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Historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, [[Kojiki]] (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and [[Nihon Shoki]] (Chronicles of Japan, 720). These chronicles give a legendary account of Japan's beginnings in which the people were descendants of the gods themselves. According to the myths contained in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded in 660 BC by the ancestral [[Emperor Jimmu]], a direct descendant of the [[Shinto]] deity [[Amaterasu]], or the Sun Goddess. The myths also claim that Jimmu started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]], though the date of his reign is uncertain. For most of Japan's history, however, actual political power has been in the hands of the [[Sessho and Kampaku|court nobility]], the [[shogun]]s, the military and, more recently, the prime minister. |
Historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, [[Kojiki]] (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and [[Nihon Shoki]] (Chronicles of Japan, 720). These chronicles give a legendary account of Japan's beginnings in which the people were descendants of the gods themselves. According to the myths contained in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded in 660 BC by the ancestral [[Emperor Jimmu]], a direct descendant of the [[Shinto]] deity [[Amaterasu]], or the Sun Goddess. The myths also claim that Jimmu started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]], though the date of his reign is uncertain. For most of Japan's history, however, actual political power has been in the hands of the [[Sessho and Kampaku|court nobility]], the [[shogun]]s, the military and, more recently, the prime minister. |
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A distinctly indigenous culture emerged during the [[Heian period]] which lasted for nearly four centuries. After absorbing so much from the mainland over several centuries, the Japanese began to experience a growing sense of self-confidence and appreciation of their own land and heritage. [[Japanese art|arts]] and [[Japanese literature|literature]] flourished and, in the early 11th century, [[Murasaki Shikibu|Lady Murasaki]] wrote the world's oldest surviving novel called ''[[The Tale of Genji]]''. Although trade expeditions and Buddhist pilgrimages continued, the court decided to discontinue official relations with China.<ref>"[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/heia/hd_heia.htm Heian Period]," Metropolitan Museum of Art.</ref> The [[Fujiwara clan]]'s regency dominated politics during this period. |
A distinctly indigenous culture emerged during the [[Heian period]] which lasted for nearly four centuries. After absorbing so much from the mainland over several centuries, the Japanese began to experience a growing sense of self-confidence and appreciation of their own land and heritage. [[Japanese art|arts]] and [[Japanese literature|literature]] flourished and, in the early 11th century, [[Murasaki Shikibu|Lady Murasaki]] wrote the world's oldest surviving novel called ''[[The Tale of Genji]]''. Although trade expeditions and Buddhist pilgrimages continued, the court decided to discontinue official relations with China.<ref>"[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/heia/hd_heia.htm Heian Period]," Metropolitan Museum of Art.</ref> The [[Fujiwara clan]]'s regency dominated politics during this period. |
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===Medieval era=== |
===Medieval era=== |
Revision as of 23:03, 17 August 2006
- This article is about the country in Asia. For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).
Japan 日本国 Nihon/Nippon-koku | |
---|---|
Anthem: "Kimi Ga Yo (君が代 )" (English: Imperial Reign) | |
Capital | Tokyo |
Largest Most populous conurbation | Tokyo1 |
Official languages | Japanese |
Government | Constitutional Monarchy |
• Emperor | HIM Emperor Akihito of Japan |
Junichiro Koizumi | |
Formation | |
February 11, 660 BCE2 | |
November 29, 1890 | |
May 3, 1947 | |
April 28, 1952 | |
• Water (%) | 0.8% |
Population | |
• 2005 estimate | 128,085,000 (10th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2005 estimate |
• Total | $3.911 trillion (3rd) |
• Per capita | $30,615 (16th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2004 estimate |
• Total | 4.8 trillion (2nd) |
HDI (2003) | 0.943 very high (11th) |
Currency | Yen (¥) (JPY) |
Time zone | UTC+9 (JST) |
• Summer (DST) | None |
Calling code | 81 |
ISO 3166 code | JP |
Internet TLD | .jp |
1 Yokohama is the largest incorporated city.
2 Japan was founded on this date by the legendary Emperor Jimmu, first emperor of Japan, and is seen as largely symbolic |
Japan (日本[1], Nihon or Nippon; officially 日本国 Nihon or Nippon-koku) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of China, Korea, and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. Its capital is Tokyo, one of the 47 prefectures of Japan.
Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. The written history of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Japanese history has been marked by alternating periods of long isolation and radical influence from the outside world. Its culture today is a mixture of outside and internal influences.
At over 377,873 square kilometres, Japan is the 62nd largest country by area. It encompasses over 3,000 islands, the largest of which are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. Most of Japan's islands are mountainous, and many are volcanic, including the highest peak, Mount Fuji. It ranks 10th in the world by population, with nearly 128 million people. Greater Tokyo, with over 30 million residents, is the largest metropolitan area in the world.
Since it adopted its constitution on May 3, 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet, which is one of the oldest legislative bodies in Asia. Japan has the world's second largest economy, and is the sixth largest exporter and importer and is a member of the G8, G4, and APEC.
History
Jomon and Yayoi eras
The first signs of civilization appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jōmon culture, characterized by a mesolithic to neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of bark. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make clay vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jōmon means "patterns of plaited cord"). Some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world may be found in Japan, although the specific dating is disputed. [2]
Japan first appeared in written history in 57 AD with the following mention in Book of Later Han: "Across the ocean from Luoyang are the people of Wa (in Chinese, "Wo" or "dwarf state"). Formed from more than one hundred tribes, they come and pay tribute frequently."
The start of the Yayoi period around 300 BC marked the influx of new practices such as rice farming, shamanism and iron and bronze-making brought by migrants (i.e. Yayoi-jin) from outside of Japan. [3] The most powerful kingdom in Japan was then called Yamataikoku and ruled by a shaman queen named Himiko.
The ensuing Kofun era, beginning around AD 250, saw the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The Yamato Court, suppressing the clans and acquiring agricultural lands, maintained a strong influence in the western part of Japan (the Asuka region). Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups.
Classical era
Buddhism was introduced to Japan by Baekje, to which Japan provided military support, [4] and it was promoted by the ruling class. Prince Shotoku devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. He is credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the Seventeen-article constitution. He wrote in a letter to the Emperor of China that the 'Emperor of the Land where the Sun rises' (Japan) sends a letter to the 'Emperor of the land where Sun sets' (China), thereby implying a declaration of equal footing with China which angered the Chinese emperor. [5]
Starting with the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure (the Ritsuryo state) of the time. This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century. This period also saw the first uses of the word Nihon (日本) as a name for the emerging state.
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara). The imperial court then moved briefly to Nagaoka, and then to Heian-kyō (now Kyoto).
Historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720). These chronicles give a legendary account of Japan's beginnings in which the people were descendants of the gods themselves. According to the myths contained in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded in 660 BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu, or the Sun Goddess. The myths also claim that Jimmu started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ōjin, though the date of his reign is uncertain. For most of Japan's history, however, actual political power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the shoguns, the military and, more recently, the prime minister.
A distinctly indigenous culture emerged during the Heian period which lasted for nearly four centuries. After absorbing so much from the mainland over several centuries, the Japanese began to experience a growing sense of self-confidence and appreciation of their own land and heritage. arts and literature flourished and, in the early 11th century, Lady Murasaki wrote the world's oldest surviving novel called The Tale of Genji. Although trade expeditions and Buddhist pilgrimages continued, the court decided to discontinue official relations with China.[6] The Fujiwara clan's regency dominated politics during this period.
Medieval era
Japan's medieval era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Seii Tai-Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hojo, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as divine intervention (kamikaze, Divine Wind). The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years and was eventually overthrown by Ashikaga Takauji in 1333. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed in the management of daimyo, and a civil war erupted. The Onin War rampaged throughout Japan from 1467 to 1477. Vassals rebelled against their liege lords and peasants rebelled against their superiors. This led to the "Warring States" or Sengoku period.
During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms, and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in the Incident at Honnoji in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga. He united Japan in 1590. Hideyoshi twice invaded Korea, but Ming China came to Korea's aid. After several defeats and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were quickly withdrawn in 1598.
Edo era
After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as a regent of Toyotomi Hideyori (Hideyoshi's son), along with the conflicts among loyalists of the Toyotomi family, to gain the support of daimyo from across Japan. When open war broke out, he defeated his rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed to be shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo (Tokyo).
After defeating Toyotomi clan, at the Siege of Osaka in 1614 and 1615, the Tokugawa clan became the ruler of Japan both in name and reality, setting up the centralized feudal system with the Tokugawa shogunate at the head of the feudal domains. After Ieyasu, the Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures to control the daimyo, among them the sankin-kotai of alternating between home and attendance in Edo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. This has often considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The period saw the development of the ethnocentric kokugaku philosophy .
Modern Japan
Meiji Restoration
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867 to 1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor along replacing previous Tokugawa shogunate. One of the main figures that helped bring change was Fukuzawa Yukichi who wrote the article "Leaving Asia", encouraging Japan to be open to change and modernize through Westernization.
Empire of Japan
During the Meiji period, Japan adopted numerous Western institutions, including a modern government, legal system, and military. Japan introduced a parliamentary system modeled after the British parliament, and Ito Hirobumi became the 1st Prime Minister in 1885. These reforms helped transform Japan into a world power, which eventually decided to expand its sphere of influence, defeating China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The Russo-Japanese war was significant because it was the first time that an Asian country had defeated a European imperial power. By 1910, Japan had taken control of Korea, Taiwan, and the southern half of Sakhalin. Next year, unequal treaties signed with the foreign powers were cancelled.
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence in Asia, and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1920 Japan joined the League of Nations and became a member of the security council.
However, in 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany, later joining Germany and Italy to form the Axis Powers alliance in 1940 that opposed the original World War I Allies.
Japan continued its expansionist policy and invaded China, occupying Manchuria in 1931. In 1937 it attacked the rest China, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). In 1941, after oil embargoes and under diplomatic pressure from the United States, United Kingdom and the Netherlands, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on those three powers. Germany subsequently declared war on the United States a week later, bringing the United States into World War II. Japan invaded and occupied Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore, which were British, Dutch and U.S. colonies at the time.
After a long campaign in the Pacific Ocean, Japan lost many of its initial territorial gains. American forces moved close enough to begin the strategic bombing of cities like Tokyo and Osaka, culminating in the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing about 214,000 people (mostly civilians). After the atomic bombings, Imperial Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender. The formal surrender documents were signed September 2, 1945 (V-J Day) on the USS Missouri while moored in Tokyo Bay. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal was convened on May 31946 to prosecute Japanese war crimes, including atrocities like the Nanking Massacre. Emperor Hirohito, however, was given immunity from any prosecution and retained his position.
Post-war Japan
The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in East Asia, and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Official American occupation lasted until 1952. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. Japan was granted membership of the United Nations in 1956. After the American occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with a growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the 1990s, when Japan suffered a major recession from which it has since been slowly recovering.[3]
Government and politics
In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a constitutional monarchy, based largely upon the British system with strong influences from European continental civil law countries such as Germany and France. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpo, the Civil Code, on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[7]
The Emperor and the Imperial Family
The Emperor (天皇 tennō, literally "heavenly sovereign") is defined by the Constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people" and is the head of the Imperial family and he is the head of state. He is a ceremonial figurehead in a constitutional monarchy and does not wield even emergency reserve powers. Power is mainly held by the Prime Minister, and other elected members of the Diet. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Although his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor effectively acts as the head of state. Akihito is the current emperor and the only reigning emperor in the world.
Parliament (the Diet)
The Constitution of Japan states that the nation's "highest organ of state power" is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet (Kokkai). The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every 4 years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi-in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices.
The Cabinet is composed of a Prime Minister and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.
The Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of government of Japan, although the literal translation of the title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet". The Prime Minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State. The current Prime Minister of Japan, since 2001, is Junichiro Koizumi. Theoretically, the Prime Minister of Japan is very powerful; the role is most similar to the Chancellor of Germany, though even greater because of Japan's unitary form of government. However, due to the factionalised and consensus-based nature of Japanese politics in the Diet, and to the perpetual creation of coalition governments under the proportional representation schemes, the Prime Minister has far less actual power than his/her counterpart in other nations. His/her position as president of the party with the largest representation in government involves negotiation with the main party faction and coalition leaders, and legislation is usually initiated and reviewed by party committees rather than by the cabinet.
Foreign relations
Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally and partner, the United States, and therefore the US-Japan security alliance serves as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. For example Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Operation Iraqi Freedom with the United States and others. Japan is a member state of the United Nations and currently serving as a non-permanent Security Council member. It is also one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.
Japan is a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN plus three", and a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan is also the world's second-largest donor of official development assistance, donating 0.19% of its GNP in 2004. [8] As member of the G8 Japan maintains cordial relations with most countries as a key trading partner.
Japan has several territorial disputes with its neighbours concerning the control of certain outlying islands. It vies with Russia for the Kuril Islands, with South Korea over Takeshima, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands, and with the People's Republic of China over the status of Okinotori. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas.
In recent years, Japan has had an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons program and missile programs. It has proposed UN sanctions against North Korea along with others and has officially condemned North Korean missile tests. It also has cooperated with the U.S. to build missile defence system after the North Korean 2006 missile tests.
Military
Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan of 1947, which states that "the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." Thus, Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military force to wage war against other countries.
Japan's military is governed under Japan Defense Agency (JDA) and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. Though the military budget of Japan is less than one percent of its GDP, it is estimated to be the sixth largest in the world at around $48 billion per year. The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and Japan's recent deployment of non-combat troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.
Prefectures and regions
Japan has 47 prefectures. The prefecture is the largest administrative subdivision. Each has an elected governor and legislature, and an administrative bureaucracy.
The prefectures are often grouped into regions. Those regions are not formally specified, they do not have elected officials, nor are they corporate bodies.
This table shows a commonly accepted example of organization of prefectures into regions, from north to south.
Region | Prefectures |
---|---|
Hokkaido | Hokkaido |
Tōhoku | Akita, Aomori, Fukushima, Iwate, Miyagi, Yamagata |
Kantō | Chiba, Gunma, Ibaraki, Kanagawa, Saitama, Tochigi, Tokyo |
Chūbu | Aichi, Fukui, Gifu, Ishikawa, Nagano, Niigata, Shizuoka, Toyama, Yamanashi |
Kinki | Hyōgo, Kyoto, Mie, Nara, Osaka, Shiga, Wakayama |
Chūgoku | Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori, Yamaguchi |
Shikoku | Ehime, Kagawa, Kōchi, Tokushima |
Kyūshū | Fukuoka, Kagoshima, Kumamoto, Miyazaki, Nagasaki, Oita, Saga |
Okinawa | Okinawa |
The prefectures are further subdivided into cities, towns and villages. The nomenclature is different in the former city of Tokyo, which is divided into 23 cities known as the special wards (the part of Tokyo outside the 23 special wards uses the nationwide terminology for cities, towns, and villages). Cities (including special wards of Tokyo), towns, and villages have elected officials. In addition, major cities are divided into wards. These wards, however, are not corporate entities.
Japan is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns, and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions, and is expected to cut administrative costs.[9] The Japanese government is also considering a plan by which several groups of prefectures would merge, creating a sub-national administrative division system consisting of 9, 11, or 13 states, and giving the states more local autonomy than the current prefectures enjoy.[10]
Geography and climate
Japan, a country of islands, extends along the eastern or Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu (or the mainland), Shikoku, and Kyushu. Naha in the Ryukyu archipelago is over 600 kilometers (375 mi) to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the archipelago.
Japan is the 19th most densely populated country in the world. About 70 to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous [11][12],and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas.
Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes include the 2004 Chuetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
- Hokkaido: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
- Sea of Japan: On Honshu's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
- Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
- Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chugoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
- Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
- Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.
The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshu, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.
Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryukyu and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
Economy
Japan is an economic world power, with its free-market economy ranking 2nd by market exchange rates (with GDP at over $4.5 trillion in 2005). Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become one of the largest economies in the world. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s.[13] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the global economy.[14]
However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period.[15] Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue in 2006.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu; the powerful enterprise unions and shuntō; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
The current government of Junichiro Koizumi has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.[16]
Heterodox economists tend to claim that Japan is far stronger economically than is usually appreciated [4]. Some mainstream economists acknowledge that Japan, which unlike most other Western countries has maintained its industrial base, and has vast capital reserves, currently has a strong economic outlook.
Trade
Exporting goods is an essential part of the Japanese economy. Its main export partners are the USA 22.7%, China 13.1%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 7.4% and Hong Kong 6.3%. Japan's main exports are transport equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.
As a nation that relies heavily on international trade, Japan also imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are China 20.7%, US 14%, South Korea 4.9%, Australia 4.3%, Indonesia 4.1%, Saudi Arabia 4.1%, UAE 4% (as of 2004). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, beef, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.
Industrial sector
Japan is among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical, textiles, and processed foods and is home to some of the largest and most well-known multinational corporations and commercial brands. It's also one of the leading research nations in these sectors.
Japan holds very large market shares in high-technology industries such as electronics, industrial chemicals, machine tools, electronic media and (in recent years) aerospace. Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. These industries make Japan a major economic global power. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength. There are very few, or if any countries in the world that matches Japan in production of high technology electronic products. The automobile (machinery) and electronics industries are the largest and a major driving force within Japan's industrial sector.
Science and technology
Japan is a leading nation in scientific research and the production of innovative technological products. Some of the most important industrial contributions include chemicals, metals, Semiconductors, robotics, entertainment, machinery, industrial robotics and optics. It is also one of the leading nations in health care and medical research and robotics having produced QRIO, ASIMO, Aibo, etc and possesses more (402,200 out of 742,500) than half of world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[5]
Japan is making headway into aerospace research and space exploration. It founded its aerospace exploration agency, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency in October 1, 2003 and is involved in many missions and projects and a possible independent manned mission to the moon having shifted some of its focus away from international efforts beginning 2005. It's also one of the significant contributing members to the International Space Station project, the most significant being Kibo (Japanese Experiment Module) module that will complete installation in 2007.
Service sector
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries.
The six major keiretsus are the Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa Groups, each of which center around a major financial institution.
Agriculture and fishery sectors
Because only 29% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation, a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area. However, Japan's small agricultural sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50% [17] of its requirements of grain and fodder crops other than rice, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat.
In fishery, Japan ranked second in the world behind China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch [18].
Natural resources
Japan has very limited natural resources to sustain economic development, since most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. As a result Japan is dependant on other nations for most of its raw materials.
Japan strives to diversify its sources of energy, but still depends on petroleum for 57% of its energy needs. It is out of this necessity, that they have developed hybrid vehicles and other energy-saving technologies.
Infrastructure
Japan is unique in that its electric power transmission runs at different frequencies in different parts of the country — 50 Hz in Tokyo and elsewhere east of the Fuji River, 60 Hz in Osaka and other parts west. The division was due to different technology imports for the initial plant construction; the eastern region imported Siemens (Germany) technology and the western region imported GE (U.S.) technology. The household power line voltage is constant 100 V throughout the nation.
Japan has 1,177,278 km of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km of railways as of 2004.
Demographics
Population
Japan's population is estimated at around 128,085,000 people. Japanese society is linguistically, though not ethnically, homogeneous with small populations of primarily Ryukyuans (1.5 million), Koreans (0.6 million), Chinese and Taiwanese (0.5 million), Filipinos (0.5 million), and Brazilians (250,000). Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryukyuans, and social minority group like burakumin. Japanese citizenship is conferred jus sanguinis, and monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.
Japan has the highest life expectancy in the world: 85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002.[19] However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a postwar baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.[20] The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the public pension plan. Japan's population has reached its peak, and if its birth and death rates remain at the current levels, its population will continue to decline.[21] At these rates, Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million persons in 2050, and to 64 million persons in 2100. Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[22] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.
Language
The Japanese language is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. There is no consensus on what, if any, linguistic relationship Japanese has with other languages, but scholars continue to research the issue.
Japanese incorporates many foreign elements. Japanese has borrowed or derived large amounts of vocabulary from Chinese. When non-Chinese foreign words are written in Japanese, they are usually done so in a separate alphabet called katakana. Since the end of World War II, Japanese has also extensively borrowed from English. The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified forms of Chinese characters), as well as the Roman alphabet and Hindu-Arabic numerals.
Japan's official language is Japanese, and about 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language. The Ryukyuan languages, the other member of the Japonic language family considered splitted from the main stream around the 8th century or before, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children are learning these languages now. Ainu, the language of the indigenous minority, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.
Religion
The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to mythology, traditions, and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes Confucianism, or even Taoism, tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. 84% of Japanese people profess to believe both Shinto (the indigenous religion of Japan) and Buddhism.[citation needed] Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority profess to Christianity (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism.[citation needed] Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called shinkoshukyo (later shinshukyo) emerged.
Education
Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the Meiji Restoration. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and 96% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution.[citation needed] Japan's education is very competitive especially at the college level and has prestigious and large universities such as University of Tokyo, Keio University, Waseda University, and Kyoto University.
Health
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.
Culture
Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.
Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, budo, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine.
In terms of modern culture, Japan is best known for anime, a form of animation pioneered by the release of Tetsuwan Atom ("Astro Boy") for television broadcast. Its popularity sparked the production of a number of other 30-minute, made-for-television animated serials in Japan, nearly all of which were based on comic-manga serials.
Literature
In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was invented. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[23] Sei Shōnagon writes The Pillow Book, a daily of Heian court life. The 54-chapter novel The Tale of Genji, written by Lady Murasaki, sometimes anachronically called the world's first novel, is arguably deemed to be the most canonical work of Japanese literature. Another central piece of the canon, The Tale of the Heike, a samurai epic anonymously written and compiled from oral stories, shows the sway of Buddhist thought on the culture of Medieval Japan and has been a major influence on subsequent literary (particularly, dramatic) works.
During the Edo Period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chonin. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.
An even more significant rupture with traditional literary forms occurred with the Meiji Restoration, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences, notably French naturalism, English and Russian novels of the time. Natsume Soseki (who contributed to the massive import of foreign literature, particularly English), Akutagawa Ryunosuke were the first "modern" novelists, followed by Tanizaki Junichiro, Kawabata Yasunari, Mishima Yukio, and more recently, Murakami Haruki. These writers are representative novelists of Japanese literature in the West. Kawabata Yasunari, in 1968 and Oe Kenzaburo, in 1994 won the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Music
Outside of Japan, the country's music has an image closely tied to its pop music, which is generally bubblegum songs with Japanese lyrics and with English refrains. Pop stars (aidoru kashu) of this scene are generally attractive singers, boy bands and girl groups. However, music author John Clewley has described Japan's musical output as a "wide range... from ancient Buddhist chanting and court music to folk and old urban styles, from localised popular styles like kayokyoku and enka to Western classical, jazz and every form of pop... found in the West" [24].
Japanese music has long been tied to Japanese rituals, literature and dance. Theatrical music is the most historically important field of Japanese music, which East Asian musical scholar Isabel Wong attributes to the "Japanese love of storytelling and preoccupation with ritual". She also notes the Japanese preoccupation with the "words and literature" of music, as opposed to the instrumentation, and that all Japanese instruments were "developed to emulate the human voice". She describes Japanese instrumental music as inherently chamber music "in its conception" [25].
Sports and recreation
Beginning in the 12th century, Japan developed traditional martial arts known as budo, which were popular among the warrior class. These include judo, karate and kendo. Sumo is sometimes considered Japan's national sport and is one of its most popular.
After the Meiji Restoration, various kinds of Western sports were introduced into Japan. During the 1870s, track and field events, baseball, soccer, rugby, and ice skating were introduced. In 1911, an Austrian gave skiing instruction to the Japanese army. In those days, Western sports were played by few people, but through the educational system they spread throughout the country. Western sports were initially stressed as a form of mental discipline, but Japanese have now come to enjoy them as recreational activities.[26]
Today, baseball is the most popular spectator sport in Japan[citation needed], followed by (in no particular order) soccer, rugby, golf, badminton, table tennis, car racing, MMA, and fishing. Automobile racing is also popular in Japan with Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing.
Japanese board games include a form of chess, known as shogi. Go is also widely popular in the country.
Each year, Japan observes the second Monday in October as a national holiday called Health and Sports Day. The date, originally October 10, commemorates the opening day of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Other major sporting events that Japan has hosted include the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. It also co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.
See also
Notes
- ^ The characters that make up Japan's name literally mean "Sun's Origin", thus Japan is also known as "The Land of the Rising Sun" a name that comes from the country's eastward position relative to China.
- ^ Many believe that the Ainu, an indigenous people found mostly on the northern island of Hokkaido, are descended from the Jomon and thus represent descendants of the first inhabitants of Japan.
- ^ "Yayoi Period History Summary," BookRags.com; Jared Diamond, "Japanese Roots," Discover 19:6 (June 1998); Thayer Watkins, "The Genetic Origins of the Japanese"; "Shinto - History to 1900," Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ See Nihon Shoki, volumes 19, Story of Kinmei. [1]"Nihon Shoki
- ^ Book of Sui (隋書 東夷伝 第81巻列伝46): "日出处天子至书日没处天子无恙" [2]
- ^ "Heian Period," Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ^ "Japanese Civil Code", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
- ^ Net Official Development Assistance In 2004, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 11 April 2005. Retrieved 14 May 2006. Template:PDFlink
- ^ http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37175.pdf Mabuchi, Masaru, "Municipal Amalgamation in Japan," World Bank, 2001.
- ^ http://www.nira.go.jp/publ/seiken/ev18n10/ev18n10-s.html "Doshusei Regional System," National Association for Research Advancement
- ^ http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566679/Japan.html "Japan," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2006 http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
- ^ http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Japan "Japan Information", © 1997 - 2006 World InfoZone Ltd
- ^ http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-7176.html
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html "Japan Economy", CIA World Factbook
- ^ http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HC02Dh01.html
- ^ "Japan, Refutation of Neoliberalism", Post-Autistic Economics Network, 5 January 2004. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
- ^ "http://www.skillclear.co.uk/japan/default.asp"
- ^ "https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html#Econ"
- ^ Vital statistics summary and expectation of life at birth: 1999-2003, United Nations Statistics Division. Retrieved 14 May 2006. Template:PDFlink
- ^ "http://www.stat.go.jp/English/data/handbook/c02cont.htm"
- ^ "http://www.stat.go.jp/English/data/handbook/c02cont.htm"
- ^ "Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Japan's Future", The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, 7 March 1997. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
- ^ Windows on asia (Michigan State University)
- ^ Clewley, pg. 143
- ^ Wong, pgs. 128 - 129
- ^ http://web-japan.org/factsheet/sports/index.html
External links