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This list refers to technological achievements which took place in [[South Asia]] (encompassing the modern-day states of [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]) before 1947 in [[Partition of India|pre-partition India]]. |
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#REDIRECT [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries]] |
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==Indus Valley Civilisation== |
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[[Image:CiviltàValleIndoMappa.png|right|thumb|180px|The extent of Indus Valley Civilization.]] |
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The [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] is a lost ancient [[civilization]] which flourished in the [[Bronze Age]] around the [[Indus River]] basin in what is today mainly [[Pakistan]] and the western parts of the [[Republic of India]]. It is also called the Harappan Civilization, after one of its the centres, [[Harappa]]. |
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===Inventions=== |
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[[Image:Sokhta Koh.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement in [[Pakistan]] on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization]] |
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* '''[[Bangle]]''': Bangles—made from shell, [[copper]], [[bronze]], [[gold]], [[agate]], [[chalcedony]] etc.—have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent.<ref name=Ghosh224>Ghosh (1990), page 224</ref> A figurine of a dancing girl—wearing bangles on her left arm— has been excavated from [[Mohenjo-daro]] (2600 BCE) in [[Pakistan]].<ref name=ghosh83>Ghosh (1990), page 83</ref> |
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* '''[[Bow drill]]''': The bow drill appeared in [[Mehrgarh]] in what today is Pakistan between 4th-5th millennium BCE.<ref name=Kulke&R./> It was used to drill holes into [[lapis lazuli]] and [[cornelian]] and was made of [[jasper|green jasper]].<ref name=Kulke&R.>Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). ''A History of India''. Routledge. 22. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.</ref> Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and [[Iran]] one millennium later.<ref name=Kulke&R./> |
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* '''[[Button]], ornamental''': Buttons—made from [[seashell]]—were used in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse>Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). ''Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9.</ref> Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread.<ref name=Hesse&Hesse/> Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the [[Indus Valley]] in Pakistan. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."<ref>McNeil, Ian (1990). ''An encyclopaedia of the history of technology''. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.</ref> |
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* '''[[Cockfighting]]''': Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BCE.<ref name=Sherman>Sherman, David M. (2002). ''Tending Animals in the Global Village''. Blackwell Publishing. 46. ISBN 0-683-18051-7.</ref> The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game [[fowl]] is probably the nearest to the Indian [[red jungle fowl]] (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in [[India]], [[China]], [[Persia]], and other Eastern countries and was introduced into [[Greece]] in the time of [[Themistocles]] (c. 524–460 BCE). The sport spread throughout [[Asia Minor]] and Sicily. For a long time the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer [[Columella]] (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."<ref>''Cockfighting''. Encyclopedia Britannica 2008</ref> |
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* '''[[Dice]]''': The die<!--singular, unless you mean "game of dice" --> is attributed to India by some accounts.<ref name=Ro&Es34>Robinson & Estes (1996), page 34</ref><ref name=Lowie162>Lowie (2007), page 162</ref><ref name=Nejat165>Nejat (1998), page 165</ref> Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of oblong dice have been found in Harrapan sites such as [[Kalibangan]], [[Lothal]], [[Rupnagar|Ropar]], [[Alamgirpur]], Desalpur and surrounding territories, some dating back to the third millennium BCE, which were used for gambling.<ref name=Brown1>Brown (1964), page 34</ref><ref name=EIADice>"Games and Amusement: Dice". ''Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology'' edited by A. Ghosh (1990), 1: 178-179, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09264-1</ref><ref name=Varadpande156>Varadpande (2005), pages 156-157</ref> The oblong or cubical dice (''akṣa'') is the precursor of the more primitive ''vibhīṣaka''—small, hard nuts drawn randomly to obtain factors of a certain integer.<ref name=Basham1>Basham (2001), pages 207-208</ref> Dicing is believed to have later spread westwards to Persia, influencing Persian board games.<ref name=MIC1dice>"Backgammon". ''Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia'' Volume 1, A-K index. Edited by Meri, Josef W (2006). London: Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 0-415-96690-6</ref> Early references to dicing can be found in the [[Rigveda|Ṛg Veda]] (c. early 2nd millennium BCE)<ref name=Varadpande156/><ref>Ṛg Veda, Book 10, 34</ref><ref name=Basham2>Basham (2001), pages 207 & 403-405</ref> as well as the newer [[Atharvaveda|Atharva Veda]] (c. late 2nd millennium ~ early 1st millennium BCE).<ref name=Brown1>Brown (1964)</ref><ref>Atharva Veda 2.3; 4.38; 6.118; 7.52; 7.109</ref> |
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* '''[[Dike (construction)|Dike]]''': Dikes were known to be widely used in the Indus valley civilization,<ref name=McIntosh14>McIntosh (2007), page 14</ref><ref name=Koppel217>Koppel (2007), page 217</ref> which are believed to be the first dikes in the world,<ref name=Koppel217/> built as early as the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=Koppel217/> This was the same period when the dockyard at Lothal was in operation.<ref name=Koppel217/> The use of dikes became known from then onwards.<ref name=Koppel217/> |
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* '''[[Dock (maritime)]]''': The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.<ref name="RaoQ"/> Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the [[Sabarmati]], as well as exemplary [[hydrography]] and maritime engineering.<ref name="RaoQ"/> This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.<ref name="RaoQ">Rao, pages 27–28</ref> It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.<ref name="Rao2819"/> This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the [[Gulf of Khambhat]] has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.<ref name="Rao2819"/> The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).<ref name="Rao2819">Rao, pages 28–29</ref> |
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* '''[[Dyeing]]''': Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).<ref name=bhardwaj&jain>Bhardwaj, H.C. & Jain, K.K., "Indian Dyes and Industry During 18th-19th Century", ''Indian Journal of History of Science, '''17''' (11): 70-81, [[New Delhi]]: [[Indian National Science Academy]].</ref> The dye used in this case was [[madder]], which, along with other dyes—such as [[Indigo]]—was introduced to other regions through trade.<ref name=bhardwaj&jain/> Contact with [[Alexander the Great]], who had successfully used dyeing for military camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing from India.<ref name=bhardwaj&jain/> Within India these dyes have found consistent mention in [[Indian literature]] and in some cases have been excavated in archaeological findings.<ref name=bhardwaj&jain/> Dyes in India were a commodity of both Internal trade and exports.<ref name=bhardwaj&jain/> Indian exports of Indigo alone reached nearly 15, 097, 622 pounds in 1887-88 with the principle markets being the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States of America]], [[France]] and Egypt.<ref name=bhardwaj&jain/> |
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* '''[[Furnace]]''': The earliest furnace was excavated at [[Balakot]], a site of the Indus Valley Civilization in the [[Mansehra District]] in the [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara]] region of [[Pakistan]], dating back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE). The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of [[ceramic]] objects.<ref name=Dales>Dales (1974)</ref> |
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* '''[[Plough|Plough, animal-drawn]]''': The earliest archeological evidence of an [[animal]]-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000|first=R.|last=Lal|journal=Soil and Tillage Research|volume=61|issue=1-2|date=August 2001|pages=3–12 [3]|doi=10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2}}</ref> |
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[[File:Wayang Pandawa.jpg|thumb|[[Wayang]] Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five [[Pandava]], from left to right: [[Bhima]], [[Arjuna]], [[Yudhishtira]], [[Nakula]], and [[Sahadeva]] (Museum Indonesia, [[Jakarta]]). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.]] |
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* '''[[Puppets]] and [[Puppetry]]''': Evidence of puppetry comes from the excavations at the Indus Valley.<ref name=G-m-b-14>Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, page 14</ref> Archaeologists have unearthed terracotta dolls with detachable heads capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BCE.<ref name=G-m-b-14/> Other excavations include terracotta animals which could be manipulated up and down a stick—-archiving minimum animation in both cases.<ref name=G-m-b-14/> The epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''; [[Tamil literature]] from the [[Tamil Sangams|Sangam Era]], and various literary works dating from the late centuries BCE to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]]—including Ashokan edicts—describe puppets.<ref name=G-m-b-14-15>Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, pages 14-15</ref> Works like the ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' and the ''[[Kamasutra]]'' elaborate on puppetry in some detail.<ref name=G-m-b-15-16>Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, pages 15-16</ref> The Javanese ''Wayang'' theater was influenced by Indian traditions.<ref name=Bell-puppet-46>Bell 2000, page 46</ref> Europeans developed puppetry as a result of extensive contact with the Eastern World.<ref name=Bell-puppet-37>Bell 2000, page 37</ref> |
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* '''[[Ruler]]''': Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.<ref name=Whitelaw14/> Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 [[millimeters]].<ref name=Whitelaw14>Whitelaw, page 14</ref> Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'<ref name=Whitelaw15>Whitelaw, page 15</ref> Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'<ref name=Iwata2254/> The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and [[Central Asia]], where they were further modified.<ref name=Iwata2254>Iwata, 2254</ref> |
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* '''[[Stepwell]]''': Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at [[Mohenjodaro]] in Pakistan.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20>Livingston & Beach, 20</ref> The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/> The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/> Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.<ref name=Livingston&Bach20/> Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.<ref name=L&B/> Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at [[Bhinmal]] (850-950 CE) were constructed.<ref name=L&B>Livingston & Beach, page xxiii</ref> |
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===Discoveries=== |
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[[File:Plaque décorative Musée Guimet 26971.jpg|thumb|Housed at the [[Musée Guimet]], [[Paris]]: 17th century Ivory relief from Tamil Nadu, India. Ivory has been used in India since the Indus Valley Civilization.]] |
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'''Agriculture''' |
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* '''[[Ivory]]''': The use of ivory in India dates to the Indus Valley Civilization (2300-1750 BCE).<ref name=Banglapedia_Ivory>[[Banglapedia]] (2008). [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/I_0126.htm ''Ivory Arts '']. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh</ref> Archaeological excavations have yielded combs, buttons, and other material made from Ivory.<ref name=Banglapedia_Ivory/> The use of ivory for making figurines in India continued into the 6th century BCE.<ref name=Banglapedia_Ivory/> Banglapedia (2008) holds that: "Stone inscriptions found at the ruins of Sanchi Stupa speak of trading in ivory crafts at Bidisha in the 1st century BC. During the Sung rule (1st century BCE) ivory craftsmen were engaged to work on the gates of the stupas at Bharhut, Buddhgaya and Sanchi. Ivory artefacts dating from the Sung period meant for cosmetic use have also been found at Chandraketu Garh in West Bengal. Ivory crafts were also popular during the Kushan period, as suggested by the abundance of ivory artefacts found at Taxila and Begram.".<ref name=Banglapedia_Ivory/> |
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* '''[[Cotton]]''': Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] by the [[5th millennium BCE]] - [[4th millennium BCE]].<ref>Stein (1998), page 47</ref> The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.<ref>Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127</ref> Well before the [[Common Era]], the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the [[Mediterranean]] and beyond.<ref>The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. ''cotton''.</ref> |
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'''Science''' |
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* '''[[Metrology]]''': The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated system of '''[[standardization]]''', using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.<ref name=Baber_b>Baber (1996), page 23</ref> This '''[[technical standard]]ization''' enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in '''[[angular measurement]]''' and measurement for construction.<ref name=Baber_b/> '''[[Calibration]]''' was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices.<ref name=Baber_b/> |
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===Innovations=== |
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* '''[[Public bathing]]''': According to [[John Keay]] the ''Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro'' was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.<ref name=keay13-14>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |authorlink=John Keay |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location= New York, USA |isbn=0802137970 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3aeQqmcXBhoC |pages=13–14}} |
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</ref> The bath is housed inside a larger—more elaborate—building and was used for public bathing.<ref name=keay13-14/> |
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* '''[[Urban planning]]''': Remains of major [[Indus valley civilization|Indus cities]] (mature period c. 2600–1900 BCE) in what today is Pakistan and Western India, display distinct characteristics of urban planning such as streets crossing each other at right angles, well arranged rows of structures as well as neatly built, covered drainage and sewage lines, complete with maintenance sumps, running along backlanes.<ref name=Davreu1>Davreu (1978), pages 121-129</ref><ref name=Pruthi225>Pruthi (2004), pages 225-270</ref> Drains in the ancient maritime city of Lothal for example, designed to be able to take out the city’s entire domestic sewage and storm-water were mostly underground, and built to high levels of uniformity, whereby the slopes never exceed 1 in 10,000.<ref name=Pruthi225/><ref name=HOC2-1>Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1992). Page 307</ref> In terms of segregation, Lothal was divided into three districts: the citadel, the lower town and the dockyard, which were further divided into smaller administration centres, all having well planned infrastructure such as wide, straight roads along neatly arranged buildings to suit their purpose.<ref name=Pruthi225/><ref name=Possehl80>Possehl (2002), pages 80-82</ref> Such planning is also evident from remains of [[Mohenjo-Daro]], a city to the north-west of Lothal, which appears to have been built adhering to a complex level of city grid planning.<ref name=Davreu1/><ref name=Possehl101>Possehl (2002), page 101</ref> This leads archaeologists to the conclusion that these cities were conceived entirely if not to a large extent before they were built—the earliest known manifestation of urban planning.<ref name=Davreu1/><ref name=Kipfer229>Kipfer (2000), page 229</ref><ref name=Upadhyaya142>Upadhyaya (1954) “VI: Indus Valley Civilization: Buildings”. Page 142</ref> |
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== From Iron Age until 1947 == |
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[[File:Banglesinindia.jpg|right|thumb|Bangles on display in India.]] |
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* '''[[Calico (textile)|Calico]]''': Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.<ref name=eb-calico>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''calico''</ref> The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from [[Gujarat]] appeared in [[Egypt]].<ref name=eb-calico/> Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.<ref name=eb-calico/> Within India, calico originated in [[Calicut]].<ref name=eb-calico/> |
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* '''[[Carding|Carding, devices for]]''': Historian of science [[Joseph Needham]] ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.<ref name=Baber1/> The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).<ref name=Baber1/> These carding devices, called ''kaman'' and ''dhunaki'' would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.<ref name=Baber1/> |
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[[File:SpreadofChessfromIndia.jpg|thumb|Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and [[Europe]], and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time.]] |
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* '''[[Chaturanga]] and [[Shatranj]]''': The precursors of [[chess]] originated in India during the [[Gupta dynasty]] (c. 280 - 550 CE).<ref name=Murray1913>Murray (1913)</ref><ref name=Forbes1860>Forbes (1860)</ref><ref name=JonesAj121>Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323-333</ref><ref name=LindeGM>Linde, Antonius (1981)</ref> Both the [[Persian people|Persians]] and [[Arab]]s ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.<ref name=JonesAj121/><ref name=Wilkinson>Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)</ref><ref name=Bird48>Bird (1893), page 63</ref> The words for "chess" in [[Old Persian]] and [[Arabic]] are ''chatrang'' and ''[[shatranj]]'' respectively — terms derived from ''[[chaturanga|caturaṅga]]'' in [[Sanskrit]],<ref name=Whyld>Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74</ref><ref name=SBI106>Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. ISBN 0-85229-762-9.</ref> which literally means an ''army of four divisions'' or ''four corps''.<ref name=Meri>Meri (2005), page 148</ref><ref name=Basham208>Basham (2001), page 208</ref> Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.<ref name=Britannica1>Encyclopedia Britannica (2002). ''Chess: Ancient precursors and related games''.</ref> This game was introduced to the [[Near East]] from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of [[Persian Empire|Persian]] nobility.<ref name=Meri/> [[Buddhist]] pilgrims, [[Silk Road]] traders and others carried it to the [[Far East]] where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<ref name=Britannica1/> Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the [[Byzantine empire]] and the expanding [[Arabian]] empire.<ref name=Basham208/><ref name=ChessEurope>Encyclopedia Britannica (2007). ''Chess: Introduction to Europe''.</ref> [[Muslims]] carried Shatranj to [[North Africa]], [[Sicily]], and [[Spain]] by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.<ref name=Britannica1/> |
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* '''[[Chintz]]''': The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.<ref name=eb-chintz>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''chintz''</ref> The origin of the word ''chintz'' itself is from the [[Hindi language]] word चित्र् (chitr) , which means a spot.<ref name=eb-chintz/><ref name="Hāṇḍā">Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133</ref> |
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* '''[[Coherer#Imperfect junction coherer|Coherer, iron and mercury]]''': In 1899, the [[Bengali people|Bengali]] physicist [[Jagdish Chandra Bose]] announced the development of an "''iron-mercury-iron coherer with [[telephone]] detector''" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.<ref>Bondyopadhyay (1988)</ref> He also later received {{US patent|755840}}, "''Detector for electrical disturbances''" (1904), for a specific [[Electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic]] receiver. |
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* '''[[Cotton Gin]]''': The [[Ajanta caves]] of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century CE.<ref name=Babergin>Baber (1996), page 56</ref> This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.<ref name=Babergin/> The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.<ref name=Baber1>Baber (1996), page 57</ref> |
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* '''[[Crescograph]]''': The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in [[plant]]s, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsanders.com/bose|title=Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth|accessdate=2008-08-05}}</ref><ref>Geddes, pages 173-176</ref> |
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* '''[[Crucible steel]]''': Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.<ref name=Juleff>G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", ''Nature'' 379 (3), 60–63 (January, 1996)</ref> In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.<ref name=Juleff/> The first crucible steel was the [[wootz steel]] that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.<ref name=Ranganathan/> Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.<ref name=Srinivasan/><ref name=Griffiths/> |
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* '''[[Dental drill]], and [[dental surgery]]''': The [[Mehrgarh]] neolithic culture in Pakistan has yielded evidence of [[dentistry]] being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE.<ref name=Coppa>Coppa, A. et al.</ref> This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with [[bow drill]]s operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen.<ref>BBC (2006). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4882968.stm ''Stone age man used dentist drill''].</ref> The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.<ref>MSNBC (2008). [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12168308/ ''Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry''].</ref> |
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[[File:Cotton dyeing in India.jpg|thumb|200px|Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.]] |
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* '''[[Incense clock]]''': Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.<ref name=Schafer161>Schafer (1963), pages 160-161</ref><ref name=Bedini69>Bedini (1994), pages 69-80</ref> Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CE—the period it appeared in China all seem to have [[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.<ref name=Schafer161/><ref name=Bedini69/> Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.<ref name=Bedini25>Bedini (1994), page 25</ref><ref name=Seiwert96>Seiwert (2003), page 96</ref><ref name=Kumar0565>Kumar, Yukteshwar (2005), page 65</ref> [[Edward H. Schafer|Edward Schafer]] asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.<ref name=Schafer161/> [[Silvio Bedini]] on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in [[Tantric Buddhism|Tantric Buddhist]] scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.<ref name=Bedini69/> |
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* '''[[India ink|India ink, carbonaceous pigment for]]''': The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.<ref name="gottsegen 30">Gottsegen, page 30.</ref><ref name=Smithja23>Smith, J. A. (1992), page 23</ref> In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.<ref name=Smithja23/><ref>"India ink", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2008</ref> [[Ink]] itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.<ref name=Banerji673/> ''Masi'', an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.<ref name=Banerji673>Banerji, page 673</ref> Indian documents written in [[Kharosthi]] with ink have been unearthed in [[Xinjiang]].<ref>Sircar, page 206</ref> The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient [[South India]].<ref>Sircar, page 62</ref> Several [[Jain]] sutras in India were compiled in ink.<ref>Sircar, page 67</ref> |
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* '''[[Indian clubs]]''': The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.<ref name=tadd95>Todd, Jan (1995). [http://www.aafla.org/SportsLibrary/IGH/IGH0306/IGH0306c.pdf ''From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs'']. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the [[LA84 Foundation|LA84 Foundation Sports Library]].</ref> During the [[British Raj]] the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.<ref name=tadd95/> From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.<ref name=tadd95/> |
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* '''[[Kabaddi]]''': The game of ''kabaddi'' originated in India during prehistory.<ref name=Alter88>Alter, page 88</ref> Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.<ref name=Alter88/> |
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* '''[[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]]''': [[Pachisi]] originated in India by the 6th century.<ref name=EncartaP>MSN Encarta (2008). [http://encarta.co.uk/encyclopedia_781530306/Pachisi.html ''Pachisi''].</ref> The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.<ref name=EncartaP/> This game was played by the [[Mughal empire|Mughal emperors]] of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played ''living Pachisi'' using girls from his [[harem]].<ref name=EncartaP/><ref>Stephen M. Edwardes and Herbert Garrett; |
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Mughal rule in India, |
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Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1995, 374 pages |
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ISBN 81-7156-551-4, 9788171565511 |
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From p.288: |
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Pachisi, an ancient Hindu game represented in the caves of Ajanta, is said to |
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have been played by Akbar on the marble squares of a quadrangle in [[Agra |
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fort]] and in the Khas Mahal at [[Fatehpur Sikri]], with young slave girls in |
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place of the coloured pieces. |
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</ref> A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to [[England]] during the British Raj.<ref name=EncartaP/> |
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* '''[[Muslin]]''': The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, [[Mosul]], in what is now [[Iraq]], but the fabric actually originated from [[Dhaka]] in what is now [[Bangladesh]].<ref>[http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/M_0427.htm Muslin], ''[[Banglapedia]]''. [[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] (2008)</ref><ref name=Muslin>{{Cite journal|first=S.|last=Ahmad|title=Rise and Decline of the Economy of Bengal|journal=Asian Affairs|volume=27|issue=3|pages=5–26|date=July–September 2005}}</ref> In the 9th century, an [[Islamic economics in the world|Arab merchant]] named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in [[Bengal]] (known as ''Ruhml'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]).<ref name=Muslin/> |
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[[File:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|The Great Stupa at [[Sanchi]] (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.]] |
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* '''[[Pajamas]]''': Pajamas in the original form were invented in India, which was for outdoor use and was reinterpreted by the British to be sleepware.<ref name=Arensberg77>Arensberg & Niehoff (1971), pages 77-78</ref><ref name=Geyer3>Geyer (2006), page 3</ref> The use of this garment spread throughout the world with increasing globalization.<ref name=Arensberg77/><ref name=Geyer3/> |
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* '''[[Palampore]]''': पालमपुर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin<ref name=eb-interior-design>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''interior design''</ref> was imported to the western world—notable England and [[Colonial america]]—from India.<ref name=eb-crewel-work>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''crewel work''</ref><ref name=eb-quilting >Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''quilting''</ref> In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.<ref name=eb-crewel-work/> Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in [[quilting]].<ref name=eb-quilting/> |
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* '''[[Playing cards]]''': Playing cards are believed to have been invented in Ancient [[India]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Carlisle| first = Rodney| title = Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]| year = 2009| page = 31| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7DiB3z2fBpAC&pg=PA31| isbn = 9781412966702}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Quackenbos| first = | title = Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical| publisher = READ BOOKS| year = 2010| page = 60| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GzgsRtvtp_gC&pg=PA60| isbn = 9781445579788}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Kapoor| first = Subodh| title = The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific - Vol 6| publisher = Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd| year = 2002| page = 1786| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1786| isbn = 9788177552577}}</ref><ref name="Townsend">{{Citation | last = Townsend| first = George| title = The manual of dates: a dictionary of reference to all the most important events in the history of mankind to be found in authentic records| publisher = Routledge, Warne, & Routledge| year = 1862| page = 184| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=HKQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref> |
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* '''[[Prayer flags]]''': The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[sūtra]]s, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.<ref name=Baker1>Barker, page 13</ref> These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.<ref name=Baker1/> Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|deva]]s'' against their adversaries, the ''[[asura]]s''.<ref name=Beer60>Beer, page 60</ref> The legend may have given the Indian ''[[bhikku]]'' a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]''.<ref name=wise-11-12>Wise, page 11-12</ref> This knowledge was carried into [[Tibet]] by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.<ref name=wise-11-12/> The Indian monk [[Atisha]] (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.<ref name=Beer60/> |
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* '''[[Prefabricated home]] and movable structure''': The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century [[Mughal Empire|Mughal India]] by [[Akbar the Great]]. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.<ref>Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", ''Social Scientist'' '''20''' (9-10): 3-15 [3-4]</ref> |
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* '''[[Rocket artillery]], iron-cased and [[Cylinder (firearms)|metal-cylinder]]''': The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder [[rocket]]s were developed by [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the South Indian [[Kingdom of Mysore]], and his father [[Hyder Ali]], in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the [[British East India Company]] during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the [[Congreve rocket]], and were soon put into use in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985), [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D.], National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science</ref><ref name=r&ms>"Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, [[Tippu Sultan]], continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at [[Seringapatam]] in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." - '''Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)'''. ''rocket and missile.''</ref> |
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* '''Seamless [[celestial globe]]''': Considered one of the most remarkable feats in [[metallurgy]], it was invented in [[Kashmir]] by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such [[globe]]s were later produced in [[Lahore]] and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.<ref name=Kamarustafa48>Kamarustafa (1992), page 48</ref><ref name=Emilie/> Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any [[wiktionary:seam|seams]], even with modern technology.<ref name=Emilie/> These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of [[lost-wax casting]] in order to produce these globes.<ref name=Emilie>{{Cite book|first=Emilie|last=Savage-Smith|title=Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.|year=1985}}</ref> |
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* '''[[Snakes and ladders]]''': Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.<ref name=Augustyn>Augustyn, pages 27-28</ref> This game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer [[Milton Bradley]] in 1943.<ref name=Augustyn/> |
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* '''[[Stupa]]''': The origin of the [[stupa]] can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''Pagoda''.</ref> It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it evolved into the [[pagoda]], a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> |
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* '''[[Stirrup|Toe stirrup]]''': The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE<ref name=Chamberlin80>Chamberlin (2007), page 80</ref> or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.<ref name=Hobson103>Hobson (2004), page 103</ref><ref name=woods2p52>Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52-53</ref> This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.<ref name=woods2p52/> Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.<ref name=woods2p52/> A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.<ref name=EIA336>"16.17.4: Stirrups". ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology'' (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336</ref> Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] and the [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja caves]] dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.<ref name=Azzaroli156>Azzaroli (1985), page 156</ref><ref name=Addington45>Addington (1990), page 45</ref><ref name=Barua17>Barua (2005), pages 16-17</ref> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".<ref name=Barua17/> In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.<ref name=Hobson103/> However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.<ref name=woods2p52/><ref name=Addington45/> |
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[[File:Sokhta Koh.jpg|thumb|Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at [[Sokhta Koh]] near [[Pasni City|Pasni]] on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization]] |
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* '''[[Wootz steel]]''': Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.<ref name=Ranganathan>Srinivasan & Ranganathan</ref> Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the [[Middle East]], where it became known as [[Damascus steel]]. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.<ref name=Srinivasan>Srinivasan 1994</ref><ref name=Griffiths>Srinivasan & Griffiths</ref> |
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===Agriculture=== |
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[[File:Jute plant.gif|thumb|left|Jute plants ''Corchorus olitorius'' and ''Corchorus capsularis'' cultivated first in India.]] |
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* '''[[Cashmere wool]]''': The fiber is also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'' for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, [[India]].<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''cashmere''.</ref> The woolen shawls made from wool in [[Kashmir]] region of India find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.<ref name=ebpasm>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''kashmir shawl''.</ref> However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, ''Zayn-ul-Abidin'', who employed weavers from [[Central Asia]].<ref name=ebpasm/> |
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* '''[[Diamond (gemstone)|Diamond Gemstones]]''': Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India.<ref name=Wenk1>Wenk, pages 535-539</ref> [[Golconda]] served as an important center for diamonds in [[central India]].<ref name=Wenk1/> Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including [[Europe]].<ref name=Wenk1/> Early references to diamonds in India come from [[Sanskrit]] texts.<ref name=Encarta11>MSN Encarta (2007). [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557986/Diamond.html ''Diamond'']. [http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257037502695777 Archived] 2009-11-01.</ref> India remained the only major source of diamonds in the world until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil.<ref name=lee1>Lee, page 685</ref> The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions diamond trade in India.<ref name=lee1/> [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.<ref name=Dickinson1/> Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.<ref name=Dickinson1>Dickinson, pages 1-3</ref> A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".<ref name=Dickinson1/> The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".<ref name=Dickinson1/> |
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* '''[[Indigo dye]]''': Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing.<ref name=k&c>Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120</ref> The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.<ref name=k&c/> Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.<ref name=k&c/> |
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* '''[[Jute]]''': Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.<ref name=ebjute/> Raw jute was exported to the [[western world]], where it was used to make [[ropes]] and cordage.<ref name=ebjute>Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). ''jute''.</ref> The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.<ref name=ebjute/> The region of [[Bengal]] was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when [[Kolkata]] became a center for jute processing in India.<ref name=ebjute/> |
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* '''[[Sugar]]''': Sugarcane was originally from tropical [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name=Sharpe/> Different species likely originated in different locations with ''S. barberi'' originating in India and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' coming from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Sharpe>[http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm Sharpe, Peter (1998). ''Sugar Cane: Past and Present''. Illinois: Southern Illinois University.]</ref> Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the [[Gupta dynasty|Imperial Guptas]],<ref name=Adas>Adas (2001), page 311</ref> and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick (2003)</ref> The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.<ref name=Kieschnick1/> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick (2003), page 258</ref> Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.<ref name=Kieschnick11/> |
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===Mathematics=== |
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[[File:Hindu-arabic1.jpg|thumb|The ''Hindu-Arabic numeral'' system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.]] |
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[[File:2064 aryabhata-crp.jpg|thumb|[[Aryabhata]]'s ''Aryabhatiya'' (476 – 550) was translated into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (ca. 820 AD).<ref name = Ansari>{{cite journal |last=Ansari|first=S. M. R.|year=1977|month= March|title=Aryabhata I, His Life and His Contributions|journal=Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India|volume=5|issue=1|pages=10–18|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2248/502 |accessdate= 2007-07-21}}</ref>]] |
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[[File:Brahmaguptra's theorem.svg|thumb|Brahmagupta's theorem (598–668) states that ''AF'' = ''FD''.]] |
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[[File:Yuktibhasa.gif|thumb|Explanation of the [[Law of sines|sine rule]] in ''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]''.]] |
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* '''[[0 (number)|0]]''': The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India.<ref name=bourbaki46>Bourbaki (1998), page 46</ref> In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.<ref name=bourbaki46/><ref name=ebcal>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra''</ref> |
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* '''[[Algebra|Algebraic abbreviations]]''': The mathematician [[Brahmagupta]] had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.<ref name=Bell96/> He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for [[square roots]] and [[cube roots]].<ref name=Bell96/> |
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* '''[[Binomial coefficients]]''': The Indian mathematician Pingala, by 300 BCE, had also managed to work with Binomial coefficients.<ref name=singh>Singh (1936), pages 623-624</ref><ref name=fowler/>{{Dubious|date=March 2011}} |
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* '''[[Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity]], [[Brahmagupta formula]], [[Brahmagupta interpolation formula]] [[Brahmagupta matrix]], and [[Brahmagupta theorem]]''': Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).<ref name=Plofker419-436>Plofker (2007), pages 419 - 436</ref><ref name=Joseph306>Joseph (2000), page 306</ref>{{Dubious|date=March 2011}} |
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* '''[[Chakravala method]]''': The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve [[Indeterminate equation|indeterminate]] [[quadratic equation]]s is commonly attributed to [[Bhāskara II]], (c. 1114–1185 CE)<ref name=SBI200>"Bhaskaracharya II". ''Students’ Encyclopedia India'' (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. ISBN 0-85229-760-2</ref><ref name=Kumar23>Kumar (2004), page 23</ref><ref name=Singh05-385>Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385</ref> although some attribute it to [[Jayadeva (mathematician)|Jayadeva]] (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).<ref name=Plofker474>Plofker (2007), page 474</ref> Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.<ref name=Goonatilake127>Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128</ref> Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his ''Bijaganita'' treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, ''[[chakra]]'' (derived from ''cakraṃ'' चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in [[Sanskrit]], relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.<ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=Baber34>Baber (1996), page 34</ref> With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.<ref name=SBI200/><ref name= Goonatilake127/><ref name=RaoKA252>Rao K. A. (2000), page 252</ref> |
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* '''[[Diophantine equation]] and Indeterminate equation''': The ''[[Shulba Sutras|Śulba Sūtras]]'' (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars.<ref>Staal (1999)</ref> Certain Diophantine equations, particularly the case of finding the generation of [[Pythagorean triples]], so one square integer equals the of the other two, are also found.<ref name=cooke198>Cooke (2005), page 198</ref>{{Dubious|date=March 2011}} |
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* '''[[Fibonacci numbers]]''': The Fibonacci numbers are a [[sequence]] of numbers named after [[Leonardo of Pisa]], known as Fibonacci.<ref name=Singh>Singh, P. (1985)</ref> Fibonacci's 1202 book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics, although the sequence had been previously described in Indian mathematics.<ref name=Singh/> The so-called Fibonacci numbers were also known to the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.<ref name=fowler/> |
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* '''[[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]''': The Hindu-Arabic numeral system had developed in India by the 6th century AD. |
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* '''Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent''': Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.<ref name=bressoud>Bressoud (2002)</ref><ref name=Plofker>Plofker (2001)</ref><ref name=katz>Katz (1995)</ref> |
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* '''[[Negative numbers]]''': The use of negative numbers was known in ancient India and their role in mathematical problems of debt and directions between points on a straight line was understood.<ref name=bourbaki49>Bourbaki (1998), page 49</ref><ref name=Aleksandrov39>Aleksandrov (1999), page 39</ref> Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated.<ref name=ebcal/> The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.<ref name=bourbaki49/> |
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* '''[[Pascal triangle]]''': The so-called Pascal triangle was solved by the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.<ref name=singh/><ref name=fowler>Fowler (1996), page 11</ref> |
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* '''[[Pell's equation]], integral solution for''': About a thousand years before [[John Pell|Pell's]] time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to ''vargaprakṛiti'' (Pell's equation):<ref name=Pswamy416>Puttaswamy (2000), page 416</ref><ref name=sw101>Stillwell (2004), pages 72-73</ref> <math>\ x^2-Ny^2=1, </math> where ''N'' is a nonsquare integer, in his [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|''Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta'']] treatise.<ref name=sw101/> |
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* '''[[Pi|Pi, infinite series]]''': The infinite series for π is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.<ref name=Goonatilake37>Goonatilake (1998), page 37</ref><ref name=Amma182>Amma (1999), pages 182 - 183</ref> He made use of the series expansion of <math>\arctan x</math> to obtain an infinite series expression for π.<ref name=Goonatilake37/> Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for π.<ref name=roy>Roy (1990)</ref> They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,<ref name=roy/><math>104348/33215</math> for π correct up to eleven decimal places, ''i.e.'' <math>3.14159265359</math>.<ref name=Borwein107>Borwein (2004), page 107</ref><ref name=Plofker481>Plofker (2007), page 481</ref> |
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* '''[[Ramanujan theta function]], [[Ramanujan prime]], [[Ramanujan summation]], [[Ramanujan graph]] and [[Ramanujan's sum]]''': Discovered by the Indian mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] in the early 20th century.<ref>Berndt & Rankin (2001)</ref> |
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* '''[[Sign convention]]''': Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.<ref name=Bell96>Bell (1992), page 96</ref> By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.<ref name=Bell96/> Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.<ref name=Bell96/> By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the [[numerator]] and the [[denominator]].<ref name=Bell96/> A dot symbol for [[negative numbers]] was also employed.<ref name=Bell96/> The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]] displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.<ref name=Bell96/> The '=' sign for equality did not exist.<ref name=Bell96/> Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.<ref name=Bell97>Bell (1992), page 97</ref> |
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* '''[[Trigonometric function]]s, adapted from Greek''': The [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions ''sine'' and ''versine'' were adapted from the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions) by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.<ref name=Pingree1>Pingree (2003): {{quote|"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."}}</ref><ref name=MactutorTrigo>J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Trigonometric_functions.html Trigonometric functions]. [[MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive]]</ref> |
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===Medicine=== |
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[[File:Cataract in human eye.png|thumb|Cataract in the [[Human Eye]]—magnified view seen on examination with a [[slit lamp]]. Indian surgeon [[Susruta]] performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.]] |
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[[File:Amastigotes in a chorionic villus.jpg|thumb|Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. [[Upendranath Brahmachari]] (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.]] |
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* '''[[Cataract surgery]]''': Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).<ref name=finger66/> In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the ''Jabamukhi Salaka'', a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.<ref name=finger66/> The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.<ref name=finger66/> Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.<ref name=finger66/> Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.<ref name=finger66>Finger (2001), page 66</ref> The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.<ref>Lade & Svoboda (2000), page 85</ref> |
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* '''[[Inoculation|Inoculation and Variolation]]''': The earliest record of inoculation and variolation for [[smallpox]] is found in 8th century [[History of India|India]], when [[Madhav]] wrote the ''Nidāna'', a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.<ref name=Hopkins140/> He included a special chapter on smallpox (''masūrikā'') and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.<ref name=Hopkins140>Hopkins (2002), page 140</ref> |
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* '''[[Leprosy]]''': Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (6th century BCE).<ref name=k&n08>Kearns & Nash (2008)</ref> However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the ''[[Atharva-veda]]'' (1500–1200 BCE), written before the ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420</ref> |
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* '''[[Plastic surgery]]''': Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.<ref name=EP>MSN Encarta (2008). [http://www.encarta.es/encyclopedia_761577922/Plastic_Surgery.html ''Plastic Surgery''].</ref> The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.<ref name=EP/> The surgeon [[Sushruta]] contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>Dwivedi & Dwivedi 2007</ref> The medical works of both Sushruta and [[Caraka Samhita|Charak]] were translated into Arabic language during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750 CE).<ref name="Lock607"/> These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.<ref name=Lock607/> In [[Italy]] the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.<ref name=Lock607>Lock etc., page 607</ref> |
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* '''[[Calculus (medicine)|Stones]]''': The earliest operation for reemoval of a stone is also given in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE).<ref name=Lock836/> The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.<ref name=Lock836>Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836</ref> |
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* '''[[Visceral leishmaniasis|Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of]]''': The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine ([[antimony|antimonial]] [[Chemical compound|compound]] for treatment of [[kala azar]]) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'<ref name=nobel_foundation_UPB>[[Nobel Foundation]] (2008). [http://nobelprize.org/nomination/medicine/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2791 ''The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901-1951'']</ref> Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_UNB>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/UNBrahmachari.htm ''Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India'']. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India</ref> Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_UNB/> |
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===Mining=== |
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* '''[[Diamond]]''': Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,<ref name=Dickinson1/><ref name=Hershey22>Hershey (2004), page 22</ref><ref name=Malkin12>Malkin (1996), page 12</ref> where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers [[Penner River|Penner]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]] and [[Godavari River|Godavari]]. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.<ref name=Hershey3,22>Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23</ref> India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the 18th century.<ref name=Thomas46>Thomas (2007), page 46</ref><ref name=Read17>Read (2005), page 17</ref> |
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* '''[[Zinc]]''': Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India.Zinc metal extraction was one of the most difficult extractions but not for Indians.<ref name= Emsley502>Emsley (2003), page 502</ref><ref name= Hoover409>Hoover (2003), page 409</ref> Zinc mines of Zawar, near [[Udaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], were active during 400 BCE.<ref name=Craddock>Craddock (1983)</ref> There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the [[Charaka Samhita]] (300 BCE).<ref name=Craddock/> The [[Rasaratna Samuccaya]] which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.<ref name=Craddock/><ref name=Biswas11>Biswas (1986), page 11</ref> The metal extraction was then stolen by the Chinese and then used by [[William Champion (metallurgist)|William Champion]] for his metallurgy of zinc. |
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===Science=== |
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* '''[[Atomism]]''': The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6th century BCE.<ref name=McEvilley317>McEvilley (2002), page 317</ref><ref name=Gango1>Gangopadhyaya (1980)</ref> The [[Nyaya]] and [[Vaisheshika]] schools developed elaborate [[Vaisheshika#The atomic theory|theories]] of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).<ref name=Teresi213>Teresi (2002), pages 213–214</ref><ref name=McEvilley31720>McEvilley (2002), 317-320</ref> The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from [[Leucippus]] whose student, [[Democritus]], systematized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term ''átomos'' ({{lang-el|ἄτομος}}), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.<ref name=Ponomarev1415>Ponomarev (1993), pages 14–15</ref> |
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* '''Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance''': Invented jointly by [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar]] and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp/> The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a [[Royal Society]] exhibition in [[London]], where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.<ref name=Vigyan_prasar_Shanti_Swaryp>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/ssbhatnagar/ShantiSwarupBhatnagar.htm ''Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar'']. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.</ref> |
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* '''[[Bhabha scattering]]''': In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist [[Homi J. Bhabha]] published a paper in the ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A]]'', in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.<ref name="Penneyp39"/> Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.<ref name="Penneyp39">Penney (1967), page 39</ref> |
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* '''[[Bose–Einstein statistics]], [[Bose–Einstein condensate|condensate]] and [[Boson]]''': On June 4, 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] mailed a short manuscript to [[Albert Einstein]] entitled [http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/15/3-7.pdf ''Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis''] seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]''.<ref name=Rigden143>Rigden (2005), pages 143-144</ref> The paper introduced what is today called ''Bose statistics'', which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of [[photons]].<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238>Fraser (2006), page 238</ref> Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into [[German language|German]] himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''.<ref name=Rigden143/><ref name=Fraser238/> Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the ''Bose-Einstein condensate''.<ref name=Fraser238/><ref name=Dauxois297>Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297-298</ref> |
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* '''[[cosmic rays|Cosmic ray showers, theoretical explanation of]]''': In 1936, physicist [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]] collaborated with [[Walter Heitler]] to formulate a theory on cosmic ray showers.<ref name="Sreekantanp45"/> They conjectured that the showers were formed by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.<ref name="Sreekantanp45"/> In this process, high energy electrons passing through matter would turn into high energy photons by means of the [[bremsstrahlung]] process.<ref name="Sreekantanp45"/> The photons then produced a positive and negative electron pair, which then led to additional production of photons.<ref name="Sreekantanp45"/> This process continued until the energy of the particles went below a critical value.<ref name="Sreekantanp45">Sreekantan (2005), page 45</ref> |
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* '''[[Formal language]] and [[formal grammar]]''': The 4th century BCE Indian scholar [[Pāṇini]] is regarded as the forerunner to these modern linguistic fields.<ref>{{MacTutor|id=Panini|title=Pāṇini|date=November 2000}}</ref> |
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* '''[[Linguistics]]''': The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and one-half millennia.<ref name=Ivic>"Linguistics". ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2008).</ref> During the 5th century BCE, the Indian scholar Pāṇini had made several discoveries in the fields of '''[[phonetics]]''', '''[[phonology]]''', and '''[[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]'''.<ref name=Ivic/> |
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* '''[[Mahalanobis distance]]''': Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]] (June 29, 1893–June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.<ref>Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6-7</ref> |
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* '''[[Nitrite|Mercurous Nitrite]]''': The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the ''[[Asiatic Society|Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal]]''.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray>[http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/pcray/PCRay.htm "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray"], Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.</ref> The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.<ref name=vigyanprasar_pcray/> |
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* '''[[Raman effect]]''': The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for [[Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman]], who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."<ref>"Raman effect".''Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2008)</ref> |
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* '''[[Saha ionization equation]]''': The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist [[Meghnad Saha]] (October 6, 1893 – February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes [[ionization]]s in context of stellar atmospheres.<ref>Narlikar (2002), page 188</ref> |
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==Innovations== |
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* '''[[History of ferrous metallurgy|Iron working]]''': Iron was developed in the [[Vedic period]] of India, around the same time as, but independently of, [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]]. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.<ref name=Tewari>[http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department)]</ref> Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of [[radiocarbon dating]]. [[Nail (fastener)|Spikes]], [[knife|knives]], [[dagger]]s, [[arrow]]-heads, [[bowl (vessel)|bowls]], [[spoon]]s, [[saucepan]]s, [[axe]]s, [[chisel]]s, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.<ref name=Ceccarelli>Marco Ceccarelli (2000). ''International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium''. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-6372-8. pp 218</ref> Some scholars believe that by the early [[13th century BC]], iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.<ref name=Tewari/> In [[Southern India]] (present day [[Mysore]]) iron appeared as early as [[11th century BC|11th]] to [[12th century BC|12th centuries BC]]; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.<ref name=UCP>I. M. Drakonoff (1991). ''Early Antiquity''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14465-8. pp 372</ref> In the time of [[Chandragupta II]] Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the [[Iron pillar of Delhi]], which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.<ref>R. Balasubramaniam (2000), [http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_17.pdf On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar], ''Corrosion Science'' '''42''': 2103-29</ref> |
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==Footnotes== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==Sources== |
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==Bibliography== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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{{refend}} |
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==See also== |
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* [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries]] |
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* [[List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries]] |
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{{Inventions|state=collapsed}} |
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[[Category:South Asia]] |
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[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries|South Asia]] |
Revision as of 17:52, 29 March 2011
This list refers to technological achievements which took place in South Asia (encompassing the modern-day states of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) before 1947 in pre-partition India.
Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation is a lost ancient civilization which flourished in the Bronze Age around the Indus River basin in what is today mainly Pakistan and the western parts of the Republic of India. It is also called the Harappan Civilization, after one of its the centres, Harappa.
Inventions
- Bangle: Bangles—made from shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate, chalcedony etc.—have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent.[1] A figurine of a dancing girl—wearing bangles on her left arm— has been excavated from Mohenjo-daro (2600 BCE) in Pakistan.[2]
- Bow drill: The bow drill appeared in Mehrgarh in what today is Pakistan between 4th-5th millennium BCE.[3] It was used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and cornelian and was made of green jasper.[3] Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and Iran one millennium later.[3]
- Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[4] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread.[4] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley in Pakistan. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[5]
- Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BCE.[6] The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BCE). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."[7]
- Dice: The die is attributed to India by some accounts.[8][9][10] Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of oblong dice have been found in Harrapan sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Desalpur and surrounding territories, some dating back to the third millennium BCE, which were used for gambling.[11][12][13] The oblong or cubical dice (akṣa) is the precursor of the more primitive vibhīṣaka—small, hard nuts drawn randomly to obtain factors of a certain integer.[14] Dicing is believed to have later spread westwards to Persia, influencing Persian board games.[15] Early references to dicing can be found in the Ṛg Veda (c. early 2nd millennium BCE)[13][16][17] as well as the newer Atharva Veda (c. late 2nd millennium ~ early 1st millennium BCE).[11][18]
- Dike: Dikes were known to be widely used in the Indus valley civilization,[19][20] which are believed to be the first dikes in the world,[20] built as early as the 1st millennium BCE.[20] This was the same period when the dockyard at Lothal was in operation.[20] The use of dikes became known from then onwards.[20]
- Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[21] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[21] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[21] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[22] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[22] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[22]
- Dyeing: Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).[23] The dye used in this case was madder, which, along with other dyes—such as Indigo—was introduced to other regions through trade.[23] Contact with Alexander the Great, who had successfully used dyeing for military camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing from India.[23] Within India these dyes have found consistent mention in Indian literature and in some cases have been excavated in archaeological findings.[23] Dyes in India were a commodity of both Internal trade and exports.[23] Indian exports of Indigo alone reached nearly 15, 097, 622 pounds in 1887-88 with the principle markets being the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France and Egypt.[23]
- Furnace: The earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley Civilization in the Mansehra District in the Hazara region of Pakistan, dating back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE). The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects.[24]
- Plough, animal-drawn: The earliest archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan.[25]
- Puppets and Puppetry: Evidence of puppetry comes from the excavations at the Indus Valley.[26] Archaeologists have unearthed terracotta dolls with detachable heads capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BCE.[26] Other excavations include terracotta animals which could be manipulated up and down a stick—-archiving minimum animation in both cases.[26] The epic Mahabharata; Tamil literature from the Sangam Era, and various literary works dating from the late centuries BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era—including Ashokan edicts—describe puppets.[27] Works like the Natya Shastra and the Kamasutra elaborate on puppetry in some detail.[28] The Javanese Wayang theater was influenced by Indian traditions.[29] Europeans developed puppetry as a result of extensive contact with the Eastern World.[30]
- Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[31] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch—less than 2 millimeters.[31] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracy—to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[32] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[33] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[33]
- Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.[34] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[34] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[34] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[34] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[35] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[35]
Discoveries
Agriculture
- Ivory: The use of ivory in India dates to the Indus Valley Civilization (2300-1750 BCE).[36] Archaeological excavations have yielded combs, buttons, and other material made from Ivory.[36] The use of ivory for making figurines in India continued into the 6th century BCE.[36] Banglapedia (2008) holds that: "Stone inscriptions found at the ruins of Sanchi Stupa speak of trading in ivory crafts at Bidisha in the 1st century BC. During the Sung rule (1st century BCE) ivory craftsmen were engaged to work on the gates of the stupas at Bharhut, Buddhgaya and Sanchi. Ivory artefacts dating from the Sung period meant for cosmetic use have also been found at Chandraketu Garh in West Bengal. Ivory crafts were also popular during the Kushan period, as suggested by the abundance of ivory artefacts found at Taxila and Begram.".[36]
- Cotton: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[37] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[38] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the Mediterranean and beyond.[39]
Science
- Metrology: The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.[40] This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.[40] Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices.[40]
Innovations
- Public bathing: According to John Keay the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[41] The bath is housed inside a larger—more elaborate—building and was used for public bathing.[41]
- Urban planning: Remains of major Indus cities (mature period c. 2600–1900 BCE) in what today is Pakistan and Western India, display distinct characteristics of urban planning such as streets crossing each other at right angles, well arranged rows of structures as well as neatly built, covered drainage and sewage lines, complete with maintenance sumps, running along backlanes.[42][43] Drains in the ancient maritime city of Lothal for example, designed to be able to take out the city’s entire domestic sewage and storm-water were mostly underground, and built to high levels of uniformity, whereby the slopes never exceed 1 in 10,000.[43][44] In terms of segregation, Lothal was divided into three districts: the citadel, the lower town and the dockyard, which were further divided into smaller administration centres, all having well planned infrastructure such as wide, straight roads along neatly arranged buildings to suit their purpose.[43][45] Such planning is also evident from remains of Mohenjo-Daro, a city to the north-west of Lothal, which appears to have been built adhering to a complex level of city grid planning.[42][46] This leads archaeologists to the conclusion that these cities were conceived entirely if not to a large extent before they were built—the earliest known manifestation of urban planning.[42][47][48]
From Iron Age until 1947
- Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[49] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[49] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[49] Within India, calico originated in Calicut.[49]
- Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[50] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[50] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[50]
- Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE).[51][52][53][54] Both the Persians and Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.[53][55][56] The words for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively — terms derived from caturaṅga in Sanskrit,[57][58] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps.[59][60] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.[61] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.[59] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.[61] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire.[60][62] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.[61]
- Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[63] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word चित्र् (chitr) , which means a spot.[63][64]
- Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[65] He also later received U.S. patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver.
- Cotton Gin: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century CE.[66] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[66] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[50]
- Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose.[67][68]
- Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 CE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[69] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[69] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[70] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[71][72]
- Dental drill, and dental surgery: The Mehrgarh neolithic culture in Pakistan has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE.[73] This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen.[74] The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[75]
- Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[76][77] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CE—the period it appeared in China all seem to have Devanāgarī carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[76][77] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[78][79][80] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanāgarī inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[76] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[77]
- India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[81][82] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[82][83] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[84] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[84] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[85] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[86] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[87]
- Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[88] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[88] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[88]
- Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[89] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[89]
- Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[90] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[90] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[90][91] A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[90]
- Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[92][93] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[93]
- Pajamas: Pajamas in the original form were invented in India, which was for outdoor use and was reinterpreted by the British to be sleepware.[94][95] The use of this garment spread throughout the world with increasing globalization.[94][95]
- Palampore: पालमपुर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin[96] was imported to the western world—notable England and Colonial america—from India.[97][98] In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[97] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[98]
- Playing cards: Playing cards are believed to have been invented in Ancient India.[99][100][101][102]
- Prayer flags: The Buddhist sūtras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[103] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[103] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[104] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[105] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[105] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[104]
- Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[106]
- Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[107][108]
- Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[109][110] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[110] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[110]
- Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.[111] This game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[111]
- Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[112] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[112] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[112]
- Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[113] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[114][115] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[115] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[115] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[116] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[117][118][119] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[119] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[114] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[115][118]
- Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[70] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[71][72]
Agriculture
- Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[120] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[121] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[121]
- Diamond Gemstones: Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India.[122] Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[122] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[122] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[123] India remained the only major source of diamonds in the world until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil.[124] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[124] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[125] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[125] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[125] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".[125]
- Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing.[126] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[126] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[126]
- Jute: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[127] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[127] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[127] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.[127]
- Sugar: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[128] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[128] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[129] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[130] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[130] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[131] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[131]
Mathematics
- 0: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India.[133] In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.[133][134]
- Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[135] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[135] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[135]
- Binomial coefficients: The Indian mathematician Pingala, by 300 BCE, had also managed to work with Binomial coefficients.[136][137][dubious ]
- Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta interpolation formula Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).[138][139][dubious ]
- Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114–1185 CE)[140][141][142] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[143] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[144] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[144][145] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[140][144][146]
- Diophantine equation and Indeterminate equation: The Śulba Sūtras (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars.[147] Certain Diophantine equations, particularly the case of finding the generation of Pythagorean triples, so one square integer equals the of the other two, are also found.[148][dubious ]
- Fibonacci numbers: The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers named after Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci.[149] Fibonacci's 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics, although the sequence had been previously described in Indian mathematics.[149] The so-called Fibonacci numbers were also known to the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[137]
- Hindu-Arabic numeral system: The Hindu-Arabic numeral system had developed in India by the 6th century AD.
- Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent: Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[150][151][152]
- Negative numbers: The use of negative numbers was known in ancient India and their role in mathematical problems of debt and directions between points on a straight line was understood.[153][154] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated.[134] The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[153]
- Pascal triangle: The so-called Pascal triangle was solved by the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[136][137]
- Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakṛiti (Pell's equation):[155][156] where N is a nonsquare integer, in his Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta treatise.[156]
- Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for π is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[157][158] He made use of the series expansion of to obtain an infinite series expression for π.[157] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for π.[159] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[159] for π correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. .[160][161]
- Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[162]
- Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[135] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[135] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[135] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[135] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.[135] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.[135] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[135] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[163]
- Trigonometric functions, adapted from Greek: The trigonometric functions sine and versine were adapted from the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions) by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[164][165]
Medicine
- Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[166] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[166] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[166] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.[166] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[166] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[167]
- Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation and variolation for smallpox is found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidāna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[168] He included a special chapter on smallpox (masūrikā) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[168]
- Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[169] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[170]
- Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[171] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[171] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[172] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[173] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[173] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[173]
- Stones: The earliest operation for reemoval of a stone is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[174] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[174]
- Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[175] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[176] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.[176]
Mining
- Diamond: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[125][177][178] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[179] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the 18th century.[180][181]
- Zinc: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India.Zinc metal extraction was one of the most difficult extractions but not for Indians.[182][183] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[184] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[184] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[184][185] The metal extraction was then stolen by the Chinese and then used by William Champion for his metallurgy of zinc.
Science
- Atomism: The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6th century BCE.[186][187] The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).[188][189] The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systematized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term átomos (Greek: ἄτομος), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.[190]
- Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[191] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[191]
- Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.[192] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.[192]
- Bose–Einstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On June 4, 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical Magazine.[193] The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of photons.[193][194] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik.[193][194] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the Bose-Einstein condensate.[194][195]
- Cosmic ray showers, theoretical explanation of: In 1936, physicist Homi Jehangir Bhabha collaborated with Walter Heitler to formulate a theory on cosmic ray showers.[196] They conjectured that the showers were formed by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.[196] In this process, high energy electrons passing through matter would turn into high energy photons by means of the bremsstrahlung process.[196] The photons then produced a positive and negative electron pair, which then led to additional production of photons.[196] This process continued until the energy of the particles went below a critical value.[196]
- Formal language and formal grammar: The 4th century BCE Indian scholar Pāṇini is regarded as the forerunner to these modern linguistic fields.[197]
- Linguistics: The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and one-half millennia.[198] During the 5th century BCE, the Indian scholar Pāṇini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology.[198]
- Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893–June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[199]
- Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[200] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.[200]
- Raman effect: The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[201]
- Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (October 6, 1893 – February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.[202]
Innovations
- Iron working: Iron was developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.[203] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[204] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[203] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[205] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[206]
Footnotes
- ^ Ghosh (1990), page 224
- ^ Ghosh (1990), page 83
- ^ a b c Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Routledge. 22. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.
- ^ a b Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9.
- ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopaedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.
- ^ Sherman, David M. (2002). Tending Animals in the Global Village. Blackwell Publishing. 46. ISBN 0-683-18051-7.
- ^ Cockfighting. Encyclopedia Britannica 2008
- ^ Robinson & Estes (1996), page 34
- ^ Lowie (2007), page 162
- ^ Nejat (1998), page 165
- ^ a b Brown (1964), page 34 Cite error: The named reference "Brown1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "Games and Amusement: Dice". Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology edited by A. Ghosh (1990), 1: 178-179, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09264-1
- ^ a b Varadpande (2005), pages 156-157
- ^ Basham (2001), pages 207-208
- ^ "Backgammon". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia Volume 1, A-K index. Edited by Meri, Josef W (2006). London: Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 0-415-96690-6
- ^ Ṛg Veda, Book 10, 34
- ^ Basham (2001), pages 207 & 403-405
- ^ Atharva Veda 2.3; 4.38; 6.118; 7.52; 7.109
- ^ McIntosh (2007), page 14
- ^ a b c d e Koppel (2007), page 217
- ^ a b c Rao, pages 27–28
- ^ a b c Rao, pages 28–29
- ^ a b c d e f Bhardwaj, H.C. & Jain, K.K., "Indian Dyes and Industry During 18th-19th Century", Indian Journal of History of Science, 17 (11): 70-81, New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.
- ^ Dales (1974)
- ^ Lal, R. (August 2001). "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000". Soil and Tillage Research. 61 (1–2): 3–12 [3]. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2.
- ^ a b c Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, page 14
- ^ Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, pages 14-15
- ^ Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee, pages 15-16
- ^ Bell 2000, page 46
- ^ Bell 2000, page 37
- ^ a b Whitelaw, page 14
- ^ Whitelaw, page 15
- ^ a b Iwata, 2254
- ^ a b c d Livingston & Beach, 20
- ^ a b Livingston & Beach, page xxiii
- ^ a b c d Banglapedia (2008). Ivory Arts . Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
- ^ Stein (1998), page 47
- ^ Wisseman & Williams (1994), page 127
- ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. cotton.
- ^ a b c Baber (1996), page 23
- ^ a b Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York, USA: Grove Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 0802137970.
- ^ a b c Davreu (1978), pages 121-129
- ^ a b c Pruthi (2004), pages 225-270
- ^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1992). Page 307
- ^ Possehl (2002), pages 80-82
- ^ Possehl (2002), page 101
- ^ Kipfer (2000), page 229
- ^ Upadhyaya (1954) “VI: Indus Valley Civilization: Buildings”. Page 142
- ^ a b c d Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). calico
- ^ a b c d Baber (1996), page 57
- ^ Murray (1913)
- ^ Forbes (1860)
- ^ a b Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323-333
- ^ Linde, Antonius (1981)
- ^ Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)
- ^ Bird (1893), page 63
- ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74
- ^ Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. ISBN 0-85229-762-9.
- ^ a b Meri (2005), page 148
- ^ a b Basham (2001), page 208
- ^ a b c Encyclopedia Britannica (2002). Chess: Ancient precursors and related games.
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2007). Chess: Introduction to Europe.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). chintz
- ^ Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133
- ^ Bondyopadhyay (1988)
- ^ a b Baber (1996), page 56
- ^ "Jagadis Bose Research on Measurement of Plant Growth". Retrieved 2008-08-05.
- ^ Geddes, pages 173-176
- ^ a b G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", Nature 379 (3), 60–63 (January, 1996)
- ^ a b Srinivasan & Ranganathan
- ^ a b Srinivasan 1994
- ^ a b Srinivasan & Griffiths
- ^ Coppa, A. et al.
- ^ BBC (2006). Stone age man used dentist drill.
- ^ MSNBC (2008). Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry.
- ^ a b c Schafer (1963), pages 160-161
- ^ a b c Bedini (1994), pages 69-80
- ^ Bedini (1994), page 25
- ^ Seiwert (2003), page 96
- ^ Kumar, Yukteshwar (2005), page 65
- ^ Gottsegen, page 30.
- ^ a b Smith, J. A. (1992), page 23
- ^ "India ink", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008
- ^ a b Banerji, page 673
- ^ Sircar, page 206
- ^ Sircar, page 62
- ^ Sircar, page 67
- ^ a b c Todd, Jan (1995). From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the LA84 Foundation Sports Library.
- ^ a b Alter, page 88
- ^ a b c d MSN Encarta (2008). Pachisi.
- ^ Stephen M. Edwardes and Herbert Garrett; Mughal rule in India, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 1995, 374 pages ISBN 81-7156-551-4, 9788171565511 From p.288: Pachisi, an ancient Hindu game represented in the caves of Ajanta, is said to have been played by Akbar on the marble squares of a quadrangle in [[Agra fort]] and in the Khas Mahal at Fatehpur Sikri, with young slave girls in place of the coloured pieces.
- ^ Muslin, Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (2008)
- ^ a b Ahmad, S. (July–September 2005). "Rise and Decline of the Economy of Bengal". Asian Affairs. 27 (3): 5–26.
- ^ a b Arensberg & Niehoff (1971), pages 77-78
- ^ a b Geyer (2006), page 3
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). interior design
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). crewel work
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). quilting
- ^ Carlisle, Rodney (2009), Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society, SAGE Publications, p. 31, ISBN 9781412966702
- ^ Quackenbos (2010), Illustrated History of Ancient Literature, Oriental and Classical, READ BOOKS, p. 60, ISBN 9781445579788
- ^ Kapoor, Subodh (2002), The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious, administrative, ethnological, commercial and scientific - Vol 6, Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd, p. 1786, ISBN 9788177552577
- ^ Townsend, George (1862), The manual of dates: a dictionary of reference to all the most important events in the history of mankind to be found in authentic records, Routledge, Warne, & Routledge, p. 184
- ^ a b Barker, page 13
- ^ a b Beer, page 60
- ^ a b Wise, page 11-12
- ^ Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", Social Scientist 20 (9-10): 3-15 [3-4]
- ^ Roddam Narasimha (1985), Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750-1850 A.D., National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science
- ^ "Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British." - Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). rocket and missile.
- ^ Kamarustafa (1992), page 48
- ^ a b c Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985). Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their history, Construction, and Use. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
- ^ a b Augustyn, pages 27-28
- ^ a b c Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). Pagoda.
- ^ Chamberlin (2007), page 80
- ^ a b Hobson (2004), page 103
- ^ a b c d Woods & Woods (2000), pages 52-53
- ^ "16.17.4: Stirrups". Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336
- ^ Azzaroli (1985), page 156
- ^ a b Addington (1990), page 45
- ^ a b Barua (2005), pages 16-17
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). cashmere.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). kashmir shawl.
- ^ a b c Wenk, pages 535-539
- ^ MSN Encarta (2007). Diamond. Archived 2009-11-01.
- ^ a b Lee, page 685
- ^ a b c d e Dickinson, pages 1-3
- ^ a b c Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120
- ^ a b c d Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). jute.
- ^ a b Sharpe, Peter (1998). Sugar Cane: Past and Present. Illinois: Southern Illinois University.
- ^ Adas (2001), page 311
- ^ a b Kieschnick (2003)
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- ^ Ansari, S. M. R. (1977). "Aryabhata I, His Life and His Contributions". Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 5 (1): 10–18. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Bourbaki (1998), page 46
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- ^ a b Singh (1936), pages 623-624
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- ^ Joseph (2000), page 306
- ^ a b "Bhaskaracharya II". Students’ Encyclopedia India (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. ISBN 0-85229-760-2
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- ^ Rao K. A. (2000), page 252
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- ^ a b Roy (1990)
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- ^ Pingree (2003):
"Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."
- ^ J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996). Trigonometric functions. MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
- ^ a b c d e Finger (2001), page 66
- ^ Lade & Svoboda (2000), page 85
- ^ a b Hopkins (2002), page 140
- ^ Kearns & Nash (2008)
- ^ Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 420
- ^ a b MSN Encarta (2008). Plastic Surgery.
- ^ Dwivedi & Dwivedi 2007
- ^ a b c Lock etc., page 607
- ^ a b Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836
- ^ Nobel Foundation (2008). The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901-1951
- ^ a b Upendra Nath Brahmachari: A Pioneer of Modern Medicine in India. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India
- ^ Hershey (2004), page 22
- ^ Malkin (1996), page 12
- ^ Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23
- ^ Thomas (2007), page 46
- ^ Read (2005), page 17
- ^ Emsley (2003), page 502
- ^ Hoover (2003), page 409
- ^ a b c Craddock (1983)
- ^ Biswas (1986), page 11
- ^ McEvilley (2002), page 317
- ^ Gangopadhyaya (1980)
- ^ Teresi (2002), pages 213–214
- ^ McEvilley (2002), 317-320
- ^ Ponomarev (1993), pages 14–15
- ^ a b Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.
- ^ a b Penney (1967), page 39
- ^ a b c Rigden (2005), pages 143-144
- ^ a b c Fraser (2006), page 238
- ^ Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297-298
- ^ a b c d e Sreekantan (2005), page 45
- ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (November 2000), "Pāṇini", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
- ^ a b "Linguistics". Encyclopedia Britannica (2008).
- ^ Taguchi & Jugulum (2002), pages 6-7
- ^ a b "Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray", Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.
- ^ "Raman effect".Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)
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- ^ Marco Ceccarelli (2000). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium. Springer. ISBN 0-7923-6372-8. pp 218
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