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The city of Kaunas is located at the [[confluence]] of two rivers, the [[Neman River|Neman]] and [[Neris]], which link Lithuania's interior and its capital, [[Vilnius]], to the [[Baltic Sea]]. The [[Baltic peoples]] had created significant domains by the 1st century, and came into conflict with the [[Scandinavia]]ns and the [[Slav]]s; the [[Teutonic Order]] began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Frucht|2005|p=128}}</ref> Since Lithuania was [[geography of Lithuania|heavily wooded]] and its lands were often impassable, its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer.<ref name=rowell>{{Harvnb|Rowell|1994|pp=49–54}}</ref> In response to this vulnerability, defensive structures, including a [[Kaunas Castle|brick castle]] in Kaunas, were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century.<ref name=rowell/><ref name=cityofkaunas>{{citation|title=Kaunas: An Historical Overview|publisher=City of Kaunas|url=http://www.kaunas.lt/go.php/eng/Kaunas_history/531|year=2007|access-date=2008-09-28|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523183011/http://www.kaunas.lt/go.php/eng/Kaunas_history/531|archive-date=2009-05-23}}</ref> The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361; it received [[Magdeburg rights]], regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols, from [[Vytautas the Great]] in 1408. An outpost of the [[Hanseatic League]] was created there in 1441. By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center, but plagues, fires, and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=KTL/><ref name=cityofkaunas/> Following the [[partitions of Poland|partitions]] of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]]. Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city's revival. The [[Augustów Canal]], completed in 1832, linked the Neman to the [[Black Sea]], and a [[Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway|rail line linking Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, and Germany]] via Kaunas was completed in 1862; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways.<ref name=cityofkaunas/><ref>{{citation|script-title=ru:Дорога САНКТ - ПЕТЕРБУРГ - ЛУГА - ПСКОВ - РЕЗЕКНЕ - ВИЛЬНЮС – ВАРШАВА|url=http://www.pskovrail.narod.ru/main11history.html|year=2008|access-date=2008-05-21|language=ru|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005044047/http://www.pskovrail.narod.ru/main11history.html|archive-date=2011-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Mearsheimer|2001|p=70}}</ref> |
The city of Kaunas is located at the [[confluence]] of two rivers, the [[Neman River|Neman]] and [[Neris]], which link Lithuania's interior and its capital, [[Vilnius]], to the [[Baltic Sea]]. The [[Baltic peoples]] had created significant domains by the 1st century, and came into conflict with the [[Scandinavia]]ns and the [[Slav]]s; the [[Teutonic Order]] began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Frucht|2005|p=128}}</ref> Since Lithuania was [[geography of Lithuania|heavily wooded]] and its lands were often impassable, its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer.<ref name=rowell>{{Harvnb|Rowell|1994|pp=49–54}}</ref> In response to this vulnerability, defensive structures, including a [[Kaunas Castle|brick castle]] in Kaunas, were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century.<ref name=rowell/><ref name=cityofkaunas>{{citation|title=Kaunas: An Historical Overview|publisher=City of Kaunas|url=http://www.kaunas.lt/go.php/eng/Kaunas_history/531|year=2007|access-date=2008-09-28|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523183011/http://www.kaunas.lt/go.php/eng/Kaunas_history/531|archive-date=2009-05-23}}</ref> The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361; it received [[Magdeburg rights]], regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols, from [[Vytautas the Great]] in 1408. An outpost of the [[Hanseatic League]] was created there in 1441. By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center, but plagues, fires, and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=KTL/><ref name=cityofkaunas/> Following the [[partitions of Poland|partitions]] of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]]. Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city's revival. The [[Augustów Canal]], completed in 1832, linked the Neman to the [[Black Sea]], and a [[Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway|rail line linking Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, and Germany]] via Kaunas was completed in 1862; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways.<ref name=cityofkaunas/><ref>{{citation|script-title=ru:Дорога САНКТ - ПЕТЕРБУРГ - ЛУГА - ПСКОВ - РЕЗЕКНЕ - ВИЛЬНЮС – ВАРШАВА|url=http://www.pskovrail.narod.ru/main11history.html|year=2008|access-date=2008-05-21|language=ru|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005044047/http://www.pskovrail.narod.ru/main11history.html|archive-date=2011-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Mearsheimer|2001|p=70}}</ref> |
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Russia's western borders needed support, and fortresses existed or were being built in [[Latvia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Belarus]]. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796,<ref>{{Harvnb|Orlov|2007|p=34}}</ref> but became a critical concern after the [[French invasion of Russia (1812)|French invasion of Russia in 1812]] led by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]].<ref name=AP>{{Harvnb|Pociūnas|2008|p=14}}</ref> The [[Grande Armée]] managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards [[Moscow]] without major difficulties.<ref name=Kamane>{{citation|author=Nijolė Steponaitytė|title=Kauno tvirtovė|url=http://www.kamane.lt/lt/atgarsiai/architektura/architekatgarsis110|year=2007|access-date=2008-05-21|language=lt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070928133644/http://www.kamane.lt/lt/atgarsiai/architektura/architekatgarsis110|archive-date=2007-09-28}}</ref> An increasingly unified Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Millett|1987|p=286}}</ref> A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards [[Riga]] and |
Russia's western borders needed support, and fortresses existed or were being built in [[Latvia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Belarus]]. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796,<ref>{{Harvnb|Orlov|2007|p=34}}</ref> but became a critical concern after the [[French invasion of Russia (1812)|French invasion of Russia in 1812]] led by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]].<ref name=AP>{{Harvnb|Pociūnas|2008|p=14}}</ref> The [[Grande Armée]] managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards [[Moscow]] without major difficulties.<ref name=Kamane>{{citation|author=Nijolė Steponaitytė|title=Kauno tvirtovė|url=http://www.kamane.lt/lt/atgarsiai/architektura/architekatgarsis110|year=2007|access-date=2008-05-21|language=lt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070928133644/http://www.kamane.lt/lt/atgarsiai/architektura/architekatgarsis110|archive-date=2007-09-28}}</ref> An increasingly unified Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Millett|1987|p=286}}</ref> A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards [[Riga]] and Vilnius. In order to control the region, attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas. Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city, Russian officials decided to construct a fortress there. After several delays, on July 7, 1879 [[Tsar]] [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] issued an edict ordering its construction.<ref name=KTL>{{citation|title=Kauno tvirtovės istorija|publisher=Gintaras Česonis|url=http://tvirtove.kaunas.lt/|year=2004|access-date=2008-06-12|language=lt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510074436/http://tvirtove.kaunas.lt/|archive-date=2011-05-10}}</ref> |
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==Construction== |
==Construction== |
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| '''V''' |
| '''V''' |
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| '''VI''' |
| '''VI''' |
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| '''VII''' |
| '''[[Seventh Fort|VII]]''' |
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| '''VIII''' |
| '''[[Eighth Fort|VIII]]''' |
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| '''IX''' |
| '''[[Ninth Fort|IX]]''' |
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| Start of construction || 1882 || 1883 || 1883 || 1884 || 1884 || 1883 || 1884 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1884 || 1890 || 1903 |
| Start of construction || 1882 || 1883 || 1883 || 1884 || 1884 || 1883 || 1884 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1883 || 1884 || 1890 || 1903 |
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[[File:Kauno soboras.St. Michael the Archangel's Church.Kaunas.jpg|thumb|left|[[St. Michael the Archangel Church, Kaunas|The Garrison Church]] was constructed for the fortress garrison]] |
[[File:Kauno soboras.St. Michael the Archangel's Church.Kaunas.jpg|thumb|left|[[St. Michael the Archangel Church, Kaunas|The Garrison Church]] was constructed for the fortress garrison]] |
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The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg.<ref name=Orlov>{{Harvnb|Orlov|2007|p=15}}</ref> As originally planned, the fortress encompassed a huge site, consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in [[concentric]] loops. The plan included support buildings and infrastructures, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot. Construction began in 1882;<ref name=LT>{{citation|title=Iš Kauno tvirtovės fortų istorijos| publisher=Fortai|url= http://www.fortai.projektas.in/print.php?type=A&item_id=9|access-date= 2008-06-12|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927050022/http://www.fortai.projektas.in/print.php?type=A&item_id=9 |archive-date = September 27, 2007|language=lt}}</ref> about 4,000 workers were mustered for the project.<ref name="AP"/> The principal structures were concentrated in [[Freda (Kaunas)|Freda]], [[Panemunė(neighbourhood)|Panemunė]], [[Aleksotas]], and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board; its commandant wrote that "There is no city of Kaunas, there is only the Fortress of Kaunas."<ref name=interwar/><ref name=jarma>{{citation |
The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg.<ref name=Orlov>{{Harvnb|Orlov|2007|p=15}}</ref> As originally planned, the fortress encompassed a huge site, consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in [[concentric]] loops. The plan included support buildings and infrastructures, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot. Construction began in 1882;<ref name=LT>{{citation|title=Iš Kauno tvirtovės fortų istorijos| publisher=Fortai|url= http://www.fortai.projektas.in/print.php?type=A&item_id=9|access-date= 2008-06-12|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927050022/http://www.fortai.projektas.in/print.php?type=A&item_id=9 |archive-date = September 27, 2007|language=lt}}</ref> about 4,000 workers were mustered for the project.<ref name="AP"/> The principal structures were concentrated in [[Freda (Kaunas)|Freda]], [[Panemunė(neighbourhood)|Panemunė]], [[Aleksotas]], and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board; its commandant wrote that "There is no city of Kaunas, there is only the Fortress of Kaunas."<ref name=interwar/><ref name=jarma>{{citation|series=NATO Security through Science Series|year=2007|first=Jarmalavičiutė|last=Neringa |author2=Rimvydas Strazdas|title=Environmental Security and Public Safety |chapter=The Fortress of Kaunas: History Present Situation and Conversion Challenges |pages=127–145|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5644-4_11|isbn=978-1-4020-5642-0}}</ref> |
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The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach.<ref name=Kamane/> They were [[symmetry|symmetrical]], usually having five faces, with positions for [[infantry]] and [[artillery]]. These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time. Therefore, the first seven forts were very similar; they differed only in the layout of their interiors, their integration into the surrounding relief, and in some construction details. They would also be renovated in slightly different ways.<ref name=Orlov/> Batteries were built between adjacent forts; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery, located along the fortress' outer lines and usually erected on the hills.<ref name=Orlov/> The first construction phase was completed in 1887.<ref name=LT/><ref name=LTE>{{Harvnb|Zinkus|1979|p=395}}</ref> The fortress was designated first-class in that year, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant.<ref name=LTE/> At the same time, administrative rules were established to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas; the height of the fortress' civil buildings was restricted.<ref name=ML/> |
The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach.<ref name=Kamane/> They were [[symmetry|symmetrical]], usually having five faces, with positions for [[infantry]] and [[artillery]]. These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time. Therefore, the first seven forts were very similar; they differed only in the layout of their interiors, their integration into the surrounding relief, and in some construction details. They would also be renovated in slightly different ways.<ref name=Orlov/> Batteries were built between adjacent forts; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery, located along the fortress' outer lines and usually erected on the hills.<ref name=Orlov/> The first construction phase was completed in 1887.<ref name=LT/><ref name=LTE>{{Harvnb|Zinkus|1979|p=395}}</ref> The fortress was designated first-class in that year, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant.<ref name=LTE/> At the same time, administrative rules were established to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas; the height of the fortress' civil buildings was restricted.<ref name=ML>{{Harvnb|Kviklys|1991|pp=242–243}}</ref> |
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[[File:IX Fort (2008-09-20)13.jpg|thumb|One of the longest tunnels in the [[Ninth Fort]]]] |
[[File:IX Fort (2008-09-20)13.jpg|thumb|One of the longest tunnels in the [[Ninth Fort]]]] |
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==World War I== |
==World War I== |
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{{See|Siege of Kovno}} |
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[[File:II Kauno fortas.The second fort of Kaunas.jpg|thumb|The Second Fort after German bombardment]][[File:42 cm Gamma Mörser AWM A02560.jpeg|thumb|The German [[Gamma-Gerät]] gun. German artillery played the key role in the offensive.]] |
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In 1915, [[German Empire|Germany]] and the [[Central Powers]] began an [[Great Retreat (Russian)|offensive against Russia]] and advanced towards Lithuania and Kaunas. The German army reached Kaunas Fortress in July 1915. At that time, about 90,000 soldiers, commanded by [[Vladimir Grigoriev]] ({{lang-ru|Владимир Григорьев}}), manned the fortress.<ref name=GRI>{{citation| script-title=ru:БИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ УКАЗАТЕЛЬ|url=http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_g/grigorev_vn.html|publisher=ХРОНОС|access-date=2008-06-12|language=ru}}</ref> To attack the fortress, the Germans brought four [[division (military)|divisions]] to the operation, which were placed under the command of [[Karl Litzmann]].<ref name=ML>{{Harvnb|Kviklys|1991|pp=242–243}}</ref> |
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To support this attack, the Germans constructed a railroad to transport their {{convert|42|cm|in|adj=on}} [[Gamma-Gerät]] [[howitzer]]. The howitzer's shell weighed about 1 ton with a range of {{convert|14|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Orlov|2007|p=138}}</ref> Several days into the siege more guns of various calibers were deployed. |
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The German army concentrated its attack on the First, Second and Third Forts, which were the complex's oldest structures. The army did not surround the entire fortress, and its defense was able to regroup and resupply. On August 8, the Germans intensified their bombardment, but the fortress garrison withstood several attempts to breach the defensive perimeter. Several days afterward, the bombardment of the fortress reached its peak; its defenders sustained heavy casualty rates of 50% to 75%.<ref name=LT/> On August 14, over 1,000 defending troops were killed,<ref name=LT/> but the Germans were unable to completely overcome the fortress' defenses. However, on the next day, Gamma-Gerät shells destroyed the First Fort and the Germans transferred their attentions to the Second Fort. The fight was now within the confines of the greater fortress complex. |
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The commander of the 10th Army, E. Radkevich, at noon on August 16, asked M. Alekseyev: how should one regard the Kovno fortress transferred to his subordination: whether to allow it to be completely surrounded by the enemy, whether to defend the northern forts, despite the loss of the fortifications of the 1st division, or start evacuating the garrison, weapons and military supplies, as this must be done in a timely manner. On the morning of August 17, M. Alekseyev allowed the use of his reserve for the defense of Kovno - the 4th Finnish Rifle and 65th Infantry Divisions. E. Radkevich ordered the 3rd Siberian Corps to immediately attack the enemy. In the night battle, the German units that penetrated the forts were driven out, but to the north of the fortress, the detachment of Major General N. Yanovsky was driven back by the German 4th Cavalry Division. From 11 o'clock K. Litzman began shelling the forts of the 1st Defense Department with 208 guns, including 80 heavy and 10 super-heavy howitzers and mortars; fire was corrected from airplanes and balloons. By 12 o'clock, almost all the artillery of the Kovno forts was put out of action, and the infantry of the German 40th reserve corps went on the attack, broke through between forts II and III, and captured fort I by 14 o'clock. By 18 o'clock, all the forts of the 1st division were captured ; in the northern section, the central fence of the fortress was broken through. Bridges across the Neman were occupied by hundreds of Cossacks and prepared for the explosion. 4,000 prisoners and 52 guns fell into the hands of the Germans (115th Infantry, 76th and 79th Reserve Divisions).<ref>Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918. Bd. VIII, p. 479</ref> |
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The bombardment from siege weapons affected the defenses of Kovno. In the 1st department of the fortress, losses reached 75% of the composition (164 officers and 11,968 soldiers), batteries of heavy guns were broken, and anti-assault guns were suppressed. The problem of the defenders was the lack of ammunition: they were armed with Japanese rifles, for which there were no cartridges in Kovno. Grigoriev appealed in vain to the command of the 10th Army, and even on July 31 he decided to send a complaint to the front headquarters: “... Large losses and fatigue of people force people to ask for help, requests for which the 10th Army is silent or is limited by General Popov to incomprehensible polemics ... To replace the melted units, I need 12 whole battalions, at least for the time of putting the garrison units in order. However, the front headquarters forwarded the complaint to the headquarters of the 10th Army. |
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By the night of August 17, the garrison of the 1st division completely left the Neman, parts of the 2nd defense department left the fortifications under the threat of encirclement. The commandant of the fortress [[Григорьев Владимир Николаевич |V. Grigoriev]] was ordered to "take out everything that is possible, lingering on the remaining forts." At about one in the morning, the headquarters of the 10th Army, unable to contact Grigoriev, transferred command of the garrison to the head of the 124th Infantry Division, Infantry General [[Лопушанский, Николай Яковлевич|N. Lopushansky]], who defended the 4th department of the fortress. It turned out that fort V was still being defended, and fort IV was not occupied by anyone. Bridges across the Neman River were blown up. |
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At 4 o'clock on August 17, V. Grigoriev telegraphed to the army headquarters that the garrison had left the fortress and was demoralized. E. Radkevich reported this to the Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the North-Western Front M. Alekseyev at 9 o’clock: “The garrison abandoned Kovno and is running in complete disarray. The commandant was found at about 7 o'clock in the morning near Rumshishek... The remnants of the garrison are a disorderly crowd, and according to the commandant, their moral state excludes the possibility of not only going on the offensive, but even holding any position. K. Litzman, in turn, ordered the bombardment of the center of Kovno, the citadel and the station, the forts in the northern sector of defense, against which the 3rd reserve division and B. von Ezebek's brigade should be sent to attack. Until the evening, the Germans captured the forts of the northern part of the fortress, crossing the 76th and 79th reserve divisions across the Neman River, the 115th Infantry Division captured Fort IV. From 18.30, the Russian 10th Army began to withdraw. The garrison of Kovna held Rumšiškės and [[Žiežmariai]], the detachment of Lieutenant General V. Alftan (65th Infantry Division and militia) continued to defend Fort V. Radkevich still hoped to return Kovno and ordered the corps of V. Tofimov and N. Lopushansky to push back the Germans beyond the Neman, to organize the evacuation of the fortress. The task of recapturing the 3rd and 4th defense departments from the Germans and then defending them “to the last extreme” after midnight on August 18 was also confirmed by M. Alekseyev. |
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However, overnight in the Kovno area, under the onslaught of the Germans, the 40th and 54th Don Cossack regiments retreated, N. Lopushansky's detachment was also thrown back. In the evening, the Germans captured the last remaining Fort V and completely occupied Kovno. The 40th reserve corps captured up to 20,000 prisoners, 1300 guns (of which 350 were heavy), 100 machine guns, 20,000 rifles, 810,000 shells. |
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Grigoriev was arrested by Russian authorities, tried, and sentenced to fifteen years in prison for failure to properly perform his duties. He also suffered the revocation of all his awards, military degrees, and honors. The Germans used materials from the fortress elsewhere during their war against Russia.<ref name=ML/> |
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Researchers have identified factors contributing to the relatively rapid fall of the fortress. It had not been completely renovated; its defenders were inexperienced;<ref name=AP121>{{Harvnb|Pociūnas|2008|p=121}}</ref> the crew had been frequently rotated, and had not been able to familiarize themselves with the surrounding area and with the fortress.<ref name=AP121/> Although most of their experience lay in the defense of the fortress' interior, they were dispatched to fight on open ground.<ref name=AP121/> When the combat moved outside the fortress, communication lines were disrupted by the German bombardment, and the fortress defense was unable to restore complete communication with the command center or with other forts.<ref name=AP121/> The absence of external support was a crucial factor in its fall.<ref name=AP121/> |
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==Interwar== |
==Interwar== |
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{{further|Ninth Fort}} |
{{further|Ninth Fort}} |
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[[File:Kaunas Fortress IX fort 2006.jpg|thumb|left| A {{convert|32|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} tall memorial to the victims]] |
[[File:Kaunas Fortress IX fort 2006.jpg|thumb|left| A {{convert|32|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} tall memorial to the victims]] |
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Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939 [[ |
Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939 [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] assigned Lithuania to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] sphere of influence, and [[Occupation of the Baltic states|it was occupied]] by the [[USSR]] in June 1940.<ref>{{Harvnb|Anušauskas|Bauža|Banionis|Brandišauskas|2007|p=61}}</ref> The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when [[Operation Barbarossa|Germany invaded USSR]] on June 22, 1941. German forces entered Kaunas on June 24.<ref name=ushm>{{citation|title=1940–1944 Timeline–Kovno|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_cm.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005174&MediaId=2404|publisher=[[United States Holocaust Museum]]|access-date=2008-05-21 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070622152414/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_cm.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005174&MediaId=2404 |archive-date = June 22, 2007}}</ref> The Sixth Fort became a [[POW]] camp for [[Red Army]] soldiers.<ref name=TIC>{{citation|title=Kauno tvirtovė|publisher=Tvirtovių istorijos centras|url=http://www.fortresses.eu/lt/f_kaunas_i.html|access-date=2008-05-20|language=lt|archive-date=2008-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615043909/http://www.fortresses.eu/lt/f_kaunas_i.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kaunas's Jewish population numbered between 35,000 and 40,000; few would survive the [[Holocaust in Lithuania]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Holocaust Encyclopedia - Kovno|publisher=[[United States Holocaust Museum]]|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005174|date=2008-05-20|access-date=2008-09-29}}</ref> The Nazis, aided by [[Collaboration during World War II#Lithuania|Lithuanian auxiliaries]], began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6, acting under orders of the [[SS]], Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gitelman|1997|p=208}}</ref> On August 18, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action", over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28, the "Great Action" took place—the residents of the [[Kaunas Ghetto]] were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from [[Central Europe]] would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of [[Aktion 1005]]. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.<ref name=ushm/> |
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When Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began |
When Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began to prepare a defense in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The Nemunas River was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and [[Adolf Hitler]] called for its defense at any price.<ref name=TIC/> On August 1, 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.<ref name=TIC/> |
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The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source; the [[United States Holocaust Museum]] gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims.<ref name=ushm/> Other sources mention 30,000 Jewish deaths,<ref name=muz>{{citation|title=Kaunas' Ninth Fort Museum| url=http://muziejai.mch.mii.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.en.htm |publisher=Museums of Lithuania|date=2006-12-19|access-date=2008-05-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071225203945/http://muziejai.mch.mii.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.en.htm |archive-date = 2007-12-25}}</ref> with total number 50,000.<ref name=interwar/> |
The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source; the [[United States Holocaust Museum]] gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims.<ref name=ushm/> Other sources mention 30,000 Jewish deaths,<ref name=muz>{{citation|title=Kaunas' Ninth Fort Museum| url=http://muziejai.mch.mii.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.en.htm |publisher=Museums of Lithuania|date=2006-12-19|access-date=2008-05-23 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071225203945/http://muziejai.mch.mii.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.en.htm |archive-date = 2007-12-25}}</ref> with total number 50,000.<ref name=interwar/> |
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==Post-war== |
==Post-war== |
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[[File:Kauno tvirtove 2007-08-10.jpg|thumb|The Headquarters of the Fortress' commandant, currently housing the Headquarters of [[Lithuanian Air Force]]]] |
[[File:Kauno tvirtove 2007-08-10.jpg|thumb|The Headquarters of the Fortress' commandant, currently housing the Headquarters of [[Lithuanian Air Force]]]] |
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Lithuania remained a [[Soviet Socialist Republic]] until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the [[7th Guards |
Lithuania remained a [[Soviet Socialist Republic]] until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the [[7th Guards Airborne Division]] was established in the fortress' commandant's headquarters. The barracks were used by the 108th paratroopers regiment and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment. Most of the forts, however, served as depots or housed farming organizations.<ref name=TIC/><ref name=muz/> During the postwar expansion and development of the city, parts of the fortress were dismantled; as part of the construction of [[Kaunas Polytechnic Institute]] the ground-level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed.<ref name=TIC/> |
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In 1958, the [[Ninth Fort]] was dedicated as a museum.<ref name=MUZ>{{citation| title=Kauno IX forto muziejus|url=http://www.muziejai.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.htm#Naujienos|publisher=Lietuvos muziejai|year=2008|access-date= 2008-05-15|language=lt}}</ref> During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there.<ref name=MUZ/> The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A {{convert|32|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However, the [[Soviet military]] occupied most of the fortress until [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|Lithuania re-established its independence]].<ref name=jarma/> After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts.<ref name=jarma/><ref>{{Harvnb|Frucht|2005|p=201}}</ref> |
In 1958, the [[Ninth Fort]] was dedicated as a museum.<ref name=MUZ>{{citation| title=Kauno IX forto muziejus|url=http://www.muziejai.lt/Kaunas/forto_muziejus.htm#Naujienos|publisher=Lietuvos muziejai|year=2008|access-date= 2008-05-15|language=lt}}</ref> During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there.<ref name=MUZ/> The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A {{convert|32|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However, the [[Soviet military]] occupied most of the fortress until [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|Lithuania re-established its independence]].<ref name=jarma/> After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts.<ref name=jarma/><ref>{{Harvnb|Frucht|2005|p=201}}</ref> |
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'''Bibliography''' |
'''Bibliography''' |
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{{refbegin}} |
{{refbegin}} |
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*{{citation | |
*{{citation |first1=Arvydas|last1=Anušauskas |first2=Česlovas |last2=Bauža |first3=Juozas |last3=Banionis |first4=Valentinas |last4=Brandišauskas |first5=Arūnas |last5=Bubnys |first6=Algirdas |last6=Jakubčionis |first7=Laurynas |last7=Jonušauskas |first8=Dalia |last8=Kuodytė |first9=Nijolė |last9=Maslauskienė |first10=Petras |last10=Stankeras |author-link10=Petras Stankeras |first11=Juozas |last11=Starkauskas |first12=Arūnas |last12=Streikus |first13=Vytautas |last13=Tininis |first14=Liudas |last14=Truska |title=Lietuva 1940–1990: okupuotos Lietuvos istorija |place=Kaunas|year=2007 |page = 712 |isbn = 978-9955-601-47-0 |language=lt}} |
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*{{citation | |
*{{citation |first1=Nik |last1=Cornish |first2=Andrei |last2=Karachtchouk |title=The Russian Army 1914–18 |publisher= Osprey Publishing|year=2001|page = 48|isbn = 978-9955-638-97-1 }} |
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*{{citation|first=Zvi|last=Gitelman|title=Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR|publisher=Indiana University Press|place=Indiana|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/bitterlegacyconf00gite/page/332 332]|isbn=0-253-33359-8|url=https://archive.org/details/bitterlegacyconf00gite/page/332}} |
*{{citation|first=Zvi|last=Gitelman|title=Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR|publisher=Indiana University Press|place=Indiana|year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/bitterlegacyconf00gite/page/332 332]|isbn=0-253-33359-8|url=https://archive.org/details/bitterlegacyconf00gite/page/332}} |
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*{{citation |first=Vladimir|last=Orlov|title=Kauno tvirtovės istorija |publisher=Arx Baltica |place=Kaunas|year=2007|page = 160|isbn = 978-9955-638-97-1 |language=lt}} |
*{{citation |first=Vladimir|last=Orlov|title=Kauno tvirtovės istorija |publisher=Arx Baltica |place=Kaunas|year=2007|page = 160|isbn = 978-9955-638-97-1 |language=lt}} |
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*{{citation |first=Allan|last=Millett|title=Military Effectiveness|publisher=Routledge|year=1987|page = 385|isbn =0-04-445053-2}} |
*{{citation |first=Allan|last=Millett|title=Military Effectiveness|publisher=Routledge|year=1987|page = 385|isbn =0-04-445053-2}} |
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*{{citation|first=John|last=Mearsheimer|title=The Tragedy of Great Power Politics|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/tragedyofgreatpo00mear/page/555 555]|isbn=0-393-02025-8|url=https://archive.org/details/tragedyofgreatpo00mear/page/555}} |
*{{citation|first=John|last=Mearsheimer|title=The Tragedy of Great Power Politics|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/tragedyofgreatpo00mear/page/555 555]|isbn=0-393-02025-8|url=https://archive.org/details/tragedyofgreatpo00mear/page/555}} |
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*{{citation |
*{{citation|first=Arvydas|last=Pociūnas|url=http://www.kam.lt/EasyAdmin/sys/files/Kauno_tvirtoves_gynyba_inter_2008.pdf|title=Kauno tvirtovės gynyba 1915 metais|publisher=Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija|place=Vilnius|year=2008|page=186|isbn=978-9955-423-64-5|access-date=2009-05-03|language=lt}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |
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*{{citation |first=S.C.|last=Rowell|title=Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-central Europe, 1295-1345|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|place=Cambridge|year=1994|page = 375|isbn =0-521-45011-X}} |
*{{citation |first=S.C.|last=Rowell|title=Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire Within East-central Europe, 1295-1345|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|place=Cambridge|year=1994|page = 375|isbn =0-521-45011-X}} |
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*{{citation |first=Jonas|last=Zinkus|title=Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija |volume=V |publisher=Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija |place=Vilnius|year=1979|page = 754|oclc =20017802|language=lt}} |
*{{citation |first=Jonas|last=Zinkus|title=Lietuviškoji tarybinė enciklopedija |volume=V |publisher=Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija |place=Vilnius|year=1979|page = 754|oclc =20017802|language=lt}} |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063816/http://www.panoramas.lt/m_katalog.php?&p_id=157&code=657d641a3b6e5b27cd95a3c8af26e188&lg=2 360-degree panorama of the 9th Fort Memorial to the victims of World War II] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063816/http://www.panoramas.lt/m_katalog.php?&p_id=157&code=657d641a3b6e5b27cd95a3c8af26e188&lg=2 360-degree panorama of the 9th Fort Memorial to the victims of World War II] |
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{{Holocaust Lithuania}} |
{{Holocaust Lithuania}} |
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[[Category:Military history of Kaunas]] |
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[[Category:Soviet Union fortresses]] |
[[Category:Soviet Union fortresses]] |
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Latest revision as of 10:48, 29 April 2024
Kaunas Fortress | |
---|---|
Lithuania | |
Site information | |
Controlled by | Russian Empire (1882–1915) German Empire (1915–18) Lithuania (1918–40, 1990–present) Soviet Union (1940–41, 1944–90) Nazi Germany (1941–1944) |
Site history | |
Built | 19th–20th centuries |
In use | 1882–present |
Materials | Bricks, reinforced concrete |
Battles/wars | World War I World War II |
Kaunas Fortress (Lithuanian: Kauno tvirtovė, Russian: Кοвенская крепость, German: Festung Kowno) is the remains of a fortress complex in Kaunas, Lithuania. It was constructed and renovated between 1882 and 1915 to protect the Russian Empire's western borders, and was designated a "first-class" fortress in 1887. During World War I, the complex was the largest defensive structure in the entire state, occupying 65 km2 (25 sq mi).[1]
The fortress was battle-tested in 1915 when Germany attacked the Russian Empire, and withstood eleven days of assault before capture. After World War I, the fortress' military importance declined as advances in weaponry rendered it increasingly obsolete. It was used by various civil institutions and as a garrison.[2]
During World War II, parts of the fortress complex were used by the Nazi Germany for detention, interrogation, and execution. About 50,000 people were executed there, including more than 60,000 Jewish victims of the Holocaust.[3] Some sections have since been restored; the Ninth Fort houses a museum and memorial devoted to the Jewish victims of Holocaust mass executions. The complex is the most complete remaining example of a Russian Empire fortress.[4]
Background
The city of Kaunas is located at the confluence of two rivers, the Neman and Neris, which link Lithuania's interior and its capital, Vilnius, to the Baltic Sea. The Baltic peoples had created significant domains by the 1st century, and came into conflict with the Scandinavians and the Slavs; the Teutonic Order began targeting Lithuanian lands at the beginning of the 13th century.[5] Since Lithuania was heavily wooded and its lands were often impassable, its interior was most approachable along its rivers when frozen and during the short dry harvest season in late summer.[6] In response to this vulnerability, defensive structures, including a brick castle in Kaunas, were in place at various points on the Nemunas River by the 14th century.[6][7] The city was first mentioned in written sources in 1361; it received Magdeburg rights, regulating its autonomy and establishing trade protocols, from Vytautas the Great in 1408. An outpost of the Hanseatic League was created there in 1441. By the end of the 16th century Kaunas had become a major regional trade center, but plagues, fires, and wars adversely affected the country and city during the 17th and 18th centuries.[1][7] Following the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at the end of the 18th century, Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire. Two major 19th century projects contributed to the city's revival. The Augustów Canal, completed in 1832, linked the Neman to the Black Sea, and a rail line linking Saint Petersburg, Warsaw, and Germany via Kaunas was completed in 1862; it was part of a limited network of western Russian railways.[7][8][9]
Russia's western borders needed support, and fortresses existed or were being built in Latvia, Ukraine, and Belarus. The concept of building a fortress in Lithuania was discussed without result in 1796,[10] but became a critical concern after the French invasion of Russia in 1812 led by Napoleon.[11] The Grande Armée managed to cross the Nemunas near Kaunas on its drive towards Moscow without major difficulties.[12] An increasingly unified Germany troubled the Empire during the second half of the century.[13] A fortress in Kaunas would present an obstacle to attacks from the west, preventing further incursions towards Riga and Vilnius. In order to control the region, attackers would need to first neutralize Kaunas. Facing this possibility and evaluating the natural advantages of the city, Russian officials decided to construct a fortress there. After several delays, on July 7, 1879 Tsar Alexander II issued an edict ordering its construction.[1]
Construction
Construction of the Kaunas Fortress[11] |
Batteries | Forts | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
I | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | VIII | IX | I | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | VIII | IX | |
Start of construction | 1882 | 1883 | 1883 | 1884 | 1884 | 1883 | 1884 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1883 | 1884 | 1890 | 1903 |
End of construction | 1889 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1888 | 1889 | 1888 | 1889 | 1888 | 1889 | 1889 | 1889 | ~1907 | 1911[14] |
The first design was overseen by Generals Nikolay Obruchev, Konstantin Zverev, and Ivan Volberg.[15] As originally planned, the fortress encompassed a huge site, consisting of seven forts and nine defensive batteries arranged in concentric loops. The plan included support buildings and infrastructures, such as barracks, new roads, and an ammunition depot. Construction began in 1882;[16] about 4,000 workers were mustered for the project.[11] The principal structures were concentrated in Freda, Panemunė, Aleksotas, and the new section of the city. The project significantly affected the daily life of Kaunas residents, and there were plans to detach the fortress into an independent administrative unit governed by a military board; its commandant wrote that "There is no city of Kaunas, there is only the Fortress of Kaunas."[17][18]
The first forts were built using bricks reinforced with thick ramparts of earth, which were incorporated into the surrounding relief, making them harder to breach.[12] They were symmetrical, usually having five faces, with positions for infantry and artillery. These forts were built according to the standard Russian brick fort design of the time. Therefore, the first seven forts were very similar; they differed only in the layout of their interiors, their integration into the surrounding relief, and in some construction details. They would also be renovated in slightly different ways.[15] Batteries were built between adjacent forts; these were fortifications containing various types of artillery, located along the fortress' outer lines and usually erected on the hills.[15] The first construction phase was completed in 1887.[16][19] The fortress was designated first-class in that year, marking its importance and defensive capabilities, and Otto Klem was named its first commandant.[19] At the same time, administrative rules were established to manage the fortress' impact on the city and its surrounding areas; the height of the fortress' civil buildings was restricted.[20]
During 1890 work began on the Eighth fort, known as Linkuva; new construction techniques were introduced, particularly reinforced concrete.[12] The Linkuva fort became the most modern entrenchment, equipped with electricity, sewerage, and casemates for a garrison of 1,000 personnel.[15] At the same time, massive groundworks were laid along with additional defensive structures, effecting the complete enclosure of the city center between the Rivers Nemunas and Neris. By 1890, seven forts had been completed, supporting roads had been constructed, and a railroad bridge over the Nemunas had been adapted for military transport. By now, expenditures on the fortress had amounted to over nine million rubles.[16] The first bricks for a church that would serve the garrison were laid in 1891; it was completed in 1893. The following year construction began on a dedicated narrow gauge railway.[21]
The Ninth Fort, begun in 1903, was the first of its kind in the Empire. The structure was a trapezoid, encompassing one infantry rampart, and was equipped with two armored watchtowers, electricity, and ventilation. The walls of its cannon casemates were covered with cork to reduce firing noise.[15] The cost of this single fort was 850,000 rubles.[14]
The complex of forts and defensive structures was divided into four sectors. The first followed the left bank of the Nemunas to its confluence with the Jiesia River and included the three earliest forts. The second sector extended from the Jiesia to Pažaislis monastery and included two forts. The third extended from the right to the left bank of the Nemunas; this sector also contained two forts. The fourth and last sector stretched from the right bank of the Neris to the left bank of the Nemunas, comprising two forts, including the newest – the Ninth Fort.[16]
As new building and weapons technologies developed, the fortress was repeatedly renovated in order to maintain its military effectiveness. In 1912 an expansion and reconstruction initiative was launched.[19] This project called for twelve new forts along with batteries, support buildings, and defensive structures. Its completion was scheduled for 1917.[22] The older forts were to be completely encircled by the new construction, which was meant to employ the newest military technologies.[1] During the early realization of the plan, new defensive entrenchments were built and the old forts were strengthened with concrete. However, when action began on the Eastern Front during World War I, work on the fortress was halted.[12] In 1915 only one fort, the Ninth, conformed with the new technological criteria, while the Tenth Fort was only partially built. The complex then covered about 65 km2 (25 sq mi) and contained a 30 km (19 mi) internal railway, power plant, water supply system, mill, bakery, brewery, food bank, and telegraph. Despite the fact that the fortress' renovations and new construction had not been finished, it presented a formidable challenge to its attackers.[1][18]
World War I
Interwar
Lithuania regained its independence on February 16, 1918 and the old fortress was placed under engineering staff supervision. Those materials that had not been taken by the Germans were used to resupply Lithuanian military needs, and for the construction of the armored train Gediminas, named after the 14th century Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas. In 1920, the Kaunas Fortress Board was formed and charged with the task of administering the fortress. Due to the development of new military technologies, its reconstruction was seen as a vast and inappropriate expense. The fortress' armament was dismantled and the trenches were filled with scrap iron.[17]
Sections of the fortress were given to various civil institutions, while the army occupied the barracks of the former 28th Division. The Sixth and Ninth forts were used as prisons and the Central Archive was located in the Seventh Fort;[16][17] the Republic's official radio station was based in the fortress; a gas chamber was installed in the gunpowder depot of the First Fort and used to execute condemned prisoners.[17] Some sections were used as housing for the poor. As the city of Kaunas expanded near the complex, its roads became public streets. The structures and layouts of the new sections were influenced by the presence of the fortress.[23]
World War II
Adjustments to the secret protocols of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence, and it was occupied by the USSR in June 1940.[24] The fortress was then used to conduct interrogations and house political prisoners. The pact was broken when Germany invaded USSR on June 22, 1941. German forces entered Kaunas on June 24.[25] The Sixth Fort became a POW camp for Red Army soldiers.[26] Kaunas's Jewish population numbered between 35,000 and 40,000; few would survive the Holocaust in Lithuania.[27] The Nazis, aided by Lithuanian auxiliaries, began massacring the Jewish population. On July 6, acting under orders of the SS, Lithuanian auxiliary police units shot nearly 3,000 Jews at the Seventh Fort.[28] On August 18, in what came to be known as the "intellectuals action", over 1,800 Jews were shot at the Fourth Fort. On October 28, the "Great Action" took place—the residents of the Kaunas Ghetto were summoned, and over 9,000 men, women and children were taken to the Ninth Fort and executed. During the later course of the occupation, over 5,000 Jewish deportees from Central Europe would be executed at this fort. About 60 escaped in December 1943; they had been assigned to excavate and burn the bodies of earlier victims, as part of Aktion 1005. Thirteen of these escapees were able to document the Aktion's attempt to hide the evidence of the mass murders.[25]
When Germany began losing the war and the battlefront approached Lithuania, the German defense began to prepare a defense in Kaunas, including the use of the fortress. The Nemunas River was labelled "the line of catastrophe", and Adolf Hitler called for its defense at any price.[26] On August 1, 1944 Kaunas was captured by the Red Army. The remaining fortress structures were used for military needs and several of the original structures were demolished or redeveloped.[26]
The number of deaths at the fortress during World War II vary by source; the United States Holocaust Museum gives detailed descriptions of the deaths of about 18,500 Holocaust victims.[25] Other sources mention 30,000 Jewish deaths,[29] with total number 50,000.[17]
Post-war
Lithuania remained a Soviet Socialist Republic until 1990. In 1948, the headquarters of the 7th Guards Airborne Division was established in the fortress' commandant's headquarters. The barracks were used by the 108th paratroopers regiment and the Fifth Fort served the air defense regiment. Most of the forts, however, served as depots or housed farming organizations.[26][29] During the postwar expansion and development of the city, parts of the fortress were dismantled; as part of the construction of Kaunas Polytechnic Institute the ground-level entrenchments of one defensive sector were destroyed.[26]
In 1958, the Ninth Fort was dedicated as a museum.[30] During 1959, its first exhibition was opened, memorializing the crimes that had taken place there.[30] The museum later expanded its scope to cover the fortress' entire history. A 32 m (105 ft) tall memorial to the victims was constructed there in 1984. However, the Soviet military occupied most of the fortress until Lithuania re-established its independence.[18] After the withdrawal of Soviet forces, completed in 1993, Lithuanian military bases were established at several forts.[18][31]
As of early 2007, only the Ninth Fort had been partly renovated. It is now devoted to the Holocaust and Lithuania's occupations by the Germans and the Soviets.[30] The museum, which holds over 65,000 artefacts, is sponsored by the Lithuanian Ministry of Culture.[30][32] Since the early 2000s, it has received about 100,000 visitors per year and hosted Holocaust education seminars and workshops.[32] In 2005, the international project "Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses" was launched, with support from the European Union. Its goal is the promotion of transnational scientific cooperation in monument protection, along with the creation of strategies to reconstruct and manage fortresses in the region. Kaunas Fortress is a part of this project.[33] In 2007, Seventh fort was sold, new owners started the restoration process, since 2009 Seventh fort is open as a fortification and military museum and is the only brick fort in Kaunas suitable for safe visiting. In the 2000s, a variety of entities owned parts of the complex: the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Defence, the State Property Fund, and the City of Kaunas. The site still contains unexploded ordnance, although a 1995 project removed about 1.9 tonnes of explosives.[18] Other restoration issues include uncovered wells, poor drainage and ventilation, erosion, possible chemical contaminants, vegetative overgrowth, and the presence of a protected bat colony.[18][34] Despite the damage that it has sustained, the Kaunas Fortress complex is the most complete of the surviving Russian Empire fortresses.[4]
References
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Kauno tvirtovės istorija (in Lithuanian), Gintaras Česonis, 2004, archived from the original on 2011-05-10, retrieved 2008-06-12
- ^ Orlov 2007, p. 12
- ^ "Museums of Lithuania". Kaunas' 9th Fort Museum. Association of Lithuanian Museums. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
- ^ a b Orlov 2007, p. 18
- ^ Frucht 2005, p. 128
- ^ a b Rowell 1994, pp. 49–54
- ^ a b c Kaunas: An Historical Overview, City of Kaunas, 2007, archived from the original on 2009-05-23, retrieved 2008-09-28
- ^ Дорога САНКТ - ПЕТЕРБУРГ - ЛУГА - ПСКОВ - РЕЗЕКНЕ - ВИЛЬНЮС – ВАРШАВА (in Russian), 2008, archived from the original on 2011-10-05, retrieved 2008-05-21
- ^ Mearsheimer 2001, p. 70
- ^ Orlov 2007, p. 34
- ^ a b c Pociūnas 2008, p. 14
- ^ a b c d Nijolė Steponaitytė (2007), Kauno tvirtovė (in Lithuanian), archived from the original on 2007-09-28, retrieved 2008-05-21
- ^ Millett 1987, p. 286
- ^ a b Orlov 2007, pp. 52–54
- ^ a b c d e Orlov 2007, p. 15
- ^ a b c d e Iš Kauno tvirtovės fortų istorijos (in Lithuanian), Fortai, archived from the original on September 27, 2007, retrieved 2008-06-12
- ^ a b c d e Brief Historical Overview of Kaunas Fortress, INTERREG-project BFR, archived from the original on 2011-07-20, retrieved 2008-05-23
- ^ a b c d e f Neringa, Jarmalavičiutė; Rimvydas Strazdas (2007), "The Fortress of Kaunas: History Present Situation and Conversion Challenges", Environmental Security and Public Safety, NATO Security through Science Series, pp. 127–145, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5644-4_11, ISBN 978-1-4020-5642-0
- ^ a b c Zinkus 1979, p. 395
- ^ Kviklys 1991, pp. 242–243
- ^ Orlov 2007, p. 50
- ^ Pociūnas 2008, p. 18
- ^ Kauno tvirtovė 2007 01 08 (in Lithuanian), Nijolė Steponaitytė, archived from the original on 2007-09-28, retrieved 2008-05-20
- ^ Anušauskas et al. 2007, p. 61
- ^ a b c 1940–1944 Timeline–Kovno, United States Holocaust Museum, archived from the original on June 22, 2007, retrieved 2008-05-21
- ^ a b c d e Kauno tvirtovė (in Lithuanian), Tvirtovių istorijos centras, archived from the original on 2008-06-15, retrieved 2008-05-20
- ^ "Holocaust Encyclopedia - Kovno". United States Holocaust Museum. 2008-05-20. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
- ^ Gitelman 1997, p. 208
- ^ a b Kaunas' Ninth Fort Museum, Museums of Lithuania, 2006-12-19, archived from the original on 2007-12-25, retrieved 2008-05-23
- ^ a b c d Kauno IX forto muziejus (in Lithuanian), Lietuvos muziejai, 2008, retrieved 2008-05-15
- ^ Frucht 2005, p. 201
- ^ a b "Country Report on Holocaust Education in Task Force Member Countries - Lithuania - 2006". The Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research. Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
- ^ Baltic Culture and Tourism Route Fortresses, BSR INTERREG III B programme, 2008-05-10, archived from the original on 2007-09-28, retrieved 2008-05-15
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