qa'em-Maqam, his courtiers and Russian and British ambassadors, and was crowned king on 14 January.{{Sfn|Shamim|1964|p=120}} |
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In February 1835, Mohammad sent an army under command of [[Manuchehr Khan Gorji]] to liberate [[Isfahan]] from Hossein Ali Mirza's forces, who were under the command of his brother [[Hasan Ali Mirza|Shoja al-Saltanah]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=168}} After reconquering Isfahan, [[Manuchehr Khan Gorji]] marched to Shiraz, where he captured Hossein Ali Mirza and ended his rebellion.{{Sfn|Hambly|1982}} Hossein Ali was imprisoned in [[Ardabil]] and soon died of [[cholera]]; with his defeat, the other rebel princes surrendered their claims and recognized Mohammad as the king of Iran.{{Sfn|Shamim|1964|p=121}} |
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== Reign == |
== Reign == |
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=== Early years === |
=== Early years === |
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[[File:Ghaem Magham Farahani.jpg|thumb|Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, Mohammad Shah's first [[grand vizier]] between 1834 and 1835. ]] |
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Mohammad Shah appointed Qa'em-Maqam as his [[grand vizier]].{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=32}} However, his premiership did not last long. He was already losing influence over the young king, but his policies and ideas made him adversaries in the court.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=17}} As soon as he became the grand vizier, Qa'em-Maqam had the royal princes swear an oath of fealty to Mohammad Shah, otherwise, he had them imprisoned. This fate befell many of Qajar princes such as Mahmoud Mirza, the governor of [[Kashan]], who refused to relinquish his claim and therefore, lost his title and wealth.{{Sfn|Piri|2001|p=88}} Soon, Qa'em-Maqam was attacked by rivals, the most prominent ones being Allahyar Khan Asef ol-Dowleh, Mohammad Shah's uncle from the Davallu tribe, and a coalition led by Aqasi.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} His adversaries soon extended to British envoy, John Campbell who expected grand privileges for his contribution in enthroning the shah but was refused by Qa'em-Maqam.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=16}} In order to lessen British influence over the court, Qa'em-Maqam reached for good relations with [[Ottoman Empire]].{{Sfn|Piri|2001|p=91}} His rivals with slanderous accusations, urged Mohammad Shah to have Qa'em-Maqam ousted from his position.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Ultimately, the shah was convinced. On 22 June 1835, he arrested and imprisoned Qa'em-Maqam in [[Negarestan Palace]]. Four days later he ordered his execution.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=17–18}} |
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Mohammad Shah appointed Qa'em-Maqam as his [[grand vizier]].{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=32}} Qa'em-Maqam's efforts in budgeting and his disdain for the courtiers made him an unpopular figure in the court.{{Sfn|Zarrinkoob|1978}} As soon as he became the grand vizier, Qa'em-Maqam had the royal princes swear an oath of fealty to Mohammad, otherwise he had them imprisoned, a fate that befell many Qajar princes such as [[Mahmud Mirza Qajar|Mahmud Mirza]], the governor of [[Kashan]], who refused to relinquish his claim and thus lost his title and wealth.{{Sfn|Piri|2001|p=88}} Soon, Qa'em-Maqam was attacked by rivals, the most prominent being [[Asef al-Dowleh|Allahyar Khan Asef ol-Dowleh]]—Mohammad Shah's uncle from the Davallu tribe—and a coalition led by Aqasi.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Qa'em-Maqam's adversaries soon extended to British envoy John Campbell, who expected grand privileges for his contribution to Mohammad's enthronement but was refused by Qa'em-Maqam.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=16}} To lessen British influence over the court, Qa'em-Maqam tried to improve Iran's relations with the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{Sfn|Piri|2001|p=91}} His rivals, with slanderous accusations, urged Mohammad to have Qa'em-Maqam ousted from his position{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} and Mohammad eventually agreed to do so. On 22 June 1835, he arrested and imprisoned Qa'em-Maqam in [[Negarestan Palace]] and four days later, he ordered Qa'em-Maqam's execution.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=17–18}} |
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Mohammad Shah thence spent few month without a grand vizier. Campbell expressed his support for [[Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi]] while his courtiers wished for Abdollah Amin al-Dowleh (An erstwhile grand vizier of Fath-Ali Shah); but Mohammad Shah by his own will, chose Aqasi who filled this position for the large part of his reign.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=18}} By this time, Mohammad Shah's health raised as a concern for the future of the kingdom, hence the four-year-old [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]] was appointed as the crown prince. Mohammad Shah granted the governorship of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]] (Bestowed by the Qajar kings to the [[heir apparent]],) to his firstborn son and appointed his full-brother, Ghahreman Mirza as his [[regent]]. Ghahreman Mirza was in close ties with the Russian government; when he died in 1839, Mohammad Shah replaced him with his last living full-brother, [[Bahman Mirza Qajar|Bahman Mirza]].{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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Mohammad Shah then spent a few month without a grand vizier. Campbell expressed his support for [[Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi]] while his courtiers supported Abdollah Amin al-Dowleh, an erstwhile grand vizier of Fath-Ali Shah, but Mohammad chose Aqasi, who filled this position for most of Mohammad's reign.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=18}} By this time, Mohammad's health had become a concern for the kingdom's future and the four-year-old Naser al-Din Mirza was appointed the crown prince. Mohammad Shah granted the governorship of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azarbaijan]], which the Qajar kings bestowed upon the [[heir apparent]], to his firstborn son and appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza as Naser al-Din's [[regent]]. Ghahreman Mirza was in close contact with the Russian government; when he died in 1839, Mohammad replaced him with his last-surviving full-brother, [[Bahman Mirza Qajar|Bahman Mirza]].{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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In 1837, a rebellion broke out in Kerman, led by Hassan Ali Shah, better known as [[Aga Khan I|Agha Khan I]], the leader of [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]] [[Isma'ilism|Ismailis]] |
In 1837, a rebellion broke out in Kerman, led by Hassan Ali Shah, better known as [[Aga Khan I|Agha Khan I]], the leader of [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]] [[Isma'ilism|Ismailis]]{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} The Nizari Muslims, though few in number, lived in Iran under the leadership of Hassan Ali Shah, who asserted his place by marrying Fath-Ali Shah's daughter Sarveh Jahan Khanum and acquiring the title [[Aga Khan]].{{Sfn|Daftary|2007|p=464}} When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, on the advice of Qa'em Maqam, he appointed Agha Khan the governor of [[Kerman]], a rebellious state that was governed by Shoja al-Saltanah, a brother of Hossein Ali Mirza. Agha Khan pacified the state but his governorship was short-lived; in 1837, he was recalled to Tehran and was replaced with Firouz Mirza, the shah's brother.{{Sfn|Daftary|2007|p=465}} Agha Khan declared a rebellion against the shah, and withdrew with his forces to [[Bam, Iran|Bam]]. Mohammad Shah sent an army under the command of Sourab Khan; they besieged Bam and took the severely injured brother of Agha Khan prisoner. After eight months, Agha Khan surrendered and was imprisoned; his belongings were plundered and he was not allowed to receive his religious due sent from [[Khoja|India]], [[Khurasan]] and [[Badakhshan]].{{Sfn|Daftary|2007|p=465}} Agha Khan was a prisoner of the shah until 1838, when he was allowed to retreat to his familial lands in [[Mahallat]].{{Sfn|Daftary|2007|p=465}} |
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=== Herat |
=== Herat campaign === |
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{{Main|Siege of Herat (1837–1838)}} |
{{Main|Siege of Herat (1837–1838)}} |
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Mohammad Shah's number one objective was to annex Herat.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=47}} This alarmed Kamran Shah to attempt gathering various neighboring tribes such as [[Jamshidi (Aimaq tribe)|Jamshidi]], Tumani and [[Hazaras|Hazara]] in Herat to resist the shah in the event of a military campaign. These mobilisations alarmed the British government.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=133}} As a result, [[Alexander Burnes]] and [[Eldred Pottinger]] were send to [[Kabul]] and Herat respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahangaran|2013|page=134}}; {{harvnb|Nategh|1991|page=88}}.</ref> Among Britain's concerns was Article 11 of the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]], which allowed Russia to establish consulates and trade missions with a maximum of ten members throughout Iranian territory, thus implanting influence on Afghanistan and ergo, becoming a threat to the British India.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} Thus they accused the Russian government of encouraging Iran to invade Herat.{{Sfn|Nategh|1991|p=89}} Among the reasons Iran desired the retaking of Herat, was Mohammad Shah's desire of uniting the Persian-speaking tribes of Afghan highlands with Iran. Moreover, he also wanted to free the Iranian prisoners, imprisoned by Sunni tribes who dwelt near Khorasan.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} Conquest of Herat was also the first step in fulfilling the ambitious plan of extending Iran's influence up to [[Amu Darya]].{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148}} In the late 1836, Mohammad Shah ordered his army to be mustered for the following spring. This gave [[John McNeill (diplomat)|John McNeill]], the British envoy in Iran, enough time to arrange an agreement in which Herat would resume paying tributes; but, Yar Mohammad Khan would not tolerate the Iranian sovereignty, and the shah would not withdraw unless the city was conquered.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=50}} |
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After asserting his authority, Mohammad Shah's main objective was to annex Herat.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=47}} This alarmed Kamran Shah and prompted him to attempt to gather neighboring tribes such as the [[Jamshidi (Aimaq tribe)|Jamshidi]], Tumani and [[Hazaras|Hazara]] in Herat to resist Mohammad in the event of a military campaign. These mobilizations alarmed the British government,{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=133}} which sent [[Alexander Burnes]] and [[Eldred Pottinger]] to [[Kabul]] and Herat respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahangaran|2013|page=134}}; {{harvnb|Nategh|2014|page=88}}.</ref> Among Britain's concerns was Article 11 of the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]], which allowed Russia to establish consulates and trade missions with up to ten members throughout Iranian territory, implanting influence on Afghanistan and therefore becoming a threat to British India.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} The UK accused the Russian government of encouraging Iran to invade Herat.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=89}} Iran wanted to retake of Herat partly because of Mohammad's desire to unite the Persian-speaking tribes of the Afghan highlands with Iran, and because wanted to free Iranian prisoners who were taken by Sunni tribes who lived near Khorasan.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} Conquest of Herat was also the first step in a plan to extend Iran's influence up to [[Amu Darya]].{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148}} In late 1836, Mohammad ordered his army to be mustered for the following spring. This gave [[John McNeill (diplomat)|John McNeill]], the British envoy in Iran, time to arrange a treaty in which Herat would resume paying tributes. Yar Mohammad Khan, however, would not tolerate Iranian sovereignty and Mohammad Shah would not withdraw unless the city was conquered.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=50}} |
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Eventually in 1837 Mohammad Shah marched on Herat.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} British officers were expelled from the Iranian army, and the British embassy was closed down.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=87}} The shah personally took command of Iran's 80,000 troops, while Kamran Shah had gathered a few thousand badly-equipped soldiers.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148}}{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=135}} The ruler of Herat had little hope of resisting against Mohammad Shah, for the city's population, terrorised of their overlord and dispirited by the economic decline, were hardly likely to put up any fight, furthermore, the crumbling fortification of the city's walls were not in any state to withstand an assault. Kamran Shah's only source of hope was the support of Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara, the [[Emir|Amir]] of [[Qala e Naw]].{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148–149}} He vowed a fight to death for Kamran Shah, and brought about 4000 foot soldiers and numerous horsmen to Herat's army.{{Sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2016|p=312}} In addition, he organised an alliance between [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]], [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmens|Turkman]] tribes under the banner of Sunni Islam. Thus with the leadership of Sher Mohammad and Kamran Shah's son, Nader Mirza, ten to twelve thousand horsemen had assembled around Qala e Naw and were threatening to attack Iran's borders.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=149}}[[File:Qajar lacquer book cover, attributable to Muhammad Ismail, Qajar Iran, circa 1865, depicting the preparation of the siege of Herat.jpg|thumb|A Qajar lacquer book cover, attributable to the painter Muhammad Ismail, depicting preparations for the [[Siege of Herat (1837–1838)|Siege of Herat]].|alt=Depiction of a battle scene.]]In 28 October, Mohammad Shah camped at [[Torbat-e Jam]].{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=53}} There, in order to counteract, he ordered twelve thousand of his best soldiers under the command of Mohammad Khan Asef al-Dowleh (The governor of Khorasan) to march to Qala e Naw. By the middle of November, he seized there and the area around it, dividing Sher Mohammad's army in two part, one camped in [[Kushk, Afghanistan|Kushk]] under the command of Mohammad Zaman Jamshidi, and one already retreating to Herat.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=150}} The Jamshidi army faced Asef al-Dowleh's men, and were scattered in a desperate fight; losing two to three hundred men killed, and as many taken prisoner. Despite the great victory, The Iranian army faced a difficult time, suffering the winter cold which reached the mountains much earlier than Herat, and the shortage of supplies which could only be purchased by high prices.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1996|page=150}}; {{harvnb|Nelson|1976|page=53}}.</ref> Eventually, Asaf al-Dowleh and his men marched their way through the mountains to [[Bala Murghab]] and from there to [[Maymana]] where he defeated another host of Afghan army under the command of Sher Mohammad Khan. After this victory, he sent an ambassador to his opponent's camp, and promised them freedom and wealth if they surrendered to the shah. His offer was received positively, and Sher Mohammad agreed to sent two of his sons to Herat to proffer their submission to Mohammad Shah.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=150, 152, 157}} |
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In 1837, Mohammad Shah marched on Herat.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} British officers were expelled from the Iranian army and the British embassy was closed.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=87}} Mohammad took personal command of Iran's 80,000 troops whereas Kamran Shah had gathered a few thousand poorly equipped soldiers.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148}}{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=135}} The ruler of Herat had little hope of resisting Mohammad Shah because the city's population, who had been terrorized by their overlord and dispirited by economic decline, and were unlikely to put up any fight; also, the crumbling fortification of the city's walls were in poor repair and would not withstand an assault. Kamran Shah's only source of hope was the support of Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara, the [[Emir|Amir]] of [[Qala e Naw]],{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=148–149}} who vowed a fight to death for Kamran Shah, and brought about 4,000 foot soldiers and numerous horsemen to Herat's army.{{Sfn|Noelle-Karimi|2016|p=312}} Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara also organized an alliance between [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]], [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmens|Turkman]] tribes under the banner of Sunni Islam. Thus, with the leadership of Sher Mohammad and Kamran Shah's son Nader Mirza, ten-to-twelve-thousand horsemen assembled around Qala-e Naw and threatened to attack Iran's borders.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=149}} |
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In 23 November, Mohammad Shah with a part of his army reached the outskirts of Herat. There, they faced a fierce resistance from the defenders, however, eventually forced them to retreat behind the city walls.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=53}} Mohammad Shah sat up his camp southeast of Herat and began a long siege for the city.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=169}} The Iranian army fell into a dilemma, Aqasi wanted to wait for the Russian's aid,{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=54}} while [[Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri]] (Later a grand vizier of Naser al-Din Shah,) persuaded for crushing the city walls.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=135}} The greatest problem Mohammad Shah faced was to feed his men. His army quickly ran out of supplies and the lines back to [[Mashhad]] were insecure and often impassable. The fields around Herat were already harvested by the citizens and the remains were destroyed. Only after the spring of 1838, when Mohammad Shah ordered his men to plant their crops, the problem was truly solved.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=55}} |
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[[File:Qajar lacquer book cover, attributable to Muhammad Ismail, Qajar Iran, circa 1865, depicting the preparation of the siege of Herat.jpg|thumb|A Qajar lacquer book cover, attributable to the painter Muhammad Ismail, depicting preparations for the [[Siege of Herat (1837–1838)|Siege of Herat]].|alt=Depiction of a battle scene.]] |
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In March 1838, John McNiell arrived at the shah's camp as the British representative; he failed to dissuade him and thus on 7 June 1838, withdraw from Herat, and cut the British-Iran relations.{{Sfn|Martin|2008|p=111}} Ten days later, the British Indian fleet from [[Mumbai|Bombay]] occupied [[Kharg Island]] and threatened further military actions.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} From the pressure of ending the campaign, Mohammad Shah ordered a full-scale assault to Herat, only to fail with high casualties.{{Sfn|Martin|2008|p=112}} The British sent an [[ultimatum]], threatening war if the siege continued. The Russians thereof abandoned Mohammad Shah's cause and retreated their support. All of these, along with news of rebellions finally led Mohammad Shah to give up his campaign and withdraw from the siege.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=68}} Although he failed in conquering Herat, his army still occupied [[Ghurian]], and other forts alike; a number of Afghan warlords such as Kohendil Khan of [[Kandahar]] would remain loyal to the shah.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=69}} |
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On 28 October, Mohammad Shah camped at [[Torbat-e Jam]],{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=53}} where to counteract, he ordered 12,000 of his best soldiers under the command of Mohammad Khan Asef al-Dowleh, the governor of Khorasan, to march to Qala e Naw. By the middle of November, he had seized the city and its surrounds, dividing Sher Mohammad's army in two; one part was camped in [[Kushk, Afghanistan|Kushk]] under the command of Mohammad Zaman Jamshidi and the other was already retreating to Herat.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=150}} The Jamshidi army faced Asef al-Dowleh's men and were scattered in a desperate fight; two-or-three-hundred men were killed and as many taken prisoner. Despite their victory, the Iranian army faced a difficult time, suffering the winter cold that reached the mountains much earlier than it reached Herat and a shortage of supplies that could only be purchased at high prices.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1996|page=150}}; {{harvnb|Nelson|1976|page=53}}.</ref> Eventually, Asaf al-Dowleh and his men marched through the mountains to [[Bala Murghab]] and from there to [[Maymana]], where he defeated another host of the Afghan army under the command of Sher Mohammad Khan. After this victory, Asaf al-Dowleh sent an ambassador to his opponent's camp, and promised them freedom and wealth if they surrendered to Mohammad Shah. His offer was received positively and Sher Mohammad agreed to send two of his sons to Herat to proffer their submission to Mohammad Shah.{{Sfn|Lee|1996|p=150, 152, 157}} |
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On 23 November, Mohammad Shah with a part of his army reached the outskirts of Herat, where they faced fierce resistance from the defenders but eventually forced them to retreat behind the city walls.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=53}} Mohammad Shah set up his camp south-east of Herat and began a long siege of the city.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=169}} The Iranian army had a dilemma; Aqasi wanted to wait for Russian aid{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=54}} whereas [[Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri]] argued for crushing the city walls.{{Sfn|Ahangaran|2013|p=135}} Mohammad Shah faced problems feeding his men; his army quickly ran out of supplies, and the lines back to [[Mashhad]] were insecure and often impassable. The fields around Herat were already harvested by the residents and the remains had been destroyed. The problem was only solved after the spring of 1838, when Mohammad Shah ordered his men to plant their crops.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=55}} |
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In March 1838, John McNiell arrived at Mohammad Shah's camp as the British representative; he failed to dissuade Mohammad and thus on 7 June 1838, he withdrew from Herat.{{Sfn|Martin|2008|p=111}} Ten days later, the British Indian fleet from [[Bombay]] occupied [[Kharg Island]] and threatened further military actions.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} Under pressure to end the campaign, Mohammad Shah ordered a full-scale assault of Herat, which failed with many casualties.{{Sfn|Martin|2008|p=112}} The British sent an ultimatum threatening war if the siege continued. The Russians abandoned Mohammad Shah's cause and withdrew their support. These, along with news of rebellions, led Mohammad Shah to give up his campaign and end the siege.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=68}} Although he failed to conquer Herat, Mohammad's army still occupied [[Ghurian]] and other forts; a number of Afghan warlords such as Kohendil Khan of [[Kandahar]] would remain loyal to Mohammad Shah.{{Sfn|Nelson|1976|p=69}} |
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=== Rebellion in Isfahan === |
=== Rebellion in Isfahan === |
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[[Mohammad Bagher Shafti]] was one of the most distinguished religious figures of the time; with a fortune of |
[[Mohammad Bagher Shafti]] was one of the most distinguished religious figures of the time; with a fortune of two-and-a-half million [[franc]]s.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=53}} Shafti rebelled against Mohammad Shah in 1834, when he tried to seize the city [[Isfahan]] from its Prince-Governor [[Sayf ol-Dowleh]].{{Sfn|Walcher|2006}} Over four years, Shafti took control of the city's [[Luti people|Luti]] population and in 1838, he raised against the governor of the city, Gholam Hossein Khan Sepahdar, and therefore Mohammad Shah. Shafti's men, who were known for their acts of murder, robbery and rape, looted the city and took the booty to [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan]]. There, Shafti declared their leader Ramazan as Ramazan Shah and ordered the striking of coins in his name.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=54}} The roots of this revolt lay in a letter from McNiell to Shafti, in which he implied the cause of the war in Herat was the Shah's warmongering and obduracy.{{Sfn|Martin|2008|p=112}} The rebellion was supported by a Safavid descendant called Nawab Safavi, which further encouraged the rebels to kill the city's deputy governor.{{Sfn|Walcher|2006}} |
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As a result, between 1838 and 1840, Isfahan was in the hands of |
As a result, between 1838 and 1840, Isfahan was in the hands of rebels, especially the Lutis, whose numbers were increasing because the city's poor people were joining the Lutis' and Shafti's cause.{{Sfn|Nasiri|Rahmanian|Razavi|2015|p=112}} To end their rebellion, Mohammad Shah went to Isfahan with 60,000 troops on the return journey from Herat. It was unprecedented for the shah to take arms against the state's clergy, especially Shafi, who was considered a clergy leader and Isfahan was regarded as the religious capital of Iran. Modern historian [[Homa Nategh]] noted this act as a "[[coup d'état]]".{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=52, 57}} |
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Upon reaching the city, Mohammad Shah ordered the cannons to bombard Isfahan. Shafti, |
Upon reaching the city, Mohammad Shah ordered the cannons to bombard Isfahan. Shafti, fearing great losses, opened the city's northern gate and the Lutis deserted from the southern gate.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=57}} Mohammad Shah triumphantly entered the city and instantly ordered the execution of the remaining Lutis. He could not charge Shafti in any extreme measures but exiled his son to [[Gorgan|Astrabad]]. The Luti leader Ramazan Shah died while under torture and of his men, 240 were killed and 400 were arrested. Mohammad Shah ordered a court to be set up so that the people could recount Lutis' crimes. Mohammad took the lands and properties Shafti and the Lutis had usurped, and made them part of his [[demesne]] lands.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=58}} Harsh penalties were made to ensure stability and fear, and to prevent future rebellions. Mohammad Shah celebrated his victory greatly, trying to erase the memory of his failure in Herat.{{Sfn|Nasiri|Rahmanian|Razavi|2015|p=114}} To declare Shafti's cause blasphemy, Mohammad Shah adopted the title [[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]] (the warrior of Islam), which was previously given to him for the war with the Russian empire.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} |
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=== The Second Treaty of Erzurum === |
=== The Second Treaty of Erzurum === |
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[[File:AmirKabir naghashbashi.jpg|thumb|Mirza Taghi Khan Farahani, later known as [[Amir Kabir]], the leading Iranian figure in the negotiations.|alt=Oil on canvas painting of Amir Kabir]] |
[[File:AmirKabir naghashbashi.jpg|thumb|Mirza Taghi Khan Farahani, later known as [[Amir Kabir]], the leading Iranian figure in the negotiations.|alt=Oil on canvas painting of Amir Kabir]] |
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As mentioned before, the hostilities with the Ottomans and the tensions over the borderlands of the two empires was not resolved by the [[Treaties of Erzurum|treaty of Erzurum]] and later led to incidents during Mohammad Shah's reign that pushed him even to start a war, such as the incident caused by Ali Reza Pasha, the governor of [[Baghdad]], who sacked the city of [[Khorramshahr]] in 1837. Thereafter, the peace over the frontier of Iran and Ottoman Empire became a prioritised European project in the early 1840s.{{Sfn|Schofield|2008|p=152}} The negotiations between the two nations began in 1842 in [[Erzurum]], a sizeable frontier town with a cosmopolitan flair thanks to the presences of French, British, and Russian consulates and a few American missionaries.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=86}} The Iranian commission included Mirza Taqi Khan Farahani, later known as [[Amir Kabir]], whose involvement in this treaty put him on the political map,{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=92}} and on the Ottoman side was Enveri Sadullah Efendi, a member of the Supreme Council of Justice, whose arrogance and occasionally undiplomatic language created so many problems that he was considered to be replaced.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=90}} On 15 May 1843, the negotiations officially begun. Mohammad Shah had demanded the Iranian plenipotentiaries to resolve the negotiations quickly or else he would raise arms against the Ottoman Empire, in spite of this, the negotiations lasted for four years.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=131}} Mostly because of the delays caused by political and military crisis such as the Ottoman massacre of twenty two thousand Shi'i Iranian pilgrims on the road to [[Karbala]] that suspended the negotiations for three months.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=94}} |
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Hostilities with the Ottomans and tensions over the borderlands of the two empires were unresolved by the [[Treaties of Erzurum|treaty of Erzurum]] and later led to incidents during Mohammad Shah's reign that pushed him to start a war, such as the sack of [[Khorramshahr]] by Ali Reza Pasha, the governor of [[Baghdad]], in 1837. In the early 1840s, peace in the frontier of Iran and the Ottoman Empire became a prioritized European project.{{Sfn|Schofield|2008|p=152}} Negotiations between the two nations began in 1842 in [[Erzurum]], a sizeable frontier town.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=86}} The Iranian commission included Mirza Taqi Khan Farahani, later known as [[Amir Kabir]], whose involvement in the treaty brought him to attention in political circles.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=92}} On the Ottoman side was Enveri Sadullah Efendi, a member of the Supreme Council of Justice whose arrogance and occasional undiplomatic language created so many problems that he was considered to be replaced.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=90}} Negotiations began on 15 May 1843; Mohammad Shah had demanded the Iranian [[plenipotentiaries]] to resolve the negotiations quickly or he would raise arms against the Ottoman Empire. Negotiations lasted for four years,{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=131}} mostly because of delays caused by political and military crises such as the Ottoman massacre of 22,000 Shi'i Iranian pilgrims on the road to [[Karbala]] that caused the suspension of the negotiations for three months.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=94}} |
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Nonetheless, the negotiations were resumed by the British and Russian mediations. The territorial restitution were confined to three cities, [[Khorramshahr]], Zohab, and [[Sulaymaniyah]] and the Iranian dominance over the [[Shatt al-Arab]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ates|2013|page=155}}; {{harvnb|Schofield|2008|page=98}}.</ref> Ownership over Zohab was a heated argument between the negotiators. The town, not significant in itself, was captured by [[Dowlatshah|Mohamad Ali Mirza Dowlatshah]], the firstborn son of Fath-Ali Shah, during the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)|Ottoman-Persian war of 1821]], and thus it ownership was kept by Iran, even though in the First Treaty of Erzurum it was agreed by Iran to return it.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=144}} At first, Iran tried to keep the town as Farahani suggested that Zohab be parted between the two nations, one part ruled by Iran and the other by the Ottomans. Eventually, the Iranian party agreed to return the ownership of the town if the Ottoman, in return, would forsake their desire to dominant the Shatt al-Arab's trade rout.{{Sfn|Abol-Hosseini|2007|p=37}} When the commissioners began discussing Khorramshahr, Farahani declared that the town has always been part of [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]] and demanded £1 million in compensation for the 1837 sack of the city. Despite the Ottoman protests and arguments, Khorramshahr was stated as a part of Iran with Farahani's firm efforts.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=115, 120}} |
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Negotiations were resumed by British and Russian mediators. Territorial restitution were confined to the cities [[Khorramshahr]], Zohab and [[Sulaymaniyah]], and the Iranian dominance over the [[Shatt al-Arab]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ates|2013|page=155}}; {{harvnb|Schofield|2008|page=98}}.</ref> Ownership of Zohab was a heated argument between negotiators; the town, which was insignificant in itself, was captured by [[Dowlatshah|Mohamad Ali Mirza Dowlatshah]], the firstborn son of Fath-Ali Shah, during the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823)|Ottoman-Persian war of 1821]] and Iran retained sovereignty over it even though in the [[First Treaty of Erzurum]], had agreed to return it.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=144}} Farahani suggested Zohab to be divided between the two nations but the Iranian party later agreed to return sovereignty of the town to the Ottomans who, in return, would forsake their desire to dominant the Shatt al-Arab's trade route.{{Sfn|Abol-Hosseini|2007|p=37}} When the commissioners began discussing Khorramshahr, Farahani declared the town has always been part of [[Khuzistan (Sasanian province)|Khuzistan]] and demanded £1 million in compensation for the 1837 sack of the city. Despite the Ottoman protests and arguments, Khorramshahr was stated as a part of Iran after Farahani's firm efforts.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=115, 120}} |
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Thus in May 1846 the first drafts of the treaty were written. Russia and Britain were to draw up a map of the border areas, and both parties would accept it. In the meantime, Farahani fell ill and in the meantime, a riot broke out in Erzurum, his house was looted and two of his companions were torn to pieces by the rebels.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=131}} Thus, the negotiations were suspended for several months. The continuation of the negotiations was subject to the punishment of the rioters and the payment of damages. The Ottoman government formally apologized to Iran, imprisoned 300 rioters, and paid 15,000 tomans in compensation. Negotiations resumed and a contract including an introduction and nine articles was drafted.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} However, the Ottoman party was unsatisfied with the outcome and threatened to leave the negotiations. Determined to avoid such results, the mediating parties continued to give the Ottomans assurances but kept the Iranians ignorant of them, hoping Mohammad Shah would endorse the new results. Finally, on 31 May 1847, Farahani and Efendi signed the treaty and left Erzurum. In 26 June, Mohammad Shah also ratified the treaty.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=135}} |
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In May 1846, the first drafts of the treaty were written. Russia and Britain were to draw up a map of the border areas, and both parties would accept it. In the meantime, Farahani fell ill and a riot broke out in Erzurum, his house was looted and two of his companions were torn to pieces by rebels.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=131}} Negotiations were suspended for several months. The Ottoman government formally apologized to Iran, imprisoned 300 rioters and paid 15,000 tomans in compensation. Afterwards, negotiations resumed and resulted in a treaty with nine articles.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} The Ottoman party, however, were unsatisfied with the outcome and threatened to leave the negotiations. The mediators, determined to avoid such results, secretly gave assurance to the Ottomans. On 31 May 1847, Farahani and Efendi signed the treaty and left Erzurum, and on 26 June, Mohammad Shah also ratified the treaty.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=135}} |
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While the tensions seemed to be resolved, the Ottoman government added three more articles to the treaty, in secret and with the support of British and Russian ambassadors. Based on these articles, Iran's rights on the Shatt al-Arab were revoked, and on Khorramshahr reduced. Moreover, contrary to the agreements, Shatt al-Arab, expect a few islands,was left to the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} When in the end of January 1848, Mirza Javad, a courier from Tehran, arrived in [[Istanbul]] with Mohammad Shah's ratified copies of the treaty, the Ottoman government insisted that they would not ratify the treaty unless the shah agreed to the new articles. Not wanting to raise Mohammad Shah's suspicion, the British and Russian ambassadors convinced Iran's envoy to [[Paris]], Miza Mohammad Ali Khan, who was in Istanbul at the time, to agree to the new articles. Mirza Mohammad Ali agreed to the articles, alternatively called the ''Explanatory Note'', only if the ambassadors signed an official statement whereon they informed Mohammad Shah that the it was necessary for maintaining the treaty.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=135–136}} Mohammad Shah did not accept the new terms and declared the treaty false and invalid.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} Thus the tensions between Iran and the Ottomans persisted and continued even after the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|fall of the Ottoman Empire]] as the newly established country of [[Iraq]] inherited these disputes with Iran.{{Sfn|Abol-Hosseini|2007|p=38}} |
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While the tensions seemed to be resolved, the Ottoman government secretly added three more articles to the treaty with the support of British and Russian ambassadors. Based on these articles, Iran's rights on the Shatt al-Arab were revoked and those on Khorramshahr were reduced. Contrary to the agreements, control of Shatt al-Arab, except for a few islands, was handed to the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} At the end of January 1848, Mirza Javad, a courier from Tehran, arrived in [[Istanbul]] with Mohammad Shah's ratified copies of the treaty; the Ottoman government insisted they would not ratify the treaty unless the shah agreed to the new articles. Not wanting to raise Mohammad Shah's suspicion, the British and Russian ambassadors persuaded [[Mirza Mohammad-Ali Khan Shirazi]], Iran's envoy to France who was in Istanbul at the time, to ratify the new articles, alternatively called the "Explanatory Note". Mirza Mohammad-Ali agreed, only if the ambassadors signed an official statement on which they informed Mohammad Shah the new articles were necessary for maintaining the treaty.{{Sfn|Ates|2013|p=135–136}} Mohammad Shah did not accept the new terms and declared the treaty false and invalid.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=132}} The tensions between Iran and the Ottomans persisted even after the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|fall of the Ottoman Empire]] when the newly established country, [[Iraq]] inherited the Ottoman claims against Iran.{{Sfn|Abol-Hosseini|2007|p=38}} |
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=== The Abolition of Slavery in the Persian Gulf === |
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| quote = "Between the religions of Europe and our religion there is great distinction and difference, and we cannot observe or join in matters which are in accordance with their religion and in opposition to ours, why we wrote that the exalted English government should make enquiries of the Turkish government on this subject, was because that government being a [[Mohammedan|Mahomedan]] state and in that country the traffic in slaves being much more extensive than any where else, we might observe what answer it will give, that then we may give a reply which should not be opposed to tenets of the Mahomedan faith." |
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| author = Mohammad Shah to Col. Francis Farrant regarding the abolition of slavery in the Ottoman empire.{{sfn|Mirzai|2017|page=137}} |
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In the 1840s, the annual number of enslaved people sold in the [[Persian Gulf]] was estimated to be four to five thousand.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=63}} When [[Justin Sheil]] succeeded John McNiel in 1844 as the envoy to Iran, he and his wife observed the slavery and decided to act against it. Therefore, he sent a letter to Aqasi and pleaded for an abolition.{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=81}} However, the diplomatic pressure did not convince the shah, so, Sheil brought up the moral aspect of slavery, emphasising its negative impacts on the African pupolation. Mohammad Shah remained unmoved and claimed an abolition would contradict the Islamic tradition. Sheil further argued his points, but the shah responded that such interferences would undermine diplomatic relations between the two nations.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=136}} |
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===Abolition of slavery in the Persian Gulf === |
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Colonel Francis Farrant replaced Sheil when he was recalled to [[London]] in the late 1847. Like his predecessor, he also negotiated for an abolition with Aqasi, albeit he was more successful, especially for the newly signed treaty of Erzurum that put him a good light for the grand vizier.{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=90}} His argument was that if the Ottoman Empire could abolish the slavery in their nation, Iranians could do the same. The argument appealed to Aqasi who suggested the same to Mohammad Shah. The shah was ready to adapt the changes similar to those of the Ottomans, as it is clear from the letter he sent to Farrant. In this way he could both appease the British without challenging his the Islamic tradition.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=137}} |
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In the 1840s, an estimated four-to-five-thousand slaves were sold in the [[Persian Gulf]] each year.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=63}} When [[Justin Sheil]] succeeded John McNiel as the envoy to Iran in 1844, he and his wife decided to act against the slavery. He sent a letter to Aqasi and pleaded for an abolition.{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=81}} Mohammad Shah, however, did not respond to this diplomatic pressure so Sheil brought up the moral aspect of slavery, emphasizing its negative impacts on the African population. Mohammad Shah remained unmoved and said abolition would contradict the Islamic tradition. Sheil further argued his points but Mohammad responded such interference would undermine diplomatic relations between the two nations.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=136}} |
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Mohammad Shah, in result, agreed to the abolition of the slave trade through the Persian Gulf. However, having slaves and trading it through the land was still allowed. On his behest, Aqasi sent three letters to the governors of [[Fars province|Fars]], [[Kerman]], and [[Isfahan]]. In these letters, in addition to ordering the governors to do not partake in the slave trade of the Persian Gulf, he expresses his concerns of the shah's health.{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=92}} On the advice of both Sheil and Farrant, Aqasi also approached the major ''[[ulama]]'' of Tehran to take their consent should the slave traders accuse them of blasphemy. The results were unfavourible, as most of the ''ulama'' saw this act as legal to the Mohammedan law. However, Sheil was still successful to obtain a fatwa in support of the shah's decision.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=141}} |
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In late 1847, Sheil was recalled to London and replaced with Colonel Francis Farrant, who also negotiated for abolition with Aqasi. Farrant was more successful, especially for the newly signed treaty of Erzurum that put him a good light for the grand vizier.{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=90}} Farrant argued if the Ottoman Empire could abolish slavery in their nation, Iranians could do the same. The argument appealed to Aqasi, who suggested it to Mohammad Shah.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=137}} Mohammad wrote this to Farrant regarding the abolition of [[slavery in the Ottoman Empire]]: |
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=== Death === |
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[[File:The grave stone of mohammad shah qajar- Sahand Ace.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Shah's grave stone in [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]]|alt=A grave stone of Mohammad Shah]]Throughout his life, Mohammad Shah would suffer [[gout]] and its recurrent attacks.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} However, he would also suffer pain from the medicines given to him by his [[Persian Jews|Jewish]] doctor, who was assigned to the shah when the British and French doctors were dismissed by Aqasi. His traditional remedies resulted to a severe [[Paroxysmal attack|paroxysm]] of Mohammad Shah's illness.{{Sfn|Ebrahimnejad|2013|p=25}} Upon his severe paroxysm, the shah became so weak that the reports of his death were prevalent throughout Tehran. He recovered, but lost the use of one leg. Aqasi, however, still refused to let any foreign trained physician, especially from the English doctors, to come close to Mohammad Shah. Only a French doctor, named Labat, was allowed to treat the shah. Under his care, Mohammad Shah recovered to a certain extent but was still so feeble that could only move with the help of two persons.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=495}} Becoming infirm and debilitated, the shah lost the will to rule and turned the government to Aqasi and carved the way for a political and social turmoil.{{Sfn|Navāʾī|1988}} |
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<blockquote>Between the religions of Europe and our religion there is great distinction and difference, and we cannot observe or join in matters which are in accordance with their religion and in opposition to ours, why we wrote that the exalted English government should make enquiries of the Turkish government on this subject, was because that government being a [[Mohammedan|Mahomedan]] state and in that country the traffic in slaves being much more extensive than any where else, we might observe what answer it will give, that then we may give a reply which should not be opposed to tenets of the Mahomedan faith.{{sfn|Mirzai|2017|page=137}}</blockquote> |
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Mohammad Shah's dire health prompted the foreign powers to reassert their pledge on the order of the succession in February 1842, and declare their support of Mohammad Shah's eldest son, [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]].{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=46}} However, [[Bahman Mirza Qajar|Bahman Mirza]], who served as regent for Naser al-Din Mirza, began mobilising at Tabriz for a scenario whereon he would pressure his nephew to become his regent in the event of the shah's death.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=497}} Bahman Mirza had the firm foreign support from the Count Medem and John McNiel, the Russian and British envoys respectively. However, the British withdraw their support when Shiel succeeded McNiel, and the Russian went as far as promoting Bahman Mirza as a successor to Mohammad Shah. To counteract the Russians, Aqasi arranged a marriage for Naser al-Din Mirza in 1845 with the daughter of Ahmad Ali Mirza, a son of Fath-Ali Shah. It was this wedding that brought the young prince into the political map. At the same time, the shah's health improved slightly and the realm and its succession seemed stable and secure.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=47–50}} However, rebellions soon broke out in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar|one]] led by [[Hasan Khan Salar]] in support of Bahman Mirza's claim, and one led by Allah-Qoli Khan Ilkhani, a grandson of Fath-Ali Shah through his mother and a protégé of Aqasi, to press his own claim.<ref>{{harvnb|Amanat|1985|page=}}; {{harvnb|Amanat|1997|page=114–115}}</ref> Both rebellions surpassed Mohammad Shah's reign onto the early years of Naser al-Din Shah.<ref>{{harvnb|Amanat|1985|page=}}; {{harvnb|Noelle-Karimi|2014|page=227–230}}</ref> |
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Mohammad Shah agreed to the abolition of the slave trade through the Persian Gulf but having slaves and trading them over land was still allowed. On Mohammad's behest, Aqasi sent three letters to the governors of [[Fars province|Fars]], [[Kerman]], and [[Isfahan]], ordering the governors not to partake in the slave trade in the Persian Gulf. (In the same letters, he expressed his concerns for the shah's health).{{Sfn|Ebrahimi|2008|p=92}} On the advice of both Sheil and Farrant, Aqasi also approached the major ''[[ulama]]'' of Tehran to ask their consent should the slave traders accuse them of blasphemy. The results were unfavorable; most of the ''ulama'' regarded slavers as legal according to Mohammedan law. Sheil, however, was successful in obtaining a ''fatwa'' in support of the shah's decision.{{Sfn|Mirzai|2017|p=141}} |
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With the shah ceasing his independent hand in the government from the years of pain, Aqasi held greater influence on him than before. Aqasi, now the most powerful figure of the realm, was also becoming avaricious of his position and less and less inclined to govern accordingly, for his mind was often confused and excited with [[opium]] and the shah, thinking highly of Aqasi, was happy to let him govern as he liked.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=498}} In the late summer 1848, he was overtaken with a combination of gout and [[erysipelas]] and it was clear that he would not recover from it.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Finally, Mohammad Shah Qajar, a cripple in his last days, died at nine in the evening of 4 September 1848.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=498}} |
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=== Last years and death === |
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[[File:The grave stone of mohammad shah qajar- Sahand Ace.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Shah's grave stone in [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]]|alt=A grave stone of Mohammad Shah]] |
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Throughout his life, Mohammad Shah suffered from [[gout]] and endured its recurrent attacks.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} He also suffered pain from the medicines given to him by his [[Persian Jews|Jewish]] doctor, who was assigned to Mohammad when Aqasi dismissed the British and French doctors. The Jewish doctor's traditional remedies resulted to a severe [[Paroxysmal attack|paroxysm]] of Mohammad Shah's illness,{{Sfn|Ebrahimnejad|2013|p=25}} upon which Mohammad became so weak that his death was rumoured throughout Tehran. He recovered but lost the use of one leg. Aqasi, however, refused to let any foreign-trained physician, especially English ones, approach Mohammad; only a French doctor named Labat was allowed to treat him. Under Labat's care, Mohammad recovered somewhat but was still so feeble he could only move with the help of two persons.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=495}} Becoming infirm and debilitated, Mohammad lost the will to rule; he turned the government to Aqasi, leading to political and social turmoil.{{Sfn|Navāʾī|1988}} |
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Mohammad's dire health prompted the foreign powers to declare their support for Mohammad's eldest son [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]] in February 1842.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=46}} [[Bahman Mirza]], who served as regent for Naser al-Din Mirza, however, began mobilizing forces at Tabriz, in hopes of becoming Naser al-Din's regent after Mohammad's death.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=497}} Bahman Mirza had support from the Count Medem and John McNiel, the Russian and British envoys respectively, but the British withdrew their support when Shiel succeeded McNiel; the Russians considered him Mohammad's successor. To counteract the Russians, in 1845, Aqasi arranged a marriage for Naser al-Din Mirza with the daughter of Ahmad Ali Mirza, a son of Fath-Ali Shah. This wedding brought the young prince into the political spectrum. Mohammad's health slightly improved, and the realm and its succession seemed stable and secure.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=47–50}} Rebellions, however, broke out in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Revolt of Hasan Khan Salar|one]] of which [[Hasan Khan Salar]] led in support of Bahman Mirza's claim; another was led by [[Allah-Qoli Khan Ilkhani]], a grandson of Fath-Ali Shah through his mother and a protégé of Aqasi to press his own claim.<ref>{{harvnb|Amanat|1985|page=}}; {{harvnb|Amanat|1997|page=114–115}}</ref> Both rebellions continued after Mohammad's death into the early years of Naser al-Din Shah.<ref>{{harvnb|Amanat|1985|page=}}; {{harvnb|Noelle-Karimi|2014|page=227–230}}</ref> |
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After Mohammad ceased his role in the government, Aqasi increased influence on him. Aqasi, now Iran's most powerful figure, was also becoming avaricious of his position and was less inclined to govern because his mind was affected by [[opium]]. Mohammad, thinking highly of Aqasi, was happy to let him govern as he liked.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=498}} In mid-to-late 1848, Mohammad suffered a combination of gout and [[erysipelas]], from which it was clear he would not recover.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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Mohammad Shah Qajar died at around 21:00 on 4 September 1848.{{Sfn|Elgood|2010|p=498}} He was buried in [[Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] located in [[Qom]] and his tomb was placed near the shrine's sanctuary.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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== Policies == |
== Policies == |
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=== Religion === |
=== Religion === |
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[[File:Portrait of Muhammad Shah Qajar and his Vizier Haj Mirza Aghasi MET DP345140.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Mohammad Shah and [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]], second quarter of the nineteenth century. In the eyes of the shah, he was a ''[[murid]]'' (novice) and Aqasi, his ''[[murshid]]'' (teacher).{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}}]] |
[[File:Portrait of Muhammad Shah Qajar and his Vizier Haj Mirza Aghasi MET DP345140.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Mohammad Shah and [[Haji Mirza Aqasi]], second quarter of the nineteenth century. In the eyes of the shah, he was a ''[[murid]]'' (novice) and Aqasi, his ''[[murshid]]'' (teacher).{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=13}}]] |
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In his patronage of [[Sufism]], Mohammad Shah was compared to [[Ismail I]].{{Sfn|van den Bos|2021|p=65}} He denoted the Sufi Islam as the rival for the [[Shia Islam|Shi'ia]] and the [[ulama]]. The Sufis, who not so long ago were persecuted in Fath-Ali Shah's reign, now could freely promote their beliefs.{{Sfn|Başkan|2014|p=88}} Mohammad Shah himself was very dependent on his Sufi teacher, Aqasi, and gave away court positions to Aqasi's Sufi friends such as Mirza Mahdi Khui who became the chief scribe of the court.{{Sfn|van den Bos|2021|p=62}} Concurrent with their new patronage, Sufis took the idea of the [[Mahdi|Hidden Imam]] from the Shi'ia and connected it to their Sufi saints. Figures such as [[Safi-ad-din Ardabili]] became a massanger of the Hidden Imam and the Sufi ''[[murshid]]s'' (spiritual guides) were the only knowledgeable people who could read these communications, often through dreaming.{{Sfn|Scharbrodt|2008|p=32}} The Sufis despised the acts of torture and violence, hence, when Aqasi became the grand vizier, he pleaded for their reduction. Mohammad Shah wouldn't accept it in his early years, arguing that a culprit does not deserve sympathy. However, as he became older and ergo weaker by his pain from gout, he ordered the complete abolition of torture.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=30}} |
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In his patronage of [[Sufism]], Mohammad Shah was compared to [[Ismail I]], the Safavid shah who made [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelverism Shia]] the official religion of Iran.{{Sfn|van den Bos|2021|p=65}} Mohammad denoted Sufi Islam as the rival of [[Shia Islam|Shi'ia]] and the ''[[ulama]]''. The Sufis, who were persecuted during Fath-Ali Shah's reign, could now freely promote their beliefs.{{Sfn|Başkan|2014|p=88}} Mohammad was very dependent on his Sufi teacher Aqasi and gave court positions to Aqasi's Sufi friends such as Mirza Mahdi Khui, who became chief scribe of the court.{{Sfn|van den Bos|2021|p=62}} Concurrent with their new patronage, Sufis took the idea of the [[Mahdi|Hidden Imam]] from the Shi'ia and connected it to their Sufi saints. Figures such as [[Safi-ad-din Ardabili]] became messengers of the Hidden Imam and the Sufi ''[[murshid]]s'' (spiritual guides) were the only knowledgeable people who could read these communications, often through dreaming.{{Sfn|Scharbrodt|2008|p=32}} The Sufis despised acts of torture and violence; when Aqasi became the grand vizier, he pleaded for their reduction. Mohammad would not accept it in his early years, arguing a culprit does not deserve sympathy, but as he aged and grew weaker from gout, he ordered the complete abolition of torture.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=30}} |
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Mohammad Shah's approach to the Shi'ia clergy was through hostility and conflict. He abandoned Fath-Ali Shah's attempts to reconcile the demands of piety and the tasks of the absolute ruler. He never asked for a theoretical acknowledgement for his coronation and was more inclined to search his spiritual guide in the [[dervish]]es and Sufis than in the ulama of the state.{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=103, 105}} On 24 November 1842, the shah issued a firman on abolishing the rights of [[sanctuary]].{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} He would constantly try to undermine the orthodox ulama position, first with the promotion of Sufism and then with the rise of [[Báb]] and [[Bábism]].{{Sfn|Bayat|2000|p=96}} When Sayyid Ali Muhammad Shirazi first claimed to be the Báb or the gateway to the Hidden Imam, the ulama had declared a [[fatwa]] saying he must be killed.{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=138}} Mohammad Shah, on the other hand, called Báb to Tehran and promised him a shelter. This alarmed Aqasi, who had the Báb sent to [[Maku, Iran|Maku]] in Azerbaijan, where he was kept under confinement. However, facing dissent with Mohammad Shah, he did not take any drastic measures against the Báb and his followers.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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Mohammad's approach to the Shi'ia clergy was one of hostility and conflict. He abandoned Fath-Ali Shah's attempts to meet the demands of clergy. He never asked for a theoretical acknowledgment of his coronation and was more inclined to search his spiritual guide with the [[dervish]]es and Sufis than with the ''ulama'' of the state.{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=103, 105}} On 24 November 1842, Mohammad issued a [[firman]] abolishing the rights of taking shelter in [[sanctuary|sanctuaries]].{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} He would constantly try to undermine the orthodox ''ulama'' position with the promotion of Sufism, and with the rise of [[Báb]] and [[Bábism]].{{Sfn|Bayat|2000|p=96}} When Sayyid Ali Muhammad Shirazi first claimed to be the Báb (gateway to the Hidden Imam), the ''ulama'' declared a [[fatwa]] saying he must be killed.{{Sfn|Algar|2020|p=138}} Mohammad, however, called Báb to Tehran and promised him shelter. This alarmed Aqasi, who had the Báb sent to [[Maku, Iran|Maku]] in Azerbaijan, where he was kept under confinement. Facing dissent from Mohammad, however, he took no drastic measures against the Báb and his followers.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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Although Mohammad |
Although Mohammad had no enmity towards any branches of [[Christianity]], he preferred to allow the French [[Congregation of the Mission|Lazarist]] missionaries into Iran rather than the English [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]].{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=186}} In hope of bringing modern education to the nation, he issued an edict that allowed missionaries to open schools.{{Sfn|Mirvahedi|2020|p=5}} The head of the Lazarists was [[Eugène Boré]], who in 1839 opened a school in Tabriz with both Christian and Muslim students. Boré's school provoked unrest among ''ulama'' of Tabriz but under the protection of Mohammad, they could not harm Boré.{{Sfn|Soltanian|2011|p=67}} |
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=== Education === |
=== Education === |
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During his tenure as the governor of Azerbaijan, [[Abbas Mirza]] |
During his tenure as the governor of Azerbaijan, [[Abbas Mirza]] sent several students to France, mainly with the goal of improving the military. Mohammad Shah took his father's path and sent seven students of noble birth to Europe, among whom were [[Mirza Hosein Khan Sepahsalar]], the future grand vizier of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]]; and [[Mirza Malkam Khan]], a prominent figure in the [[Iranian Enlightenment]].{{Sfn|Azizi|Azizi|2010|p=354}} These students were to master skills in military, painting, medicine, and geometry. Another 10 people were to be sent to France in 1847 but it is uncertain they were sent.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=245}} |
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In 1837, |
In 1837, on the orders of Mohammad, [[Mirza Saleh Shirazi]] published the first Iranian newspaper in Tehran. This newspaper was untitled and was referred to as ''[[Kaghaz-e Akhbar]]'' (literary news-paper).{{Sfn|Farzaneh|2015|p=32}} It lasted only for one issue but Mirza Saleh's determination led to him publishing another newspaper called ''Akhbar-i Vaqa-a'' which became Iran's first regular newspaper.{{Sfn|Green|2020|p=311}} Many lithographic printing presses were established in Tehran, [[Urmia]], Tabriz and [[Isfahan]] on the orders of Mohammad.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=239}} |
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=== Administration === |
=== Administration === |
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As a result of various wars and the continuity of unrest throughout the country, Mohammad Shah's treasury was virtually empty.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} In hope of improving financial conditions, he sought to revive the barren fields that got burned amidst the wars with Russia and the local insurgencies and never got revived. He asked the French Foreign Minister for a French irrigation expert, however, nothing came out of it.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=26}} Even then, with his efforts, 1438 villages were made habitable. All of these villages were part of the [[Crown land|royal domain]].{{Sfn|Shahedi|1997|p=53}} Mohammad Shah inherited many domain lands from Fath-Ali Shah and [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan]] before him and he increased the amount much more. He confiscated properties of Aqasi and through revoking the lands of [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], got ownership over [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Persian Iraq]].{{Sfn|Floor|2012}} He also confiscated the properties seized by the Lutis during the Isfahan rebellion, which was not to the liking of major landowners.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=31}} On his orders the total number of the royal domains were recorded in the ''Raqabat-e Mohammadshahi'', which included and superseded all previous inventories.{{Sfn|Floor|2012}} |
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As a result of various wars and the continual unrest throughout Iran, Mohammad Shah's treasury was virtually empty.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} In hope of improving financial conditions, he sought to revive barren fields that were burned in the wars with Russia and the local insurgencies. He asked the French foreign minister for a French irrigation expert but nothing came of it.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=26}} With Mohammad's efforts, however, 1,438 villages—who were part of the [[Crown land|royal domain]]—were made habitable.{{Sfn|Shahedi|1997|p=53}} Mohammad inherited many domain lands from Fath-Ali Shah and [[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar|Agha Mohammad Khan]], and he greatly increased the amount. He confiscated properties of Aqasi and through revoking the lands of [[Hossein Ali Mirza]], gained ownership over [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Persian Iraq]].{{Sfn|Floor|2012}} He also confiscated properties seized by the Lutis during the Isfahan rebellion, which was disliked by major landowners.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=31}} On his orders, the number of the royal domains were recorded in the ''Raqabat-e Mohammadshahi'', which also included all previous inventories.{{Sfn|Floor|2012}} |
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Most of these domains were given to the villagers and the tribes who wanted a settlement.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=26}} Furthermore, a part of [[Nader Shah]]'s personal domains were returned to the [[Afshar people|Afshar]] tribe, who inherited the lands once the [[Afsharid dynasty]] died out. Despite granting two crores of land per person, many of these lands remained belonging to the crown and under the contemporary [[Mostowfi ol-Mamalek (title)|Mostowfi ol-Mamalek]], Mohammad Shah wasn't able to return more of them and his successor, Naser al-Din Shah, completely ignored the Afshar's pleads and petitions.{{Sfn|Shahedi|1997|p=52}} The same Mostowfi ol-Mamalek would extort and force villagers to pay taxes behind the shah's back.{{Sfn|Amanat|1998|p=22}} |
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Most of these domains were given to the villagers and the nomads who wanted a settlement.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=26}} A part of [[Nader Shah]]'s personal domains were returned to the [[Afshar people|Afshar]] tribe, who had inherited the claim to these lands once the [[Afsharid dynasty]] died out. Despite granting two [[crore]]s of land per person, many of these lands still belonged to the crown and under the purposeful maladministration of the contemporary [[Mostowfi ol-Mamalek (title)|Mostowfi ol-Mamalek]] (royal treasurer), Mohammad was unable to return more of them and his successor, Naser al-Din Shah, completely ignored the Afshar people's pleads and petitions.{{Sfn|Shahedi|1997|p=52}} The same Mostowfi ol-Mamalek secretly extorted money and forced villagers to pay taxes.{{Sfn|Amanat|1998|p=22}} |
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Mohammad Shah brought back governmental positions that had once been part of the Safavid bureaucracy. However, they bore mixed result, for while they helped the state's efficiency, they also led to the birth of a corrupt administration that reached its peak in Naser al-Din Shah's reign. Positions such as Mostowfi ol-Mamalek became hereditary and many holders of these offices accepted bribery for the lack of an absent regular salary.{{Sfn|Farzaneh|2015|p=35}} Moreover, Aqasi enlarged governmental titles with promoting his kinsmen. To the point where the once rudimentary bureaucracy of Agha Mohammad Khan became filled with positions with the same duties but different names.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=156}} |
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Mohammad reinstated governmental positions that had once been part of the Safavid bureaucracy. They bore mixed results; they improved the state's efficiency but led to a corrupt administration that reached its peak in Naser al-Din Shah's reign. Positions such as Mostowfi ol-Mamalek became hereditary and many holders of these offices accepted bribery for the lack of a regular salary.{{Sfn|Farzaneh|2015|p=35}} Aqasi enlarged governmental titles and promoted his kinsmen so the once-rudimentary bureaucracy of Agha Mohammad Khan became filled with positions with the same duties but under different names.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=156}} |
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=== Military === |
=== Military === |
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[[File:Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg|alt=A drawing of a camel with a |
[[File:Canonnier Persan. Auguste Wahlen. Moeurs, usages et costumes de tous les peuples du monde. 1843.jpg|alt=A drawing of a camel with a cannon on top of him.|thumb|An Iranian gunner and a [[Zamburak]], 1843]] |
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Mohammad Shah was attentive to follow the military reforms his father had started.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=171}} Reform such as abolishing tribal cavalry and instead, growing to the example of [[Frederick the Great]]'s cavalry.{{Sfn|Ward|2014|p=65}} The result was using Western military technology on a very small scale of Abbas Mirza's personal army of one thousand regular infantry and five hundred regular cavalry.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=172}} |
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Mohammad Shah continued the military reforms his father had started;{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=171}} these included abolishing tribal cavalry and modeling it on [[Frederick the Great]]'s cavalry{{Sfn|Ward|2014|p=65}} using Western military technology on a very small scale with Abbas Mirza's personal army of 1,000 regular infantry and 500 regular cavalry.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=172}} |
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When Mohammad Shah ascended to the throne, the Iranian army was disorganised, undisciplined and rigidly hierarchical. Mohammad Shah could hardly muster more than twenty thousand men, and those were in poor shape. Instead of carts and wagons, transportations took place by mules, camels and horses, and other than Abbas Mirza's cavalry, the army was filled with tribal cavalry, who only recognised their tribal chief.{{Sfn|Ward|2014|p=71}} To counter these problems, Mohammad Shah put forth a three-staged plan, in which, he would centralise the command, create arsenals, and recover from the loses the wars with Russia brought. He consolidated the power upon himself and Aqasi in order to centrilise, and to create arsenals, he founded the Tehran foundry, which provided his army, six hundred bronze canons, two hundred mortars, rifles, muskets, and [[Zamburak]]s.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=62}} |
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When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, the Iranian army was disorganized, undisciplined and rigidly hierarchical. Mohammad could hardly muster more than 20,000 men, and those were in poor shape. Instead of carts and wagons, transportation took place by mules, camels and horses. Other than Abbas Mirza's cavalry, the army was filled with tribal cavalry who recognized only their tribal chief.{{Sfn|Ward|2014|p=71}} To counter these problems, Mohammad Shah put forth a three-staged plan in which he would centralize the command, create arsenals, and recover from the losses suffered in the wars with Russia. He consolidated power upon himself and Aqasi to centralize the military. To create arsenals, he founded the Tehran foundry, which provided his army with 600 bronze cannons, 200 mortars; and rifles, muskets and [[Zamburak]]s.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=62}} |
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Moreover, at the request of the shah, [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]] was sent to [[Kermanshah]] in April 1835, to train [[Bahram Mirza]]'s troops in the style of [[Nizam-I Cedid|Nizam-e Jadid]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=173}} Another European officer sent to Iran was the Italian [[F. Colombari]], who reformed the Zamburak units of the Iranian army with the new cannon saddles and new [[Falconet (cannon)|falconets]] he designed for them.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=64}} |
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At Mohammad's request, [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]] was sent to [[Kermanshah]] in April 1835 to train [[Bahram Mirza]]'s troops in the style of the ''[[Nezam-e Jadid]]''.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=173}} The Italian [[F. Colombari]] was also sent to Iran; he reformed the Zamburak units of the Iranian army with the new cannon saddles and new [[Falconet (cannon)|falconets]] he designed for them.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=64}} |
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=== Diplomacy === |
=== Diplomacy === |
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Despite his short reign, Mohammad Shah left a lasting mark on Iran's foreign policy.{{Sfn|Clawson|Rubin|2005|p=34}} He had resentment towards Russia and Britain, even though |
Despite his short reign, Mohammad Shah left a lasting mark on Iran's foreign policy.{{Sfn|Clawson|Rubin|2005|p=34}} He had resentment towards Russia and Britain, even though both nations supported him for the succession.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} The threat of Russian military bordering Azerbaijan and their navy anchoring in the port of [[Anzali Lagoon]] put Mohammad Shah in a state of [[paranoia]] at the thought of another war. The Russians argued that per the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] they were free to anchor their ships in the [[Caspian Sea]] but neither Mohammad nor Aqasi counted Anzali as part of the sea.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=99}} To keep the Russian navy away, Mohammad ordered the army of Anzali to shoot at the Russians if they approached. These events led to [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] exchanging letters with Mohammad. In a diplomatic sense, Mohammad allowed the Russian navy to anchor in Anzali.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=77, 74}} Another source of tension was Russian merchants in Tabriz and Tehran who owed money to Iranians but would not pay them in full. In 1843, Mohammad issued a ''firman'' ordering full payments of the debts to prevent fraudulent bankruptcies.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} |
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[[File:Portrait of Muhammad Shah Qadjar - MV 6700 - v1.JPG|thumb|Portrait of Mohammad Shah, offered to King [[Louis Philippe I|Louis Phillippe I]] in 1839 by [[Mirza Hossein Khan]].]] |
[[File:Portrait of Muhammad Shah Qadjar - MV 6700 - v1.JPG|thumb|Portrait of Mohammad Shah, offered to King [[Louis Philippe I|Louis Phillippe I]] in 1839 by [[Mirza Hossein Khan]].]] |
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Various matters during his reign would disturb the Anglo-Iranian relations, but the most troublesome of them was Mohammad Shah's campaign to Herat which led the British, for the first time in their relation with Iran, to invade its southern islands in the Persian Gulf.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} In 1841, Mohammad Shah signed a treaty with the British ambassador, in which Britain could reopen their consulates in Tehran, Tabriz and [[Bushehr]], but also, had to withdraw from [[Kharg Island]]. However, this treaty was not ideal for either side, as the British did not have the right to reside outside the three cities, and their goal was to establish a consulate in Gilan, near the Russian border, and for Mohammad Shah it was considered shameful and surrendering to his enemy's demand.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=98}} After the signing of this agreement, it did not take long for British goods, which also had low prices, to enter Iran through the Tabriz-[[Trabzon]] trade zone and fill the markets of the country. This caused the bankruptcy of a number of Iranian businessmen in Tabriz.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} In 1844, the Iranian merchants petitioned to Mohammad Shah that importation of European merchandise should be prohibited, in the following year, traders from Kashan implored the shah to defend their manufactures against European merchandise. Both cases were rejected.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} |
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During his reign, various matters disturbed Anglo-Iranian relations, the most troublesome of which was Mohammad's campaign to Herat which led the British, for the first time in their relation with Iran, to invade Iran's southern islands in the Persian Gulf.{{Sfn|Amanat|2003}} In 1841, Mohammad signed a treaty with the British ambassador under which Britain could reopen their consulates in Tehran, Tabriz and [[Bushehr]] but had to withdraw from [[Kharg Island]]. This treaty was not ideal for either side; the British did not have the right to reside outside the three cities and their goal was to establish a consulate in Gilan near the Russian border. For Mohammad, the treaty was considered shameful and a surrender to his enemy's demand.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=98}} After the signing of the agreement, inexpensive British goods entered Iran through the Tabriz-[[Trabzon]] trade zone and filled the country's markets, causing the bankruptcy of a number of Iranian businessmen in Tabriz.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} In 1844, Iranian merchants petitioned to Mohammad to prohibit the importing of European merchandise. In the following year, traders from Kashan implored Mohammad to defend their manufacturers against European merchandise. Both cases were rejected.{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} |
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Mohammad Shah was an avid [[Francophile]] and most excited to build diplomatic relations with that nation, in lieu of Britain and Russia.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=107}} The shah learned [[French language|French]] from young age from Madame de la Marininere, a tutor in the court of Abbas Mirza.{{Sfn|Beck|Nashat|2004|p=64}} He denoted French as the diplomatic language of Iran and even made sure that diplomats and ambassadors from other nations knew it and could speak it thoroughly.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} In 1839, in order to resume the political relations with France, Mohammad Shah sent [[Mirza Hossein Khan]] to [[Paris]]. There, Hossein Khan was brought before [[Louis Philippe I]], King of the French. The Iranian delegation brought with them numerous gifts, including a translation of [[Shahnameh]] and the portrait of Mohammad Shah, currently kept in [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]].{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=125}} With the shah's insistence, the France embassy in Iran was reopened and the [[France–Iran relations]] was resumed.{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=125}} The fruit of this resumption was Iran sending students to France, a tradition followed throughout the modern Iranian history.{{Sfn|Azizi|Azizi|2010|p=360}} |
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Mohammad Shah was an avid Francophile and most excited to build diplomatic relations with France in lieu of Britain and Russia.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=107}} As a child, Mohammad learned [[French language|French]] from Madame de la Marininere, a tutor in the court of Abbas Mirza.{{Sfn|Beck|Nashat|2004|p=64}} He denoted French as the diplomatic language of Iran and ensured diplomats and ambassadors from other nations were fluent in French.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} In 1839, to resume political relations with France, Mohammad sent [[Mirza Hossein Khan]] to Paris, where Hossein Khan was brought before King of France [[Louis Philippe I]]. The Iranian delegation took with them numerous gifts, including a translation of [[Shahnameh]] and the portrait of Mohammad, which is now kept in [[Louvre|Louvre Museum]].{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=125}} With Mohammad's insistence, the France embassy in Iran was reopened and [[France–Iran relations]] resumed,{{Sfn|Volodarsky|1985|p=125}} resulting in Iran sending students to France, a tradition that continued throughout modern Iranian history.{{Sfn|Azizi|Azizi|2010|p=360}} |
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== Family == |
== Family == |
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Line 192: | Line 205: | ||
|18= 12. Mohammad Aqa Ezzad al-Dinlu |
|18= 12. Mohammad Aqa Ezzad al-Dinlu |
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}} |
}} |
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[[File:Cover of a mirror case with Muhammad Shah, Prince Nasir al-Din, and Haji Mirza Aqasi, Iran, c. 1835-1840 AD, watercolor, gold-colored pigments, and lacquer on pasteboard- Arthur M. Sackler Gallery - DSC05302.jpg|alt=Cover of a mirror case, watercolor, gold-colored pigments, and lacquer on pasteboard.|thumb|Mohammad Shah |
[[File:Cover of a mirror case with Muhammad Shah, Prince Nasir al-Din, and Haji Mirza Aqasi, Iran, c. 1835-1840 AD, watercolor, gold-colored pigments, and lacquer on pasteboard- Arthur M. Sackler Gallery - DSC05302.jpg|alt=Cover of a mirror case, watercolor, gold-colored pigments, and lacquer on pasteboard.|thumb|Mohammad Shah and Haji Mirza Aqasi attended by a young [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Mirza]], c. 1835–1840.]] |
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Mohammad Shah, in comparison to other Qajar kings, had a significantly modest harem, either from disliking the pleasures of the flesh, or for sever illness.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} By the time he died, he had seven wives, and from them, he sired nine children: four sons and five daughters.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} From his consorts, a woman named Khadija was Mohammad Shah's [[favourite]]. She bore him his best-loved son, Abbas Mirza III, named after his father, Abbas Mirza, and a deceased son of the same name.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} |
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Mohammad Shah had a large harem, although his harem was smaller than that of other Qajar kings, either from disliking sex with women or because of his severe illness.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} By the time he died, he had seven wives, with whom he sired four sons and five daughters.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} Of his consorts, a woman named Khadija was Mohammad's favourite; they had his best-loved son Abbas Mirza III, who was named after Mohammad's father Abbas Mirza and a deceased son of the same name.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} Mohammad, however, never showed fatherly affection to his son with [[Malek Jahan Khanom]] or the future king Naser al-Din. In 1839, Mohammad summoned the Naser al-Din to Tehran and treated him coldly. For most of his early childhood, Naser al-Din was no more than a nuisance for Mohammad and his grand vizier.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=40}} |
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Mohammad Shah had seven consorts, which three of them are known: |
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Of Mohammad Shah's seven wives, three of them are known to history: |
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* [[Malek Jahan Khanom]] (26 February 1805 – 2 April 1873); mother of Naser al-Din Shah and [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh|Malek Zadeh Khanum]].{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} |
* [[Malek Jahan Khanom]] (26 February 1805 – 2 April 1873); mother of Naser al-Din Shah and [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh|Malek Zadeh Khanum]].{{Sfn|Lambton|2012}} |
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* Bolour Khanum Zandieh, the granddaughter of [[Karim Khan Zand]]. Mother of two daughters.{{Sfn|Usmani|Akhtar|Syed|2011|p=216}} |
* Bolour Khanum Zandieh, the granddaughter of [[Karim Khan Zand]]. Mother of two daughters.{{Sfn|Usmani|Akhtar|Syed|2011|p=216}} |
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* Khadija, daughter of a [[Naqshbandi]] chief. Mother of Abbas Mirza III.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} |
* Khadija, daughter of a [[Naqshbandi]] chief. Mother of Abbas Mirza III.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} |
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He had four sons: |
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He had four sons: |
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* [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]] (16 July 1831 – 1 May 1896); Shah of Iran (r. 1848 – 1896){{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} |
* [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]] (16 July 1831 – 1 May 1896); Shah of Iran (r. 1848 – 1896){{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} |
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* Abbas Mirza II, died in childhood.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=45}} |
* Abbas Mirza II, died in childhood.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=45}} |
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* Abbas Mirza III (November 27, 1839 – April 13, 1897); known as Mulk Ara.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} |
* Abbas Mirza III (November 27, 1839 – April 13, 1897); known as Mulk Ara.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=41}} |
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* [[Mohammad Taqi Mirza Rokn ed-Dowleh|Mohammad Taqi Mirza]] (d. 1901); known as Rokn ed-Dowleh, governor of several provinces.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=xxii}} |
* [[Mohammad Taqi Mirza Rokn ed-Dowleh|Mohammad Taqi Mirza]] (d. 1901); known as Rokn ed-Dowleh, governor of several provinces.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=xxii}} |
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* [[Abdol-samad Mirza Ezz ed-Dowleh Saloor|Abdol-samad Mirza]] (May 1843 |
* [[Abdol-samad Mirza Ezz ed-Dowleh Saloor|Abdol-samad Mirza]] (May 1843 – 21 October 1929); known as Ezz ed-Dowleh.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=xxii}} |
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He had five daughters, which four of them are known: |
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He had five daughters, four of whom are known: |
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* [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh|Malek Zadeh Khanum]], (1834-35 – 27 June 1905); known as Ezzat ed-Dowleh,{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} married four times, and was the grandmother of [[Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar|Mohammad Ali Shah]].{{Sfn|Eslami|1999}} |
* [[Ezzat ed-Dowleh|Malek Zadeh Khanum]], (1834-35 – 27 June 1905); known as Ezzat ed-Dowleh,{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=26}} married four times, and was the grandmother of [[Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar|Mohammad Ali Shah]].{{Sfn|Eslami|1999}} |
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* Ozra, daughter of Bolour Khanum Zandieh.{{Sfn|Usmani|Akhtar|Syed|2011|p=216}} |
* Ozra, daughter of Bolour Khanum Zandieh.{{Sfn|Usmani|Akhtar|Syed|2011|p=216}} |
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* Aziz ol-Dowleh, married [[Fath-Ali Khan Saheb Divan]].{{Sfn|Edrisi|2014}} |
* Aziz ol-Dowleh, married [[Fath-Ali Khan Saheb Divan]].{{Sfn|Edrisi|2014}} |
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== Historiography and |
== Historiography and personality == |
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Mohammad Shah's short reign resembles an [[interregnum]] between the reigns of Fath-Ali Shah and Naser al-Din Shah.{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} An interregnum in which, the ulama possessed little influence over the crown.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=37}} Indeed, the shah's reliance on the Sufi theology and him neglecting the traditional relations with the Shi'ia ulama was the most lasting aspect of his reign and a result of the intimate relations with Aqasi.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=170}} As he had a passive character, was withdrawn from everyday life, and most of the time, physically unwell,{{Sfn|Amanat|1998|p=21}} he would have relied on Aqasi to govern while he took a ceremonial rule.{{Sfn|Farzaneh|2015|p=35}} To what extent Aqasi had influence over the king would increase with every year close to Mohammad Shah's death when he became very dependant on his grand vizier.<ref>{{harvnb|Hambly|1991b|page=170}}; {{harvnb|Elgood|2010|page=498}}</ref> A grand vizier with little ability to rule, who mismanaged the economical and military aspects of the kingdom.{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} Along with costly wars and maladministration of the state, Iran at the end of Mohammad Shah's reign was ridden with instability, turmoil, and chaos.{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} |
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Mohammad Shah's short reign resembles an [[interregnum]] between the reigns of [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath-Ali Shah]] and [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Naser al-Din Shah]].{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} During his reign, the ''[[ulama]]'' possessed little influence over the crown.{{Sfn|Nategh|2014|p=37}} Mohammad was heavily influenced by Sufi theology as a result of his close friendship and reliance on [[Haji Mirza Aqasi|Aqasi]]. His corresponding negligence of relations with the Shi'ia ''ulama'' was the most lasting aspect of his reign.{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=170}} Mohammad had a passive character, was withdrawn from everyday life, and most of the time was physically unwell;{{Sfn|Amanat|1998|p=21}} he relied on Aqasi to govern while taking a ceremonial role himself.{{Sfn|Farzaneh|2015|p=35}} The extent of Aqasi's influence over Mohammad increased in Mohammad's last years, when he became very dependent on his grand vizier;<ref>{{harvnb|Hambly|1991b|page=170}}; {{harvnb|Elgood|2010|page=498}}</ref> Aqasi, however, proved a poor ruler, and mismanaged the economy and the military.{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} Mohammed's reign saw costly wars and maladministration, and by the end of it Iran suffered from instability, turmoil, and chaos.{{Sfn|Katouzian|2019}} |
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Notwithstanding that the image most historian present of him as sedentary and aloof from governmental matters is an image more appealing to his later years. For in his youth, Mohammad Shah was a soldier like his father and his grandfather before him, however, more [[Europeanisation|Europeanised]].{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} Mohammad Shah was astray to the traditional appearances of Fath-Ali Shah, which included Persian ornamented long robes, high heels and a long beard, and sparked a contrast in the Iranian countenance with semi-Europeanised dress and short beard.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=18}} [[James Baillie Fraser]], who met the shah in 1834, had described him as "the worthiest of all the numerous descendants of Fath-Ali Shah, particularly in the points of moral and private character". Furthermore, Mohammad Shah was praised for political capacities by the Comte de Sercey, who also mentions the inabilities of Aqasi.{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad Shah was the last Qajar shah to lead his army into war.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} He was praised for his bravery, in particular from the contemporary historian, Mohammad Taqi Sepehr, who wrote:“Until now, in Shiʿite realms, I never heard about a sovereign endowed with such a pure nature and so perfect manners and natural perfection. Bravery and firmness perfectly appeared in his demeanours.”{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} |
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Most historians present Mohammad as sedentary and aloof from governmental matters, an image that is accurate when applied to his later years. In his youth, though, Mohammad was an active soldier like his father and his grandfather.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} He was more [[Europeanisation|Europeanised]] than his ancestors; Mohammad's dress contrasted the more traditional appearance of Fath-Ali Shah, who wore Persian ornamented long robes, high heels and a long beard. Mohammed wore semi-Europeanised dress and maintained a short beard.{{Sfn|Amanat|1997|p=18}} Travel writer [[James Baillie Fraser]], who met Mohammad in 1834, described him as "the worthiest of all the numerous descendants of Fath-Ali Shah, particularly in the points of moral and private character".{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Mohammad was the last Qajar shah to lead his army into war.{{Sfn|Eskandari-Qajar|2005|p=58}} He was praised for his bravery; the contemporaneous historian [[Mohammad Taqi Sepehr]] wrote: "Until now, in Shiʿite realms, I never heard about a sovereign endowed with such a pure nature and so perfect manners and natural perfection. Bravery and firmness perfectly appeared in his demeanours."{{Sfn|Calmard|2004}} Still, most contemporary historians were unimpressed with his rulership and character. Some British writers accused him of being a Russian pawn for his instigation of the [[First Herat War]].{{Sfn|Hambly|1991b|p=169}} |
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== Coinage and titulage == |
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== Coinage and titles == |
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[[File:Gold coin of Mohammad Shah Qajar, struck at the Shiraz mint.jpg|alt=A set of gold coins with Persian text written on them|thumb|Gold coin of Mohammad Shah, struck at the Shiraz mint.]] |
[[File:Gold coin of Mohammad Shah Qajar, struck at the Shiraz mint.jpg|alt=A set of gold coins with Persian text written on them|thumb|Gold coin of Mohammad Shah, struck at the Shiraz mint.]] |
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On his seal the text "al-Sultan ibn al-Sultan Mohammad Shah Ghazi" is written and on a portrait from 1836 to 1837 he is identified as "al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan", an effort to legitimate his right of rule by remarking on his lineage.{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71}} Moreover, he used the title "[[Khagan|Khaqan]] son of Khaqan", a Turko-Mongol title and [[King of Kings|Shahanshah]], an ancient Iranian title, in order to follow Fath-Ali Shah's titulage, who used both Khaqan and Shahanshah.<ref>{{harvnb|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|page=171}}; {{harvnb|Amanat|1997|page=10}}</ref> |
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On his seal is the text "al-Sultan ibn al-Sultan Mohammad Shah Ghazi" and on a portrait that was painted between 1836 and 1837, he is identified as "al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan", an effort to legitimate his right of rule by remarking on his lineage.{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71}} Mohammad used the titles "[[Khagan|Khaqan]] son of Khaqan", a Turko-Mongol title; and [[King of Kings|Shahanshah]], an ancient Iranian title, to follow the [[Style (form of address)|styles]] of Fath-Ali Shah, who used both Khaqan and Shahanshah.<ref>{{harvnb|Mojtahed-Zadeh|2006|page=171}}; {{harvnb|Amanat|1997|page=10}}</ref> |
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His coins bear the inscription: "Mohammad, Shahanshah-i Anbiya" (Mohammad, King of the Prophets).{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71}} Mohammad Shah's coins display artistical aestheticism different to Fath-Ali Shah and Naser al-Din Shah's coins, who both developed a love for glitter.{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71, 74}} |
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His coins bear the inscription "Mohammad, Shahanshah-i Anbiya" (Mohammad, King of the Prophets).{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71}} Mohammad Shah's coins display artistic aestheticism that is different to the coins of Fath-Ali and Naser al-Din, both of whom developed a love for [[glitter]].{{Sfn|Soucek|2001|p=71, 74}} |
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== References == |
== References == |
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=== Citations === |
=== Citations === |
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{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFPerry1984|CITEREFAmanat1989|CITEREFKazemzadeh1985|CITEREFCalmard2004|CITEREFBournoutian2015 |CITEREFAmanat1993|CITEREFHambly1982|CITEREFLambton2012|CITEREFAmanat2003|CITEREFWalcher2006|CITEREFFloor2012|CITEREFEslami1999}} |
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{{reflist|3}} |
{{reflist|3}} |
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=== Bibliography === |
=== Bibliography === |
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{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Edrisi|first=Mehra|title=حاجی قوام الملک شیرازی|trans-title=Haji Ghavam Al-Molk Shirazi|url=https://rch.ac.ir/article/Details/9314|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islamic world|pages= |location=Tehran|year=2014}} |
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*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=9|fascicle=2|title= |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Eskandari-Qajar|first1=Manoutchehr|title=Mohammad Shah Qajar's Nezam-e Jadid and Colonel Colombari's Zambourakchis|journal=International Qajar Studies Association|date=2005|volume=5|pages=53–79|url=https://www.academia.edu/42758033 |
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*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=16|fascicle=1|title= |
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=16|fascicle=1|title=Ḵassa|first=Willem|last=Floor|pages=106-112|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/kassa}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Green|first=Nile|title=The Love of Strangers: What Six Muslim Students Learned in Jane Austen's London|publisher=Princeton University Press|publication-place=Princeton|year=2020|isbn=9780691210407}} |
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*{{cite journal|last1= Ghadimi Gheydari|first1=Abbas|title=بحران جانشینی در دولت قاجار (از تأسیس تا جلوس محمد شاه قاجار)|trans-title=Succession crisis in Qajar government from the establishment of the dynasty to the end of Mohammad Shah Qajar (1794-1847)|date=2010|pages=86–106|url=https:// |
*{{cite journal|last1= Ghadimi Gheydari|first1=Abbas|title=بحران جانشینی در دولت قاجار (از تأسیس تا جلوس محمد شاه قاجار)|trans-title=Succession crisis in Qajar government from the establishment of the dynasty to the end of Mohammad Shah Qajar (1794-1847)|date=2010|pages=86–106|url=https://www.sid.ir/paper/148712/fa|journal=Journal of Isfahan Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences|oclc=993472864}} |
||
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|title= |
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|title=Farmanfarma, Hosayn-Ali Mirza|first=Gavin R. G.|last=Hambly|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/farmanfarma-hosayn-ali-mirza-COM_9591?s.num=0&s.rows=20&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-iranica-online&s.q=FARM%C4%80NFARM%C4%80%2C+%E1%B8%A4OSAYN-%CA%BFAL%C4%AA+M%C4%AARZ%C4%80|year=1982|access-date=17 February 2022}} |
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*{{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic | year = 1991a | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | last = Hambly | first = Gavin R.G | chapter = Agha Muhammad Khan and the establishment of the Qajar dynasty | pages = 104–144 | isbn = 9780521200950}} |
*{{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic | year = 1991a | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | last = Hambly | first = Gavin R.G | chapter = Agha Muhammad Khan and the establishment of the Qajar dynasty | pages = 104–144 | isbn = 9780521200950}} |
||
*{{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic | year = 1991b | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | last = Hambly | first = Gavin R.G | chapter = |
*{{cite book | title = The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic | year = 1991b | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | last = Hambly | first = Gavin R.G | chapter = Iran During the Reigns of Fath'Alī Shāh and Muhammad Shāh | pages = 144–174| isbn = 9780521200950}} |
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* {{EI3|last1=Katouzian|first1=Homa|title=Muḥammad Shāh Qājār|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_36673|date=2019}} |
* {{EI3|last1=Katouzian|first1=Homa|title=Muḥammad Shāh Qājār|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_36673|date=2019}} |
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*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=2|fascicle=1|title= |
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=2|fascicle=1|title=Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907|first=F.|last=Kazemzadeh|pages=68-70|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-russian-convention-of-1907-an-agreement-relating-to-persia-afghanistan-and-tibet}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Jonathan|title=The "ancient Supremacy": Bukhara, Afghanistan, and the Battle for Balkh, 1731-1901|publisher=Brill Publishers|series=Islamic History and Civilization|year=1996|isbn=9789004103993|oclc=911650940}} |
*{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Jonathan|title=The "ancient Supremacy": Bukhara, Afghanistan, and the Battle for Balkh, 1731-1901|publisher=Brill Publishers|series=Islamic History and Civilization|year=1996|isbn=9789004103993|oclc=911650940}} |
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* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last=Lambton|first=A.K.S.|title=Muḥammad S̲h̲āh|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam- |
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last=Lambton|first=A.K.S.|title=Muḥammad S̲h̲āh|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/muhammad-shah-SIM_5413?lang=de|year=2012}} |
||
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=1|fascicle=6|title= |
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=1|fascicle=6|title=Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qajar|first=J.R.|last=Perry|pages=602-605|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aga-mohammad-khan}} |
||
*{{cite journal |last1=Piri|first1=Mohammad|title=نگاهی به سیاست داخلی و خارجی میرزا ابوالقاسم فراهانی|trans-title=A look at the domestic and foreign policy of Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam|journal=Journal of Humanities of Sistan and Baluchestan University|publisher= |
*{{cite journal |last1=Piri|first1=Mohammad|title=نگاهی به سیاست داخلی و خارجی میرزا ابوالقاسم فراهانی|trans-title=A look at the domestic and foreign policy of Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam|journal=Journal of Humanities of Sistan and Baluchestan University|publisher=Dānishgāh-i Sīstān va Balūchistūn|date=2001|issue=1 |pages=87–100 |url=http://ensani.ir/fa/article/289343/%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%DB%8C-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8CC|language=fa |isbn=978-600-8137-31-3}} |
||
* {{cite book|last=Martin|first=Vanesa|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203938300/war-peace-qajar-persia-roxane-farmanfarmaian|title=War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203938300|editor-last=Farmanfarmaian|editor-first=Roxane|location=London|pages=110–122|chapter=Social networks and border conflicts: the First Herat War 1838–1841|doi=10.4324/9780203938300}} |
|||
Dānishgāh-i Sīstān va Balūchistūn|date=2001|issue=1 |pages=87–100 |url=http://ensani.ir/fa/article/289343/%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC%DB%8C-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8CC|language=fa |isbn=978-600-8137-31-3}} |
|||
*{{cite book|last1=Mirvahedi|first1=Seyed Hadi|title=The Sociolinguistics of Iran's Languages at Home and Abroad: The Case of Persian, Azerbaijani, and Kurdish|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|publication-place=London|chapter=Nationalism, Modernity, and the Issue of Linguistic Diversity in Iran|year=2020|isbn=9783030196073|oclc=1164826045}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last=Martin|first=Vanesa|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203938300/war-peace-qajar-persia-roxane-farmanfarmaian|title=War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present|date=2008|work=|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203938300|editor-last=Farmanfarmaian|editor-first=Roxane|location=London|pages=110–122|chapter=Social networks and border conflicts: the First Herat War 1838–1841|doi=10.4324/9780203938300}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Mirzai|first=Behnaz A.|title=A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1929|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2017|oclc=1269268297|isbn=9781477311875}} |
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*{{cite book|last1=Mirvahedi|first1=Seyed Hadi|title=The Sociolinguistics of Iran’s Languages at Home and Abroad: The Case of Persian, Azerbaijani, and Kurdish|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|publication-place=London|chapter=Nationalism, Modernity, and the Issue of Linguistic Diversity in Iran|year=2020|isbn=9783030196073|oclc=1164826045}} |
|||
*{{cite book|last=Mirzai|first=Behnaz A.|title=A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800-1929|publisher= |
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University of Texas Press|year=2017|oclc=1269268297|isbn=9781477311875}} |
|||
*{{cite book|last=Mojtahed-Zadeh|first=Pirouz|title=Boundary politics and international boundaries of Iran : with Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan Republic, Bahrain, (the autonomous republic of Ganjah) Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and the United Arab Emirates|publisher=Boca Raton|publication-place=Florida|year=2006|oclc=182432238|isbn=1581129335}} |
*{{cite book|last=Mojtahed-Zadeh|first=Pirouz|title=Boundary politics and international boundaries of Iran : with Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan Republic, Bahrain, (the autonomous republic of Ganjah) Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and the United Arab Emirates|publisher=Boca Raton|publication-place=Florida|year=2006|oclc=182432238|isbn=1581129335}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Nategh|first=Homa|title=Les Français en Perse : les écoles religieuses et séculières : 1837-1921|publisher=Harmattan|publication-place=[[Paris]]|year=2014|isbn=9782343039688|oclc=945483452}} |
*{{cite book|last=Nategh|first=Homa|title=Les Français en Perse : les écoles religieuses et séculières : 1837-1921|publisher=Harmattan|publication-place=[[Paris]]|year=2014|isbn=9782343039688|oclc=945483452}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|publisher=Taylor & Francis|publication-place=London|year=2016|isbn= |
*{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826-1863)|publisher=Taylor & Francis|publication-place=London|year=2016|isbn=978-1138982871|oclc=962114301}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=The Pearl in its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th-19th Centuries)|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences|publication-place=Wien|year=2014|isbn=9783700172024|oclc=879441128}} |
*{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=The Pearl in its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th-19th Centuries)|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences|publication-place=Wien|year=2014|isbn=9783700172024|oclc=879441128}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=John Carl|title=The Siege of Herat: 1837-1838|publisher=St. Cloud State University|publication-place=St. Cloud|year=1976|oclc=7827142}} |
*{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=John Carl|title=The Siege of Herat: 1837-1838|publisher=St. Cloud State University|publication-place=St. Cloud|year=1976|oclc=7827142}} |
||
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=3|fascicle=5|title=BAHMAN MĪRZĀ|first=A.|last=Navāʾī|pages=490-491|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahman-mirza}} |
*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=3|fascicle=5|title=BAHMAN MĪRZĀ|first=A.|last=Navāʾī|pages=490-491|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahman-mirza}} |
||
*{{cite journal |last1=Nasiri|first1=Mohammad Reza|last2=Rahmanian|first2=Dariush|last3=Razavi|first3=Seid Hossein|title=لوطیان و نقش آنان در آشوبهای اصفهان بین سالهای 1240 تا 1265 هجری قمری برابر با 1824 تا 1849 میلادی|trans-title=Lutis and the unrest in Isfahan, 1824-1849|journal=Journal of Local Histories of Iran|date=Spring 2015|issue=6 |pages=104–127|url=http://noo.rs/uDuZ7|language=fa}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Nasiri|first1=Mohammad Reza|last2=Rahmanian|first2=Dariush|last3=Razavi|first3=Seid Hossein|title=لوطیان و نقش آنان در آشوبهای اصفهان بین سالهای 1240 تا 1265 هجری قمری برابر با 1824 تا 1849 میلادی|trans-title=Lutis and the unrest in Isfahan, 1824-1849|journal=Journal of Local Histories of Iran|date=Spring 2015|volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=104–127|url=http://noo.rs/uDuZ7|language=fa}} |
||
* {{cite book | title = History of Iranian Literature | year = 1968 | publisher = Springer Netherlands | last = Rypka | first = Jan | author-link = Jan Rypka | isbn = 978-9401034814 }} |
* {{cite book | title = History of Iranian Literature | year = 1968 | publisher = Springer Netherlands | last = Rypka | first = Jan | author-link = Jan Rypka | isbn = 978-9401034814 }} |
||
*{{cite journal |last1=Sarmadi|first1=Fatemeh|title=ماجرای نقرس محمد شاه قاجار و چهار چشم دو شاهزاده در یک دستمال|trans-title=Mohammad Shah's gout and a pair of eyes from his brothers|journal=Sarmadi |
*{{cite journal |last1=Sarmadi|first1=Fatemeh|title=ماجرای نقرس محمد شاه قاجار و چهار چشم دو شاهزاده در یک دستمال|trans-title=Mohammad Shah's gout and a pair of eyes from his brothers|journal=Sarmadi Quarterly|date=2012|issue=17|pages=16–18|url=http://sarmadipress.com/Uploads/Public/Nashriye/nash17/negres.pdf|language=fa}} |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Soucek|first1=Priscilla|title=Coinage of the Qajars: A System in Continual Transition|journal=Iranian Studies|date=2001|volume=34|pages=51–87|issue=1/4|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4311422|doi=10.1080/00210860108701997|oclc=493580413}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Soucek|first1=Priscilla|title=Coinage of the Qajars: A System in Continual Transition|journal=Iranian Studies|date=2001|volume=34|pages=51–87|issue=1/4|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4311422|doi=10.1080/00210860108701997|jstor=4311422 |s2cid=163152486 |oclc=493580413}} |
||
*{{cite book|last=Shamim|first=Ali Asghar|title=ایران در دوره سلطنت قاجار|trans-title=Iran during the Qajar dynasty|publisher=Behzad|publication-place=Tehran|year=1964|isbn=9789649049229|language=fa}} |
*{{cite book|last=Shamim|first=Ali Asghar|title=ایران در دوره سلطنت قاجار|trans-title=Iran during the Qajar dynasty|publisher=Behzad|publication-place=Tehran|year=1964|isbn=9789649049229|language=fa}} |
||
*{{cite journal |last1=Shahedi|first1=Mozafar|title=املاک خالصه و سیاست فروش آن در دوره ناصری|trans-title=Selling of the royal domains during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah|journal=Journal of Contemporary Iranian History|date=1997|issue=3|pages=49–70|url=http://noo.rs/mAmni|language=fa}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Shahedi|first1=Mozafar|title=املاک خالصه و سیاست فروش آن در دوره ناصری|trans-title=Selling of the royal domains during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah|journal=Journal of Contemporary Iranian History|date=1997|volume=3 |issue=3|pages=49–70|url=http://noo.rs/mAmni|language=fa}} |
||
* {{cite book|last=Schofield|first=Richard|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203938300/war-peace-qajar-persia-roxane-farmanfarmaian|title=War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present|date=2008 |
* {{cite book|last=Schofield|first=Richard|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9780203938300/war-peace-qajar-persia-roxane-farmanfarmaian|title=War and Peace in Qajar Persia: Implications Past and Present|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203938300|editor-last=Farmanfarmaian|editor-first=Roxane|location=London|pages=149–173|chapter=Narrowing the frontier: mid-nineteenth century efforts to delimit and map the Perso-Ottoman border|doi=10.4324/9780203938300}} |
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*{{cite book|last=Scharbrodt|first=Oliver|title=Islam and the Baha'i Faith: A Comparative Study of Muhammad |
*{{cite book|last=Scharbrodt|first=Oliver|title=Islam and the Baha'i Faith: A Comparative Study of Muhammad 'Abduh and 'Abdul-Baha 'Abbas|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2008|isbn=9781135975685|oclc=775715632}} |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Soltanian|first1=Abo-Taleb|title=بررسي کارنامه فرهنگي ميسيونرهاي لازاريست فرانسه در ايران (از اوايل دوره قاجار تا جنگ جهاني اول)|trans-title=A Study of the Cultural Records of French Lazarist Missionaries in Iran (From the Early Qajar Period to the First World War)|journal=Historical Sciences Research (Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tehran)|date=Winter 2011|issue=2|volume=3|pages=63–84 |url=https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=192588|language=fa |issn= |
*{{cite journal |last1=Soltanian|first1=Abo-Taleb|title=بررسي کارنامه فرهنگي ميسيونرهاي لازاريست فرانسه در ايران (از اوايل دوره قاجار تا جنگ جهاني اول)|trans-title=A Study of the Cultural Records of French Lazarist Missionaries in Iran (From the Early Qajar Period to the First World War)|journal=Historical Sciences Research (Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tehran)|date=Winter 2011|issue=2|volume=3|pages=63–84 |url=https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=192588|language=fa |issn=1026-2288|oclc=706960369}} |
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*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=13|fascicle=6|title=Isfahan viii. Qajar Period|first=Heidi|last=Walcher|pages=657-675|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-viii-qajar-period#:~:text=QAJAR%20PERIOD,-ISFAHAN&text=The%20Qajar%20period%20(1794%2D1925,in%20the%20major%20urban%20centers.}} |
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1026-2288|oclc=706960369}} |
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*{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=13|fascicle=6|title=ISFAHAN viii. QAJAR PERIOD|first=Heidi|last=Walcher|pages=657-675|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-viii-qajar-period#:~:text=QAJAR%20PERIOD,-ISFAHAN&text=The%20Qajar%20period%20(1794%2D1925,in%20the%20major%20urban%20centers.}} |
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*{{cite book|last=van den Bos|first=Matthijs|title=Mystic regimes : Sufism and the state in Iran, from the late Qajar era to the Islamic Republic|publisher=Brill Publishers|series=Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia|year=2021|isbn=9789047401759}} |
*{{cite book|last=van den Bos|first=Matthijs|title=Mystic regimes : Sufism and the state in Iran, from the late Qajar era to the Islamic Republic|publisher=Brill Publishers|series=Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia|year=2021|isbn=9789047401759}} |
||
*{{cite journal |last1=Volodarsky|first1=Mikhail|title=Persia's Foreign Policy between the Two Herat Crises, 1831-56|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=1985|volume=53|pages=111–151|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283057|issn=0026-3206}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Volodarsky|first1=Mikhail|title=Persia's Foreign Policy between the Two Herat Crises, 1831-56|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=1985|volume=53|issue=2 |pages=111–151|doi=10.1080/00263208508700620 |jstor=4283057 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283057|issn=0026-3206}} |
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*{{cite book|last1=Usmani|first1=B. D.|last2=Akhtar|first2=Syed Saud|last3=Syed|first3=Muzaffar Husain|title=Concise History of Islam|publisher=Vij Books India|publication-place=New Delhi|year=2011|isbn=9789382573470|oclc=868069299}} |
*{{cite book|last1=Usmani|first1=B. D.|last2=Akhtar|first2=Syed Saud|last3=Syed|first3=Muzaffar Husain|title=Concise History of Islam|publisher=Vij Books India|publication-place=New Delhi|year=2011|isbn=9789382573470|oclc=868069299}} |
||
*{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Steven R.|title=Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces|publisher=Georgetown University Press|publication-place=Washington, D.C.|year=2014|isbn=9781626160323}} |
*{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Steven R.|title=Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces|publisher=Georgetown University Press|publication-place=Washington, D.C.|year=2014|isbn=9781626160323}} |
||
* {{EI2|last1=Zarrinkoob|first1=A.H.|volume=4|title=Ḳāʾim-Maḳām-i Farāhānī|pages=462|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/kaim-makam-i-farahani-SIM_3797}} |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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{{s-start}} |
{{s-start}} |
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{{s-hou|[[Qajar |
{{s-hou|[[Qajar dynasty]]||5 January 1808||5 September 1848}} |
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{{s-roy|ir|}} |
{{s-roy|ir|}} |
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{{s-bef|before=[[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]]}} |
{{s-bef|before=[[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar]]}} |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{ |
{{Qajar Dynasty}}{{Qajar princes}}{{Authority control}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Qajar, Mohammad Shah}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Qajar, Mohammad Shah}} |
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[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class]] |
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class]] |
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[[Category:Burials at Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] |
[[Category:Burials at Fatima Masumeh Shrine]] |
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[[Category:Children of Abbas Mirza]] |
Revision as of 04:01, 15 May 2024
Mohammad Shah Qajar | |
---|---|
Shahanshah[1] Khaqan son of Khaqan[2] Ghazi[3] | |
Shah of Iran | |
Reign | 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 |
Coronation | 14 January 1835 |
Predecessor | Fath-Ali Shah Qajar |
Successor | Naser al-Din Shah |
Born | Mohammad Mirza محمد میرزا 5 January 1808 Tabriz, Qajar Iran |
Died | 5 September 1848 Tehran, Qajar Iran | (aged 40)
Burial | |
Wives | Seven, among them, Malek Jahan Khanom |
Issue Detail | See Below |
Dynasty | Qajar |
Father | Abbas Mirza |
Mother | Glin Khanum |
Religion | Shia Islam |
Tughra |
Mohammad Shah (Persian: محمدشاه قاجار; born Mohammad Mirza; 5 January 1808 – 5 September 1848) was the third Qajar shah of Iran from 1834 to 1848, inheriting the throne from his grandfather, Fath-Ali Shah. From a young age, Mohammad Mirza was under the tutelage of Haji Mirza Aqasi, a local dervish from Tabriz whose teachings influenced the young prince to become a Sufi-king later in his life. After his father Abbas Mirza died in 1833, Mohammad Mirza became the crown prince of Iran and was assigned with the governorship of Azarbaijan. After the death of Fath-Ali Shah in 1834, some of his sons including Hossein Ali Mirza and Ali Mirza Zel as-Soltan rose up as claimants to the throne. With the support of English and Russian forces, Mohammad Shah suppressed the rebellious princes and asserted his authority.
Mohammad Shah dismissed and executed his tactful premier, Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, and appointed his favourite, Haji Mirza Aqasi, as the grand vizier. The new shah's main goal was to bring back the rebellious city of Herat into Iranian sovereignty. In 1837 he marched to Herat and laid a futile siege on the city which was eventually withdrawn when the British government threatened to invade Iran. On his return, Mohammad suppressed a revolt in Isfahan led by the major clergy figure Mohammad Bagher Shafti. Through British-Russian mediation, he concluded the Second Treaty of Erzurum with the Ottoman Empire, after initially wanting retaliation for the sack of Khorramshahr by the Ottoman governor of Baghdad.
Due to British pressure, Mohammad Shah reluctantly abolished the slave trade through the Persian Gulf, but still allowed the possession and trade of slaves in the country. During the rise of the Bábism faith and its prophet Báb, Mohammad refused to persecute them despite the fatwa (decree) imposed by Shiite clerics. Diplomatic relations between France and Iran recommenced during his reign. Mohammad suffered from gout, which overshadowed his reign. In the final years of his life, his physical health deteriorated, leading to his death from a combination of gout and erysipelas on 4 September 1848 at the age of 40 after fourteen years of reign. He was buried in Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom and was succeeded by his son, Naser al-Din Shah.
As a ruler, Mohammad Shah did not receive praise. He was labeled as a figurehead king for Aqasi, whom he was highly dependent on. Mohammad was devoted to both Aqasi and his teachings on Sufism; he became a willing sustainer of Sufis, and sought spiritual guidance in mystical rituals instead of the marji'i taqlīd (Shiite clerics). The ulama grew as his firmest rivals, who challenged his legitimacy and authority throughout his short reign. Mohammad enlarged the Qajar bureaucracy, and filled governmental positions with Aqasi's Sufi friends and companions, thus establishing a corrupt administration that saw its peak during his son's reign. Mohammad Shah was the last Qajar king who attended the battlefield in a foreign war, and was also the last to use the title Ghazi (warrior of Islam) for his presence in the Iran-Russia war and for suppressing the rebellion in Isfahan.
Background
The Russian Empire invaded the Caucasus in 1795, while Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, was reconquering the eastern provinces of Iran. Thus, Agha Mohammad was forced to withdraw his army and march towards Caucasus without consolidating his rule in the east, including in Herat.[4] The Russian army retreated before he could reach the Caucasus,[5] and, Agha Mohammad was assassinated in 1797 in Shusha.[6] Though his realm never reached the far east of Greater Khorasan, he was recognised as the Shahanshah by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who proclaimed his allegiance in a public khutba.[7] Agha Mohammad Khan was succeeded by his nephew, Fath-Ali Shah (Then called Baba Khan). During the reign of Fath-Ali Shah the tension in the Iranian-Russian relation escalated and turned into two full scale wars which saw the defeat of Iran in several stages; According to the Gulistan and Turkmenchay treaties, large parts of the realm were separated and Iran was forced to make many concessions to Russia. The war also tarnished Iran's global image to a weak state with unstable borders,[8] and overshadowed Iranian pride.[9]
In Europe, British Empire, gained sovereignty over India and viewed Iran as a strong barrier to prevent Russia from gaining access to the region.[10] On the other hand, it was well known that the Russian Empire, in its quest to reach the open waters in southern Iran, intended to expand its sovereignty over Iranian territory.[11] Thus, during the reign of Fath-Ali Shah, the Iranian political stage was a competition between the Russian and British governments to receive numerous concessions and expand political influence.[12]
In the years between the two wars with Russia, a conflict broke out between Iran and the Ottoman Empire in 1821, which ended with the military victory of Iran and the conclusion of the First Treaty of Erzurum in 1823. The treaty did not resolve fundamental differences, the most important of which was the unclear borders of the two nations. There were also disputes such as the persecution of Iranian pilgrims to Shiite holy sites by the Ottomans[13] and the citizenship of border tribes. Another contentious issue was the trade rivalry between Khorramshahr and Basra.[14]
From the beginning of his reign, Fath-Ali Shah tried to present himself as a pious king in the eyes of Shiite clerics[15] and went so far as to declare his monarchy a subrogation for the ulama.[16][17] During his reign, Isfahan once again took on the image of the religious capital of Iran, and the government left the hands of Shiite clerics free to persecute religious minorities. Sufis suffered the most. Fath-Ali Shah took upon himself to lead their persecution; In such ways like ordering to "suffocate" the Sufi leaders of Tabriz.[18]
Early life
Childhood
Mohammad Mirza was born on 5 January 1808 in Tabriz. He was the eldest son of crown prince Abbas Mirza and Glin Khanum, daughter of Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Davallu.[19] During his childhood and youth, Mohammad Mirza was a "quiet" and "shy" boy with no apparent political ambitions. He completed his traditional princely education in Tabriz and became a skilled calligrapher[20] and painter, the latter which he learned from the Scottish artist Robert Ker Porter.[3] His level of knowledge, however, was limited compared to that of his brothers, especially Djahangir Mirza and Farhad Mirza, who excelled in writing and other "branches of science". A turning point in his life was the arrival of the local dervish, Haji Mirza Aqasi to his father's household.[20] By the orders of Abbas Mirza's majordomo, Mirza Bozorg Qa'em-Maqam, Aqasi was appointed the chief tutor to Mohammad, who quickly became a devotee to his Sufi teachings. Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, another of Mohammad's tutors, tried to dissuade Mohammad from studying under Aqasi but Aqasi's influence on Mohammad increased.[21]
When Mohammad Mirza was 12 years old, Fath-Ali Shah summoned him from Tabriz to Tehran to marry Malek Jahan Khanom, the daughter of Mohammad Qasim Khan Zahir al-Dawla, to establish solidarity between the royal family and the Davallu cadet branch of the Qajar dynasty. The marriage, which took place in September 1819, was loveless.[19] As a result of recurring deaths of their infants, Mohammad Mirza developed resentment towards Malek Jahan.[22] Of their children, only Naser al-Din Mirza, who later became the crown prince and then king of Iran; and Ezzat ed-Dowleh, who married Amir Kabir, later the chief minister of Naser al-Din Shah; survived into adulthood.[19]
Early military career
The Second Russo-Iranian War began with the declaration of jihad by Shiite clerics. During the war, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army consisting of the tribes of Khajevandi and Abdul Maliki to protect the fortress of Ganja. There, with the command of Amir Khan Sardar—Abbas Mirza's maternal uncle—Mohammad launched an attack on the Russian army. In the resulting battle, Amir Khan was killed and Mohammad was severely defeated and forced to retreat;[19] he, however, was praised for his efforts during the war and was nicknamed as Gazi (warrior of Islam).[19] After the war, Fath Ali Shah appointed Abbas Mirza to rule Khorasan and regulate the security of that area,[22] which underwent constant raids by Prince Kamran, whom the Iranian government had previously appointed as the governor of Herat and now styled himself "Shah".[23] Mohammad Mirza also accompanied his father on this trip. In one of his missions, Mohammad released nearly 20,000 Iranians held captive by Central Asian Sunni tribes; in honor of this victory, he named his newborn child "Naser al-Din" (defender of the faith).[22]
Abbas Mirza spent two years in Khorasan suppressing rebel khans; Khiva and Herat supported these revolts, and promised aid but Mohammad's victories discouraged them.[24] In 1832, Abbas Mirza summoned Kamran Shah, the ruler of Herat, to pay tribute but Kamran instead sent his vizier Yar Mohammad Khan.[25] Feeling insulted, Abbas Mirza sent Mohammad Mirza with an army to Herat.[19] Mohammad Mirza advanced directly to Herat and prepared for a siege. Meanwhile, Abbas Mirza was on his way with reinforcement when he suddenly died in Mashhad.[26][a] Upon hearing the news, Mohammad Mirza and Abol-Qasem Qa'em-Maqam, who was also a leading figure in the siege,[28] were forced to negotiate with Kamran. It was agreed Kamran would accept the sovereignty of Iran, pay 15,000 tomans in gold and fifty Kashmir shawls, and release the Iranian prisoners who had been captured during the war. Mohammad appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza the governor of Khorasan and, with Qa'em-Maqam, went to Tehran to claim the title of crown prince.[29]
Accession
At Nowruz (Iranian New Year, which was held at the March equinox) of 1834, Mohammad Mirza was appointed as crown prince and took the governorship of Azarbaijan—the office of his father—and left Tehran for Tabriz.[30] As crown prince, Mohammad Mirza was under the complete influence of Qa'em-Maqam, on whose orders, he imprisoned four of his brothers, including Djahangir Mirza and Khosrow Mirza, in Ardabil and later blinded them to invalidate their claims to the throne.[31][b] The appointment of Mohammad as the crown prince angered Fath-ali Shah's fifth son Hossein Ali Mirza, the Prince-Governor of Fars, who thought the appointment would deprive him of his rights and was a sign of submission to Russian demands.[33]
In October 1834, Fath-Ali Shah, with the intention of collecting 200,000 tomans tax arrears from Hossein Ali Mirza and a hidden motive to revoke him of his lands, went to Fars but died en route at Isfahan.[33][34] Couriers were quickly sent to Tabriz but otherwise, the shah's death remained secret. His body was then taken to Fatima Masumeh Shrine for burial; only then the death it was publicly announced.[30] As expected, his death sparked revolts across the country, and a number of princes, including Hossein Ali Mirza in Shiraz and Ali Mirza Zel as-Soltan in Tehran, proclaimed themselves kings.[35]
In early November, John Campbell and Comte Ivan Simonich, British and Russian envoys respectively, arrived in Tabriz to proclaim their support for Mohammad Mirza. They provided him an army led by Col. Henry Lindsay Bethune that set off for Tehran, where Ali Mirza had proclaimed himself king.[19] Mohammad's army met the 15,000 Ali Mirza's men, who were led by Ali's brother Emamverdi Mirza, in Takestan, west of Qazvin.[36] After a brief confrontation, Emamverdi Mirza sought to surrender and pledge fealty to Mohammad. The new king agreed to waive his uncles' punishment.[36] In early 1835, Mohammad entered the capital with Qa'em-Maqam, his courtiers and Russian and British ambassadors, and was crowned king on 14 January.[37]
In February 1835, Mohammad sent an army under command of Manuchehr Khan Gorji to liberate Isfahan from Hossein Ali Mirza's forces, who were under the command of his brother Shoja al-Saltanah.[36] After reconquering Isfahan, Manuchehr Khan Gorji marched to Shiraz, where he captured Hossein Ali Mirza and ended his rebellion.[34] Hossein Ali was imprisoned in Ardabil and soon died of cholera; with his defeat, the other rebel princes surrendered their claims and recognized Mohammad as the king of Iran.[38]
Reign
Early years
Mohammad Shah appointed Qa'em-Maqam as his grand vizier.[39] Qa'em-Maqam's efforts in budgeting and his disdain for the courtiers made him an unpopular figure in the court.[40] As soon as he became the grand vizier, Qa'em-Maqam had the royal princes swear an oath of fealty to Mohammad, otherwise he had them imprisoned, a fate that befell many Qajar princes such as Mahmud Mirza, the governor of Kashan, who refused to relinquish his claim and thus lost his title and wealth.[41] Soon, Qa'em-Maqam was attacked by rivals, the most prominent being Allahyar Khan Asef ol-Dowleh—Mohammad Shah's uncle from the Davallu tribe—and a coalition led by Aqasi.[19] Qa'em-Maqam's adversaries soon extended to British envoy John Campbell, who expected grand privileges for his contribution to Mohammad's enthronement but was refused by Qa'em-Maqam.[42] To lessen British influence over the court, Qa'em-Maqam tried to improve Iran's relations with the Ottoman Empire.[43] His rivals, with slanderous accusations, urged Mohammad to have Qa'em-Maqam ousted from his position[19] and Mohammad eventually agreed to do so. On 22 June 1835, he arrested and imprisoned Qa'em-Maqam in Negarestan Palace and four days later, he ordered Qa'em-Maqam's execution.[44]
Mohammad Shah then spent a few month without a grand vizier. Campbell expressed his support for Mirza Abolhassan Khan Ilchi while his courtiers supported Abdollah Amin al-Dowleh, an erstwhile grand vizier of Fath-Ali Shah, but Mohammad chose Aqasi, who filled this position for most of Mohammad's reign.[45] By this time, Mohammad's health had become a concern for the kingdom's future and the four-year-old Naser al-Din Mirza was appointed the crown prince. Mohammad Shah granted the governorship of Azarbaijan, which the Qajar kings bestowed upon the heir apparent, to his firstborn son and appointed his brother Ghahreman Mirza as Naser al-Din's regent. Ghahreman Mirza was in close contact with the Russian government; when he died in 1839, Mohammad replaced him with his last-surviving full-brother, Bahman Mirza.[19]
In 1837, a rebellion broke out in Kerman, led by Hassan Ali Shah, better known as Agha Khan I, the leader of Nizari Ismailis[46] The Nizari Muslims, though few in number, lived in Iran under the leadership of Hassan Ali Shah, who asserted his place by marrying Fath-Ali Shah's daughter Sarveh Jahan Khanum and acquiring the title Aga Khan.[47] When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, on the advice of Qa'em Maqam, he appointed Agha Khan the governor of Kerman, a rebellious state that was governed by Shoja al-Saltanah, a brother of Hossein Ali Mirza. Agha Khan pacified the state but his governorship was short-lived; in 1837, he was recalled to Tehran and was replaced with Firouz Mirza, the shah's brother.[48] Agha Khan declared a rebellion against the shah, and withdrew with his forces to Bam. Mohammad Shah sent an army under the command of Sourab Khan; they besieged Bam and took the severely injured brother of Agha Khan prisoner. After eight months, Agha Khan surrendered and was imprisoned; his belongings were plundered and he was not allowed to receive his religious due sent from India, Khurasan and Badakhshan.[48] Agha Khan was a prisoner of the shah until 1838, when he was allowed to retreat to his familial lands in Mahallat.[48]
Herat campaign
After asserting his authority, Mohammad Shah's main objective was to annex Herat.[49] This alarmed Kamran Shah and prompted him to attempt to gather neighboring tribes such as the Jamshidi, Tumani and Hazara in Herat to resist Mohammad in the event of a military campaign. These mobilizations alarmed the British government,[50] which sent Alexander Burnes and Eldred Pottinger to Kabul and Herat respectively.[51] Among Britain's concerns was Article 11 of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, which allowed Russia to establish consulates and trade missions with up to ten members throughout Iranian territory, implanting influence on Afghanistan and therefore becoming a threat to British India.[52] The UK accused the Russian government of encouraging Iran to invade Herat.[53] Iran wanted to retake of Herat partly because of Mohammad's desire to unite the Persian-speaking tribes of the Afghan highlands with Iran, and because wanted to free Iranian prisoners who were taken by Sunni tribes who lived near Khorasan.[52] Conquest of Herat was also the first step in a plan to extend Iran's influence up to Amu Darya.[54] In late 1836, Mohammad ordered his army to be mustered for the following spring. This gave John McNeill, the British envoy in Iran, time to arrange a treaty in which Herat would resume paying tributes. Yar Mohammad Khan, however, would not tolerate Iranian sovereignty and Mohammad Shah would not withdraw unless the city was conquered.[55]
In 1837, Mohammad Shah marched on Herat.[52] British officers were expelled from the Iranian army and the British embassy was closed.[56] Mohammad took personal command of Iran's 80,000 troops whereas Kamran Shah had gathered a few thousand poorly equipped soldiers.[54][57] The ruler of Herat had little hope of resisting Mohammad Shah because the city's population, who had been terrorized by their overlord and dispirited by economic decline, and were unlikely to put up any fight; also, the crumbling fortification of the city's walls were in poor repair and would not withstand an assault. Kamran Shah's only source of hope was the support of Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara, the Amir of Qala e Naw,[58] who vowed a fight to death for Kamran Shah, and brought about 4,000 foot soldiers and numerous horsemen to Herat's army.[59] Sher Mohammad Khan Hazara also organized an alliance between Aimaq, Uzbek and Turkman tribes under the banner of Sunni Islam. Thus, with the leadership of Sher Mohammad and Kamran Shah's son Nader Mirza, ten-to-twelve-thousand horsemen assembled around Qala-e Naw and threatened to attack Iran's borders.[60]
On 28 October, Mohammad Shah camped at Torbat-e Jam,[61] where to counteract, he ordered 12,000 of his best soldiers under the command of Mohammad Khan Asef al-Dowleh, the governor of Khorasan, to march to Qala e Naw. By the middle of November, he had seized the city and its surrounds, dividing Sher Mohammad's army in two; one part was camped in Kushk under the command of Mohammad Zaman Jamshidi and the other was already retreating to Herat.[62] The Jamshidi army faced Asef al-Dowleh's men and were scattered in a desperate fight; two-or-three-hundred men were killed and as many taken prisoner. Despite their victory, the Iranian army faced a difficult time, suffering the winter cold that reached the mountains much earlier than it reached Herat and a shortage of supplies that could only be purchased at high prices.[63] Eventually, Asaf al-Dowleh and his men marched through the mountains to Bala Murghab and from there to Maymana, where he defeated another host of the Afghan army under the command of Sher Mohammad Khan. After this victory, Asaf al-Dowleh sent an ambassador to his opponent's camp, and promised them freedom and wealth if they surrendered to Mohammad Shah. His offer was received positively and Sher Mohammad agreed to send two of his sons to Herat to proffer their submission to Mohammad Shah.[64]
On 23 November, Mohammad Shah with a part of his army reached the outskirts of Herat, where they faced fierce resistance from the defenders but eventually forced them to retreat behind the city walls.[61] Mohammad Shah set up his camp south-east of Herat and began a long siege of the city.[65] The Iranian army had a dilemma; Aqasi wanted to wait for Russian aid[66] whereas Mirza Aqa Khan Nuri argued for crushing the city walls.[57] Mohammad Shah faced problems feeding his men; his army quickly ran out of supplies, and the lines back to Mashhad were insecure and often impassable. The fields around Herat were already harvested by the residents and the remains had been destroyed. The problem was only solved after the spring of 1838, when Mohammad Shah ordered his men to plant their crops.[67]
In March 1838, John McNiell arrived at Mohammad Shah's camp as the British representative; he failed to dissuade Mohammad and thus on 7 June 1838, he withdrew from Herat.[68] Ten days later, the British Indian fleet from Bombay occupied Kharg Island and threatened further military actions.[52] Under pressure to end the campaign, Mohammad Shah ordered a full-scale assault of Herat, which failed with many casualties.[69] The British sent an ultimatum threatening war if the siege continued. The Russians abandoned Mohammad Shah's cause and withdrew their support. These, along with news of rebellions, led Mohammad Shah to give up his campaign and end the siege.[70] Although he failed to conquer Herat, Mohammad's army still occupied Ghurian and other forts; a number of Afghan warlords such as Kohendil Khan of Kandahar would remain loyal to Mohammad Shah.[71]
Rebellion in Isfahan
Mohammad Bagher Shafti was one of the most distinguished religious figures of the time; with a fortune of two-and-a-half million francs.[72] Shafti rebelled against Mohammad Shah in 1834, when he tried to seize the city Isfahan from its Prince-Governor Sayf ol-Dowleh.[73] Over four years, Shafti took control of the city's Luti population and in 1838, he raised against the governor of the city, Gholam Hossein Khan Sepahdar, and therefore Mohammad Shah. Shafti's men, who were known for their acts of murder, robbery and rape, looted the city and took the booty to Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. There, Shafti declared their leader Ramazan as Ramazan Shah and ordered the striking of coins in his name.[74] The roots of this revolt lay in a letter from McNiell to Shafti, in which he implied the cause of the war in Herat was the Shah's warmongering and obduracy.[69] The rebellion was supported by a Safavid descendant called Nawab Safavi, which further encouraged the rebels to kill the city's deputy governor.[73]
As a result, between 1838 and 1840, Isfahan was in the hands of rebels, especially the Lutis, whose numbers were increasing because the city's poor people were joining the Lutis' and Shafti's cause.[75] To end their rebellion, Mohammad Shah went to Isfahan with 60,000 troops on the return journey from Herat. It was unprecedented for the shah to take arms against the state's clergy, especially Shafi, who was considered a clergy leader and Isfahan was regarded as the religious capital of Iran. Modern historian Homa Nategh noted this act as a "coup d'état".[76]
Upon reaching the city, Mohammad Shah ordered the cannons to bombard Isfahan. Shafti, fearing great losses, opened the city's northern gate and the Lutis deserted from the southern gate.[77] Mohammad Shah triumphantly entered the city and instantly ordered the execution of the remaining Lutis. He could not charge Shafti in any extreme measures but exiled his son to Astrabad. The Luti leader Ramazan Shah died while under torture and of his men, 240 were killed and 400 were arrested. Mohammad Shah ordered a court to be set up so that the people could recount Lutis' crimes. Mohammad took the lands and properties Shafti and the Lutis had usurped, and made them part of his demesne lands.[78] Harsh penalties were made to ensure stability and fear, and to prevent future rebellions. Mohammad Shah celebrated his victory greatly, trying to erase the memory of his failure in Herat.[79] To declare Shafti's cause blasphemy, Mohammad Shah adopted the title Ghazi (the warrior of Islam), which was previously given to him for the war with the Russian empire.[3]
The Second Treaty of Erzurum
Hostilities with the Ottomans and tensions over the borderlands of the two empires were unresolved by the treaty of Erzurum and later led to incidents during Mohammad Shah's reign that pushed him to start a war, such as the sack of Khorramshahr by Ali Reza Pasha, the governor of Baghdad, in 1837. In the early 1840s, peace in the frontier of Iran and the Ottoman Empire became a prioritized European project.[80] Negotiations between the two nations began in 1842 in Erzurum, a sizeable frontier town.[81] The Iranian commission included Mirza Taqi Khan Farahani, later known as Amir Kabir, whose involvement in the treaty brought him to attention in political circles.[82] On the Ottoman side was Enveri Sadullah Efendi, a member of the Supreme Council of Justice whose arrogance and occasional undiplomatic language created so many problems that he was considered to be replaced.[83] Negotiations began on 15 May 1843; Mohammad Shah had demanded the Iranian plenipotentiaries to resolve the negotiations quickly or he would raise arms against the Ottoman Empire. Negotiations lasted for four years,[84] mostly because of delays caused by political and military crises such as the Ottoman massacre of 22,000 Shi'i Iranian pilgrims on the road to Karbala that caused the suspension of the negotiations for three months.[85]
Negotiations were resumed by British and Russian mediators. Territorial restitution were confined to the cities Khorramshahr, Zohab and Sulaymaniyah, and the Iranian dominance over the Shatt al-Arab.[86] Ownership of Zohab was a heated argument between negotiators; the town, which was insignificant in itself, was captured by Mohamad Ali Mirza Dowlatshah, the firstborn son of Fath-Ali Shah, during the Ottoman-Persian war of 1821 and Iran retained sovereignty over it even though in the First Treaty of Erzurum, had agreed to return it.[87] Farahani suggested Zohab to be divided between the two nations but the Iranian party later agreed to return sovereignty of the town to the Ottomans who, in return, would forsake their desire to dominant the Shatt al-Arab's trade route.[88] When the commissioners began discussing Khorramshahr, Farahani declared the town has always been part of Khuzistan and demanded £1 million in compensation for the 1837 sack of the city. Despite the Ottoman protests and arguments, Khorramshahr was stated as a part of Iran after Farahani's firm efforts.[89]
In May 1846, the first drafts of the treaty were written. Russia and Britain were to draw up a map of the border areas, and both parties would accept it. In the meantime, Farahani fell ill and a riot broke out in Erzurum, his house was looted and two of his companions were torn to pieces by rebels.[84] Negotiations were suspended for several months. The Ottoman government formally apologized to Iran, imprisoned 300 rioters and paid 15,000 tomans in compensation. Afterwards, negotiations resumed and resulted in a treaty with nine articles.[90] The Ottoman party, however, were unsatisfied with the outcome and threatened to leave the negotiations. The mediators, determined to avoid such results, secretly gave assurance to the Ottomans. On 31 May 1847, Farahani and Efendi signed the treaty and left Erzurum, and on 26 June, Mohammad Shah also ratified the treaty.[91]
While the tensions seemed to be resolved, the Ottoman government secretly added three more articles to the treaty with the support of British and Russian ambassadors. Based on these articles, Iran's rights on the Shatt al-Arab were revoked and those on Khorramshahr were reduced. Contrary to the agreements, control of Shatt al-Arab, except for a few islands, was handed to the Ottoman Empire.[90] At the end of January 1848, Mirza Javad, a courier from Tehran, arrived in Istanbul with Mohammad Shah's ratified copies of the treaty; the Ottoman government insisted they would not ratify the treaty unless the shah agreed to the new articles. Not wanting to raise Mohammad Shah's suspicion, the British and Russian ambassadors persuaded Mirza Mohammad-Ali Khan Shirazi, Iran's envoy to France who was in Istanbul at the time, to ratify the new articles, alternatively called the "Explanatory Note". Mirza Mohammad-Ali agreed, only if the ambassadors signed an official statement on which they informed Mohammad Shah the new articles were necessary for maintaining the treaty.[92] Mohammad Shah did not accept the new terms and declared the treaty false and invalid.[90] The tensions between Iran and the Ottomans persisted even after the fall of the Ottoman Empire when the newly established country, Iraq inherited the Ottoman claims against Iran.[93]
Abolition of slavery in the Persian Gulf
In the 1840s, an estimated four-to-five-thousand slaves were sold in the Persian Gulf each year.[94] When Justin Sheil succeeded John McNiel as the envoy to Iran in 1844, he and his wife decided to act against the slavery. He sent a letter to Aqasi and pleaded for an abolition.[95] Mohammad Shah, however, did not respond to this diplomatic pressure so Sheil brought up the moral aspect of slavery, emphasizing its negative impacts on the African population. Mohammad Shah remained unmoved and said abolition would contradict the Islamic tradition. Sheil further argued his points but Mohammad responded such interference would undermine diplomatic relations between the two nations.[96]
In late 1847, Sheil was recalled to London and replaced with Colonel Francis Farrant, who also negotiated for abolition with Aqasi. Farrant was more successful, especially for the newly signed treaty of Erzurum that put him a good light for the grand vizier.[97] Farrant argued if the Ottoman Empire could abolish slavery in their nation, Iranians could do the same. The argument appealed to Aqasi, who suggested it to Mohammad Shah.[98] Mohammad wrote this to Farrant regarding the abolition of slavery in the Ottoman Empire:
Between the religions of Europe and our religion there is great distinction and difference, and we cannot observe or join in matters which are in accordance with their religion and in opposition to ours, why we wrote that the exalted English government should make enquiries of the Turkish government on this subject, was because that government being a Mahomedan state and in that country the traffic in slaves being much more extensive than any where else, we might observe what answer it will give, that then we may give a reply which should not be opposed to tenets of the Mahomedan faith.[98]
Mohammad Shah agreed to the abolition of the slave trade through the Persian Gulf but having slaves and trading them over land was still allowed. On Mohammad's behest, Aqasi sent three letters to the governors of Fars, Kerman, and Isfahan, ordering the governors not to partake in the slave trade in the Persian Gulf. (In the same letters, he expressed his concerns for the shah's health).[99] On the advice of both Sheil and Farrant, Aqasi also approached the major ulama of Tehran to ask their consent should the slave traders accuse them of blasphemy. The results were unfavorable; most of the ulama regarded slavers as legal according to Mohammedan law. Sheil, however, was successful in obtaining a fatwa in support of the shah's decision.[100]
Last years and death
Throughout his life, Mohammad Shah suffered from gout and endured its recurrent attacks.[19] He also suffered pain from the medicines given to him by his Jewish doctor, who was assigned to Mohammad when Aqasi dismissed the British and French doctors. The Jewish doctor's traditional remedies resulted to a severe paroxysm of Mohammad Shah's illness,[101] upon which Mohammad became so weak that his death was rumoured throughout Tehran. He recovered but lost the use of one leg. Aqasi, however, refused to let any foreign-trained physician, especially English ones, approach Mohammad; only a French doctor named Labat was allowed to treat him. Under Labat's care, Mohammad recovered somewhat but was still so feeble he could only move with the help of two persons.[102] Becoming infirm and debilitated, Mohammad lost the will to rule; he turned the government to Aqasi, leading to political and social turmoil.[103]
Mohammad's dire health prompted the foreign powers to declare their support for Mohammad's eldest son Naser al-Din Mirza in February 1842.[104] Bahman Mirza, who served as regent for Naser al-Din Mirza, however, began mobilizing forces at Tabriz, in hopes of becoming Naser al-Din's regent after Mohammad's death.[105] Bahman Mirza had support from the Count Medem and John McNiel, the Russian and British envoys respectively, but the British withdrew their support when Shiel succeeded McNiel; the Russians considered him Mohammad's successor. To counteract the Russians, in 1845, Aqasi arranged a marriage for Naser al-Din Mirza with the daughter of Ahmad Ali Mirza, a son of Fath-Ali Shah. This wedding brought the young prince into the political spectrum. Mohammad's health slightly improved, and the realm and its succession seemed stable and secure.[106] Rebellions, however, broke out in Khorasan, one of which Hasan Khan Salar led in support of Bahman Mirza's claim; another was led by Allah-Qoli Khan Ilkhani, a grandson of Fath-Ali Shah through his mother and a protégé of Aqasi to press his own claim.[107] Both rebellions continued after Mohammad's death into the early years of Naser al-Din Shah.[108]
After Mohammad ceased his role in the government, Aqasi increased influence on him. Aqasi, now Iran's most powerful figure, was also becoming avaricious of his position and was less inclined to govern because his mind was affected by opium. Mohammad, thinking highly of Aqasi, was happy to let him govern as he liked.[109] In mid-to-late 1848, Mohammad suffered a combination of gout and erysipelas, from which it was clear he would not recover.[19] Mohammad Shah Qajar died at around 21:00 on 4 September 1848.[109] He was buried in Fatima Masumeh Shrine located in Qom and his tomb was placed near the shrine's sanctuary.[19]
Policies
Religion
In his patronage of Sufism, Mohammad Shah was compared to Ismail I, the Safavid shah who made Twelverism Shia the official religion of Iran.[110] Mohammad denoted Sufi Islam as the rival of Shi'ia and the ulama. The Sufis, who were persecuted during Fath-Ali Shah's reign, could now freely promote their beliefs.[111] Mohammad was very dependent on his Sufi teacher Aqasi and gave court positions to Aqasi's Sufi friends such as Mirza Mahdi Khui, who became chief scribe of the court.[112] Concurrent with their new patronage, Sufis took the idea of the Hidden Imam from the Shi'ia and connected it to their Sufi saints. Figures such as Safi-ad-din Ardabili became messengers of the Hidden Imam and the Sufi murshids (spiritual guides) were the only knowledgeable people who could read these communications, often through dreaming.[113] The Sufis despised acts of torture and violence; when Aqasi became the grand vizier, he pleaded for their reduction. Mohammad would not accept it in his early years, arguing a culprit does not deserve sympathy, but as he aged and grew weaker from gout, he ordered the complete abolition of torture.[114]
Mohammad's approach to the Shi'ia clergy was one of hostility and conflict. He abandoned Fath-Ali Shah's attempts to meet the demands of clergy. He never asked for a theoretical acknowledgment of his coronation and was more inclined to search his spiritual guide with the dervishes and Sufis than with the ulama of the state.[115] On 24 November 1842, Mohammad issued a firman abolishing the rights of taking shelter in sanctuaries.[46] He would constantly try to undermine the orthodox ulama position with the promotion of Sufism, and with the rise of Báb and Bábism.[116] When Sayyid Ali Muhammad Shirazi first claimed to be the Báb (gateway to the Hidden Imam), the ulama declared a fatwa saying he must be killed.[117] Mohammad, however, called Báb to Tehran and promised him shelter. This alarmed Aqasi, who had the Báb sent to Maku in Azerbaijan, where he was kept under confinement. Facing dissent from Mohammad, however, he took no drastic measures against the Báb and his followers.[19]
Although Mohammad had no enmity towards any branches of Christianity, he preferred to allow the French Lazarist missionaries into Iran rather than the English Anglicans.[118] In hope of bringing modern education to the nation, he issued an edict that allowed missionaries to open schools.[119] The head of the Lazarists was Eugène Boré, who in 1839 opened a school in Tabriz with both Christian and Muslim students. Boré's school provoked unrest among ulama of Tabriz but under the protection of Mohammad, they could not harm Boré.[120]
Education
During his tenure as the governor of Azerbaijan, Abbas Mirza sent several students to France, mainly with the goal of improving the military. Mohammad Shah took his father's path and sent seven students of noble birth to Europe, among whom were Mirza Hosein Khan Sepahsalar, the future grand vizier of Naser al-Din Shah; and Mirza Malkam Khan, a prominent figure in the Iranian Enlightenment.[121] These students were to master skills in military, painting, medicine, and geometry. Another 10 people were to be sent to France in 1847 but it is uncertain they were sent.[122]
In 1837, on the orders of Mohammad, Mirza Saleh Shirazi published the first Iranian newspaper in Tehran. This newspaper was untitled and was referred to as Kaghaz-e Akhbar (literary news-paper).[123] It lasted only for one issue but Mirza Saleh's determination led to him publishing another newspaper called Akhbar-i Vaqa-a which became Iran's first regular newspaper.[124] Many lithographic printing presses were established in Tehran, Urmia, Tabriz and Isfahan on the orders of Mohammad.[125]
Administration
As a result of various wars and the continual unrest throughout Iran, Mohammad Shah's treasury was virtually empty.[46] In hope of improving financial conditions, he sought to revive barren fields that were burned in the wars with Russia and the local insurgencies. He asked the French foreign minister for a French irrigation expert but nothing came of it.[126] With Mohammad's efforts, however, 1,438 villages—who were part of the royal domain—were made habitable.[127] Mohammad inherited many domain lands from Fath-Ali Shah and Agha Mohammad Khan, and he greatly increased the amount. He confiscated properties of Aqasi and through revoking the lands of Hossein Ali Mirza, gained ownership over Fars and Persian Iraq.[128] He also confiscated properties seized by the Lutis during the Isfahan rebellion, which was disliked by major landowners.[129] On his orders, the number of the royal domains were recorded in the Raqabat-e Mohammadshahi, which also included all previous inventories.[128]
Most of these domains were given to the villagers and the nomads who wanted a settlement.[126] A part of Nader Shah's personal domains were returned to the Afshar tribe, who had inherited the claim to these lands once the Afsharid dynasty died out. Despite granting two crores of land per person, many of these lands still belonged to the crown and under the purposeful maladministration of the contemporary Mostowfi ol-Mamalek (royal treasurer), Mohammad was unable to return more of them and his successor, Naser al-Din Shah, completely ignored the Afshar people's pleads and petitions.[130] The same Mostowfi ol-Mamalek secretly extorted money and forced villagers to pay taxes.[131]
Mohammad reinstated governmental positions that had once been part of the Safavid bureaucracy. They bore mixed results; they improved the state's efficiency but led to a corrupt administration that reached its peak in Naser al-Din Shah's reign. Positions such as Mostowfi ol-Mamalek became hereditary and many holders of these offices accepted bribery for the lack of a regular salary.[132] Aqasi enlarged governmental titles and promoted his kinsmen so the once-rudimentary bureaucracy of Agha Mohammad Khan became filled with positions with the same duties but under different names.[133]
Military
Mohammad Shah continued the military reforms his father had started;[134] these included abolishing tribal cavalry and modeling it on Frederick the Great's cavalry[135] using Western military technology on a very small scale with Abbas Mirza's personal army of 1,000 regular infantry and 500 regular cavalry.[136]
When Mohammad Shah ascended the throne, the Iranian army was disorganized, undisciplined and rigidly hierarchical. Mohammad could hardly muster more than 20,000 men, and those were in poor shape. Instead of carts and wagons, transportation took place by mules, camels and horses. Other than Abbas Mirza's cavalry, the army was filled with tribal cavalry who recognized only their tribal chief.[137] To counter these problems, Mohammad Shah put forth a three-staged plan in which he would centralize the command, create arsenals, and recover from the losses suffered in the wars with Russia. He consolidated power upon himself and Aqasi to centralize the military. To create arsenals, he founded the Tehran foundry, which provided his army with 600 bronze cannons, 200 mortars; and rifles, muskets and Zamburaks.[138]
At Mohammad's request, Henry Rawlinson was sent to Kermanshah in April 1835 to train Bahram Mirza's troops in the style of the Nezam-e Jadid.[139] The Italian F. Colombari was also sent to Iran; he reformed the Zamburak units of the Iranian army with the new cannon saddles and new falconets he designed for them.[140]
Diplomacy
Despite his short reign, Mohammad Shah left a lasting mark on Iran's foreign policy.[141] He had resentment towards Russia and Britain, even though both nations supported him for the succession.[46] The threat of Russian military bordering Azerbaijan and their navy anchoring in the port of Anzali Lagoon put Mohammad Shah in a state of paranoia at the thought of another war. The Russians argued that per the Treaty of Turkmenchay they were free to anchor their ships in the Caspian Sea but neither Mohammad nor Aqasi counted Anzali as part of the sea.[142] To keep the Russian navy away, Mohammad ordered the army of Anzali to shoot at the Russians if they approached. These events led to Nicholas I exchanging letters with Mohammad. In a diplomatic sense, Mohammad allowed the Russian navy to anchor in Anzali.[143] Another source of tension was Russian merchants in Tabriz and Tehran who owed money to Iranians but would not pay them in full. In 1843, Mohammad issued a firman ordering full payments of the debts to prevent fraudulent bankruptcies.[46]
During his reign, various matters disturbed Anglo-Iranian relations, the most troublesome of which was Mohammad's campaign to Herat which led the British, for the first time in their relation with Iran, to invade Iran's southern islands in the Persian Gulf.[52] In 1841, Mohammad signed a treaty with the British ambassador under which Britain could reopen their consulates in Tehran, Tabriz and Bushehr but had to withdraw from Kharg Island. This treaty was not ideal for either side; the British did not have the right to reside outside the three cities and their goal was to establish a consulate in Gilan near the Russian border. For Mohammad, the treaty was considered shameful and a surrender to his enemy's demand.[144] After the signing of the agreement, inexpensive British goods entered Iran through the Tabriz-Trabzon trade zone and filled the country's markets, causing the bankruptcy of a number of Iranian businessmen in Tabriz.[19] In 1844, Iranian merchants petitioned to Mohammad to prohibit the importing of European merchandise. In the following year, traders from Kashan implored Mohammad to defend their manufacturers against European merchandise. Both cases were rejected.[46]
Mohammad Shah was an avid Francophile and most excited to build diplomatic relations with France in lieu of Britain and Russia.[145] As a child, Mohammad learned French from Madame de la Marininere, a tutor in the court of Abbas Mirza.[146] He denoted French as the diplomatic language of Iran and ensured diplomats and ambassadors from other nations were fluent in French.[19] In 1839, to resume political relations with France, Mohammad sent Mirza Hossein Khan to Paris, where Hossein Khan was brought before King of France Louis Philippe I. The Iranian delegation took with them numerous gifts, including a translation of Shahnameh and the portrait of Mohammad, which is now kept in Louvre Museum.[147] With Mohammad's insistence, the France embassy in Iran was reopened and France–Iran relations resumed,[147] resulting in Iran sending students to France, a tradition that continued throughout modern Iranian history.[148]
Family
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Mohammad Shah had a large harem, although his harem was smaller than that of other Qajar kings, either from disliking sex with women or because of his severe illness.[151] By the time he died, he had seven wives, with whom he sired four sons and five daughters.[151] Of his consorts, a woman named Khadija was Mohammad's favourite; they had his best-loved son Abbas Mirza III, who was named after Mohammad's father Abbas Mirza and a deceased son of the same name.[151] Mohammad, however, never showed fatherly affection to his son with Malek Jahan Khanom or the future king Naser al-Din. In 1839, Mohammad summoned the Naser al-Din to Tehran and treated him coldly. For most of his early childhood, Naser al-Din was no more than a nuisance for Mohammad and his grand vizier.[152]
Of Mohammad Shah's seven wives, three of them are known to history:
- Malek Jahan Khanom (26 February 1805 – 2 April 1873); mother of Naser al-Din Shah and Malek Zadeh Khanum.[46]
- Bolour Khanum Zandieh, the granddaughter of Karim Khan Zand. Mother of two daughters.[153]
- Khadija, daughter of a Naqshbandi chief. Mother of Abbas Mirza III.[151]
He had four sons:
- Naser al-Din Shah (16 July 1831 – 1 May 1896); Shah of Iran (r. 1848 – 1896)[154]
- Abbas Mirza II, died in childhood.[155]
- Abbas Mirza III (November 27, 1839 – April 13, 1897); known as Mulk Ara.[151]
- Mohammad Taqi Mirza (d. 1901); known as Rokn ed-Dowleh, governor of several provinces.[156]
- Abdol-samad Mirza (May 1843 – 21 October 1929); known as Ezz ed-Dowleh.[156]
He had five daughters, four of whom are known:
- Malek Zadeh Khanum, (1834-35 – 27 June 1905); known as Ezzat ed-Dowleh,[22] married four times, and was the grandmother of Mohammad Ali Shah.[157]
- Ozra, daughter of Bolour Khanum Zandieh.[153]
- Effat al-Dowleh, daughter of Bolour Khanum Zandieh.[153]
- Aziz ol-Dowleh, married Fath-Ali Khan Saheb Divan.[158]
Historiography and personality
Mohammad Shah's short reign resembles an interregnum between the reigns of Fath-Ali Shah and Naser al-Din Shah.[154] During his reign, the ulama possessed little influence over the crown.[159] Mohammad was heavily influenced by Sufi theology as a result of his close friendship and reliance on Aqasi. His corresponding negligence of relations with the Shi'ia ulama was the most lasting aspect of his reign.[160] Mohammad had a passive character, was withdrawn from everyday life, and most of the time was physically unwell;[161] he relied on Aqasi to govern while taking a ceremonial role himself.[132] The extent of Aqasi's influence over Mohammad increased in Mohammad's last years, when he became very dependent on his grand vizier;[162] Aqasi, however, proved a poor ruler, and mismanaged the economy and the military.[154] Mohammed's reign saw costly wars and maladministration, and by the end of it Iran suffered from instability, turmoil, and chaos.[154]
Most historians present Mohammad as sedentary and aloof from governmental matters, an image that is accurate when applied to his later years. In his youth, though, Mohammad was an active soldier like his father and his grandfather.[3] He was more Europeanised than his ancestors; Mohammad's dress contrasted the more traditional appearance of Fath-Ali Shah, who wore Persian ornamented long robes, high heels and a long beard. Mohammed wore semi-Europeanised dress and maintained a short beard.[163] Travel writer James Baillie Fraser, who met Mohammad in 1834, described him as "the worthiest of all the numerous descendants of Fath-Ali Shah, particularly in the points of moral and private character".[19] Mohammad was the last Qajar shah to lead his army into war.[3] He was praised for his bravery; the contemporaneous historian Mohammad Taqi Sepehr wrote: "Until now, in Shiʿite realms, I never heard about a sovereign endowed with such a pure nature and so perfect manners and natural perfection. Bravery and firmness perfectly appeared in his demeanours."[19] Still, most contemporary historians were unimpressed with his rulership and character. Some British writers accused him of being a Russian pawn for his instigation of the First Herat War.[65]
Coinage and titles
On his seal is the text "al-Sultan ibn al-Sultan Mohammad Shah Ghazi" and on a portrait that was painted between 1836 and 1837, he is identified as "al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan b. al-Sultan", an effort to legitimate his right of rule by remarking on his lineage.[164] Mohammad used the titles "Khaqan son of Khaqan", a Turko-Mongol title; and Shahanshah, an ancient Iranian title, to follow the styles of Fath-Ali Shah, who used both Khaqan and Shahanshah.[165]
His coins bear the inscription "Mohammad, Shahanshah-i Anbiya" (Mohammad, King of the Prophets).[164] Mohammad Shah's coins display artistic aestheticism that is different to the coins of Fath-Ali and Naser al-Din, both of whom developed a love for glitter.[166]
References
Notes
- ^ In his farewell letter to his son, Abbas Mirza advised Mohammad Mirza to remain loyal to Fath-Ali Shah. He also reminded him to have forgiveness, justice, and compassion, respect the ulama and the descendant of the prophet (the sayyids), and lastly, reward the servants of his household.[27]
- ^ Mohammad Mirza later awarded the man who blinded his brothers with the title of Khan and a piece of land.[32]
Citations
- ^ Mojtahed-Zadeh 2006, p. 171.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 10.
- ^ a b c d e Eskandari-Qajar 2005, p. 58.
- ^ Hambly 1991a, p. 131.
- ^ Atkin 1980, p. 42.
- ^ Perry 1984.
- ^ Mojtahed-Zadeh 2006, p. 167.
- ^ Amanat 2017, p. 305.
- ^ Hambly 1991a, p. 144.
- ^ Amanat 1989.
- ^ Andreeva 2010, p. 5.
- ^ Kazemzadeh 1985.
- ^ Volodarsky 1985, p. 129.
- ^ Abol-Hosseini 2007, p. 35.
- ^ Algar 2020, p. 46.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 34.
- ^ Algar 2020, p. 45.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 34–36.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Calmard 2004.
- ^ a b c Nategh 2014, p. 13.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 28–29.
- ^ a b c d Amanat 1997, p. 26.
- ^ Mojtahed-Zadeh 2006, p. 170.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 32.
- ^ Ahangaran 2013, p. 11.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 33.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 58.
- ^ Rypka 1968, p. 335.
- ^ Ahangaran 2013, p. 12.
- ^ a b Hambly 1991b, p. 167.
- ^ Bournoutian 2015.
- ^ Sarmadi 2012, p. 17.
- ^ a b Amanat 1993.
- ^ a b Hambly 1982.
- ^ Ghadimi Gheydari 2010, p. 17.
- ^ a b c Hambly 1991b, p. 168.
- ^ Shamim 1964, p. 120.
- ^ Shamim 1964, p. 121.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 32.
- ^ Zarrinkoob 1978.
- ^ Piri 2001, p. 88.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 16.
- ^ Piri 2001, p. 91.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 17–18.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 18.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lambton 2012.
- ^ Daftary 2007, p. 464.
- ^ a b c Daftary 2007, p. 465.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 47.
- ^ Ahangaran 2013, p. 133.
- ^ Ahangaran 2013, p. 134; Nategh 2014, p. 88.
- ^ a b c d e Amanat 2003.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 89.
- ^ a b Lee 1996, p. 148.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 50.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 87.
- ^ a b Ahangaran 2013, p. 135.
- ^ Lee 1996, p. 148–149.
- ^ Noelle-Karimi 2016, p. 312.
- ^ Lee 1996, p. 149.
- ^ a b Nelson 1976, p. 53.
- ^ Lee 1996, p. 150.
- ^ Lee 1996, p. 150; Nelson 1976, p. 53.
- ^ Lee 1996, p. 150, 152, 157.
- ^ a b Hambly 1991b, p. 169.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 54.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 55.
- ^ Martin 2008, p. 111.
- ^ a b Martin 2008, p. 112.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 68.
- ^ Nelson 1976, p. 69.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 53.
- ^ a b Walcher 2006.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 54.
- ^ Nasiri, Rahmanian & Razavi 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 52, 57.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 57.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 58.
- ^ Nasiri, Rahmanian & Razavi 2015, p. 114.
- ^ Schofield 2008, p. 152.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 86.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 92.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 90.
- ^ a b Volodarsky 1985, p. 131.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 94.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 155; Schofield 2008, p. 98.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 144.
- ^ Abol-Hosseini 2007, p. 37.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 115, 120.
- ^ a b c Volodarsky 1985, p. 132.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 135.
- ^ Ates 2013, p. 135–136.
- ^ Abol-Hosseini 2007, p. 38.
- ^ Mirzai 2017, p. 63.
- ^ Ebrahimi 2008, p. 81.
- ^ Mirzai 2017, p. 136.
- ^ Ebrahimi 2008, p. 90.
- ^ a b Mirzai 2017, p. 137.
- ^ Ebrahimi 2008, p. 92.
- ^ Mirzai 2017, p. 141.
- ^ Ebrahimnejad 2013, p. 25.
- ^ Elgood 2010, p. 495.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 46.
- ^ Elgood 2010, p. 497.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 47–50.
- ^ Amanat 1985; Amanat 1997, p. 114–115
- ^ Amanat 1985; Noelle-Karimi 2014, p. 227–230
- ^ a b Elgood 2010, p. 498.
- ^ van den Bos 2021, p. 65.
- ^ Başkan 2014, p. 88.
- ^ van den Bos 2021, p. 62.
- ^ Scharbrodt 2008, p. 32.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 30.
- ^ Algar 2020, p. 103, 105.
- ^ Bayat 2000, p. 96.
- ^ Algar 2020, p. 138.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 186.
- ^ Mirvahedi 2020, p. 5.
- ^ Soltanian 2011, p. 67.
- ^ Azizi & Azizi 2010, p. 354.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 245.
- ^ Farzaneh 2015, p. 32.
- ^ Green 2020, p. 311.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 239.
- ^ a b Nategh 2014, p. 26.
- ^ Shahedi 1997, p. 53.
- ^ a b Floor 2012.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 31.
- ^ Shahedi 1997, p. 52.
- ^ Amanat 1998, p. 22.
- ^ a b Farzaneh 2015, p. 35.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 156.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 171.
- ^ Ward 2014, p. 65.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 172.
- ^ Ward 2014, p. 71.
- ^ Eskandari-Qajar 2005, p. 62.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 173.
- ^ Eskandari-Qajar 2005, p. 64.
- ^ Clawson & Rubin 2005, p. 34.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 99.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 77, 74.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 98.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 107.
- ^ Beck & Nashat 2004, p. 64.
- ^ a b Volodarsky 1985, p. 125.
- ^ Azizi & Azizi 2010, p. 360.
- ^ Busse 1982.
- ^ Amanat 1999.
- ^ a b c d e Amanat 1997, p. 41.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 40.
- ^ a b c Usmani, Akhtar & Syed 2011, p. 216.
- ^ a b c d Katouzian 2019.
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 45.
- ^ a b Amanat 1997, p. xxii.
- ^ Eslami 1999.
- ^ Edrisi 2014.
- ^ Nategh 2014, p. 37.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 170.
- ^ Amanat 1998, p. 21.
- ^ Hambly 1991b, p. 170; Elgood 2010, p. 498
- ^ Amanat 1997, p. 18.
- ^ a b Soucek 2001, p. 71.
- ^ Mojtahed-Zadeh 2006, p. 171; Amanat 1997, p. 10
- ^ Soucek 2001, p. 71, 74.
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